OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS COLUMN

Otago Witness, Issue 2985, 31 May 1911, Page 82

OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS COLUMN

FOR SENIORS AND JUNIORS. (Conducted by Magistee, to whom all communications must be addressed.) [Jilagister will be' grad to receive Nature notes, marked papers containing educational articles, diagrams, details of experiments, eto., of scholastic interest to teacbers and pupils. Correspondents must use only one side of the paper, and whether using a pen Mine or not, must send both name and ADDRESS.] METEOROLOGY. As usual, a comparison of our returns is interesting, and it would bo more t so if we could have the Dominion returns by us at the same time. For our purposes, however, the Dominion monthly summary is a month too late. Wairoa heads the list for rainfall, and in April had more rain than Ranfurly has had for the year. In the March records for the Dominion, Okuru is represented as having a rainfall of 23.62 in, 0-f which 6.76 in fell in one day, which also exceeds Ranfurly's for the past four months. Ranfurly has had seven nights of frost, and a minimum temperaturo of 28deg., while Wairoa has not come below 52deg. Again, Ranfurly has reached a maximum of 76deg., against Wairoa's 78d"eg. Wairoa, then', has a moro equitable and a moister climate than Ranfurly—for April, at any rate. I am glad that Wairoa is extending its chart work. I have a copy of the chart of international symbols reproduced from " Commonwealth Meteorology : Instructions to Country Observers," by Mr H. A. Hunt, the Commonwealth Meteorologist. This, with " The Climate and Meteorology of Australia," by the same gentleman, and " Hints to Meteorological Observers," by W. Marriott, F.R.Mot.Soc, I shall willingly lend to any contributor to our columns. Influences of Forests on Climates. A week or two ago I referred to Mr Bathgate's paper on " Afforestation and Deforestation, ' and made a note or two upon it. In " The Climate and Meteorology of Australia " just mentioned, under the heading "Influences Affecting Australian Climate," we read:— 1' Low-lying lands on the north coast of Now South Wales, that originally were seldom subject to frosts, have, with the denudation of_ forests from the surrounding hills, experienced annual visitations, the probable explanation being that, through the absence of trees, the cold air of the high lands now flows, _ unchecked and untempered', down the skies of the hills to tho valleys and lower lands. "As already indicated, forests doubtless exercise a great influence on local climate, and hence, to tho extent that forestial undertakings will allow, the weather can be controlled by human agency. The direct action of forests is an equalising one; thus, especially in equatorial regions and during the warmest portion of the year, they oca-

siderably reduce the mean temperature of the air. They also reduce the diurnal extremes of their shad© by altering the extent of radiating surface, by evaporation, and by checking the movement of air. While decreasing evaporation from the ground, they increase the relative humidity. Vegetation greatly diminishes the rate of flow-off of rain, and the washing away of surface soil. Thus when a region is protected by trees steadier water supply is ensured, and the rainfall is better consorved. In regions of snowfall the supply of water to rivers is similarly regulated, and without this and the sheltering influence of ravines and " gullies " watercourses supplied mainly by meltinig snow would be subject to alternate periods of flooding and dryness. This is borne out in the inland rivers. Thus the River Murray which has never been, known to run dry, derives its steadiness of flow mainly through the causes above indicated. "Direct Influences of Forest on Rainfall. —Whether forests have a direct influence on rainfall is a debatable question, some authorities alleging that precipitation is undoubtedly induced by forests, while others contend the opposite. According to Dr Hann, observations have been made in India and Germany which support the idea th.au the destruction of trees has had a most deteriorating effect upon the climate. In the Cordilleras, clouds with rain falling from them can bo tewn hanging over forests, while over contiguous lands covered with shrubs or used for agriculture the sky is blue and the Run is shining. " In America the influence of forests on the rainfall is still debated, but in Europe authorities contend that forests encourage frequent rainfalls. Hann states that a surface which keeos the air moist and cool, and from which there is as great an evaporation as takes place from extended forests, must have a tendency to- increase the amount and frequency of precipitation, as contrasted with an open sountry, which is dry, but over which conditions are otherwise similar.

" Obviously, the settlement of this very important question is difficult. Observations would have to be taken, with different treatments of the land, over very extended periods. Sufficient evidence exists, however, to establish that, even if the rainfall has not increased, the beneficial effect of forest lands in lemporising the effects of the climate is more than sufficient to disclose the importance of their protection and extension. Curtis, in a paper read before the Meteorological Congress in 1893, sets forth important evidence of the ill-effects on orchard and wheat country of the felling of tvees for the timber trade.

"In Michigan, where half a century ago peach drees flourished' and were rarely injured by cold, the crops have now nearly disappeared, owing- to the removal by timbermen of the shelter afforded by the forests. In Northern Kansas, too, from the same cause, tlKTgrowing of peaches has been largely abandoned. Many of the South Californian citrus fruitgrowers protect their orchards from the destructive effects of wind bv the judicious planting of eucalyptus and other trees. " It is the rapid rate of evaporation (says Dr Fernow), induced by both hot and cold winds, which injures crops and makes life uncomfortable on the plains. Whether the forest aids in increasing precipitation there may be doubt, but nobody can say that it does not check the winds aq,d the rapid evaporation due to them. "Trees as wind-breaks have been successfully planted in central parts of the United States, and there is no reason why similar experiments should not bo successful in many parts of our treeless interior. The belts should be planted at right angles to the direction of the prevailing parching winds, and if not more than half a mile apart will afford shelter to the enclosed areas." Weather and Agriculture. The Director of Meteorology, D. C. Bates, supplies a mass of interesting matter culled from March reports he receives from various parts of the Dominion. From his report—it can be seen in full in the latest issue of the Journal of the Department cf Agriculture—l make the following extracts. Several I give as an indication of what can be done in keeping a daily record for Nature-study, and so on: — " March was a very dry month in many parts of New Zealand, but some good falls of rain were recorded in various parts. The weather was, on the whole, remarkably fine and warm, the winds moderate, and the barometer above the normal for the month in all parts of the Dominion. ""Two westerly storm-areas passed in the south on the 21st and 2bth, but, from what had been experienced on. the Tasman Sea, were diminishing both in area and intensity. Neither of these disturbances was felt northward of Cook Strait, but heavy heavy gales were reported further south, with rain and flooded rivers on the West Coast." DISTRICT NOTES. North Island. " Whangarei Heads.—During the month of March very fine weather was experienced, with just enough rain to keep the grass green. The equinoctial gales were very light (from the south), and lasted only two days. "Waih.i. —The month of March was remarkable for the abnormally low rainfall precipitated. Persistent anti-cyclonic conditions appear to have proved an effectual barrier to those tropical storms, which as a rule are looked for at the time of the autumnal equinox, and which are a feature of the meteorology of this portion of the Dominion. " Consequently, water-power is reduced to a minimum, and the water supply is very low. Vegetation looks better than was to be expected, due to the remarkably small wind movement and consequent low rate of evaporation, coupled with the copious experienced and frequent fogs. A very high averasro of bright sunshine. Mean temperature slightly below normal. Night temperatures showed a rise over February. Earth temperatures at 2ft averaged 64.1 deg Fahr. —practically the same as for February. " Taumatatah-i. —This is, I think, absolutely the driest month on record for this district.

" Hiwi, Taihape.—The month has been the driest and 'hottest of the summer, the m6an maximum temperature- being 69.6 and the rainfall only 0.17 in. There are a good many fires burning, but, thanks to the absence of wind, they have not, on the whole, been very troublesome. The country is dry, and feed flaw! water quickly becaniins scarcer. During the dry summer of 1907-8 tiio rainfall from September 1 to March 31 was 21.83 in; for the same period this Season the rainfall is 16.26 in. The honey crop has been & fairly good one; thore was too much smoke towards the

latter end of tho season for the bees to work at their best.

" Ormondville. —Weather very dry and warm, even for autumn. Very little growth in pasture. Streams all low. Aphis working great havoc among cabbages and turnips.

"' Waitakaro, East Coast.—During the last six months, when all New Zealand, even as far up the coast as Gisborne, was crying out for rain, the locality was regularly supplied with a sufficiency, there being no symptom of drought, and a vivid freshness all through the summer. The autumn has been very moist and warm so far, and plum trees have put out a fine show of blossom. They are following now with leaves. I have a couple of trees under observation to see how this ill-timed awakening will affect their future. " Eketahuna. —The hottest and driest month this summer. The oldest settlers here say that it is the driest Ma.reh they have experienced. This part of tho country is beginning to look dry, and in con-se-iuence milk supplied to butter and cheese factories shows a considerable fa.ll-ing-ofr compared with same month in former years. Bain is badly wanted. ,; Annedale, Te Nui.—Very dry mouth, especially the last week, when it was drier than any other part of the summer, and in the bush there were large fires. The creeks are lower than usual at this time. I have seen more kingfishers than usual this month. The blackbirds and blightbirds have been remarkable for their absence among tho peaars and apples. " Ditton, Masterton.—The driest March month ever recorded by mo during 31 years' observations. Owing to good rain towards the end of February and heavy dews and absence of drying winds during March, th» grass is in very fair order, and stock in good condition. Mean maximum nearly sdeg higher than February. South Island..

" Pakawau.---The driest March since record has boon kept in Pakawau. Though this March has been so dry, the food has not been so short as might have been expected, as there has been very little wind and many cloudy days. , "Trotter's Creek, HilLgrcve.— The intermittent rain and drizzle, with fairly high temperature and calm atmosphere, which commenced on the 28th and lasted to the end of the month, completely broke down the drought conditions existing here in f.n intensified l form since January 25, but it has come too late to make any material difference in the prospects for winter feed, and as a general thing stock will have a fairly hard time in North Otago for the next six months.

" Lynton Downs, Kaikoura. —The fine weather experienced in this county (Kaikoura) during the month of March has been most welcome. Previously we had too many days of wet and foggy weather, which caused nlenty of grass lacking substance, but during March the grass has kept on improving in quality, and not decreasing in quantity to any extent. " Riverton. —The month of. March on the whole has been an excellent one. We practically escaped the equinox, there being but moderate winds from the north-east and .west. I'might add that, although we got the rainfall from the storm predicted for the' 28th, the wind came from the east; we escaoed the storm from the west eompletelv. * It appeared to strike the west coast," and then travel inland. The welcome rains have resuscitated all vegetation, and turnips which were feeling the dry weather will to all appearances be better crops. There was a very fine display of the aurora on the 27th. " Chatham Islands: Whangamarino.— The past month's return shows very little range in barometer and thermometer. We hacf a. very stiff breeze or gale on the 26th, but otherwise the wind did not vary much, being for the most part westerly. On the 29th and 30th the north-west winds brought a considerable amount of smoke from the north of New Zealand. On the 29th in particular the air was so filled with smoke that the houses at the port of Waitangi a mile distant, could not be seen, and ttoa smell of burning wcod was quite noticeable. We have had a little over lJan of rain,"mostly during the first week, but the herbage is now looking fresh and green. The potato yield is very good this season, there being * very little blight row to be seen, not sufficient to affect the crop to any extent."

Ranfurljjr, May 8n Dear " Magistor,"— the folowing are tho meteorological record;; far ifche month of April:— Maximum temperature in screen, 76deg on the 6th: minimum temperature in screen, 30deg on tlh© 12th ■. minimum temperature on ground, 28deg on the ISth and 20th; average maximum in screen, 61.96 deg ; average minimum in screen, 43.36 deg; average minimum on ground, 40.36 deg. Rainfall, 1.63 in on 12 days, maximum fall .35in on the 22nd. Rainfall to date sinco January, 5.44 in -on 33 days. Frost oeouirttod on two nights in the screen and five nights on the ground.— Yours truly, A. W. Roberts. Croydon, May 3 Dear " Magisteir,"—The rainfall for April was 3.27 in on 12 days. The highest rainfall was 1.33 in on 22nd. Tha maximum temperature was 74deg on the 11th, minimum 40deg on 23id ; average maximum, 67.3 deg; average minimium, 47.5d;e«'.—Youra luruly, Florence I'op:j. Miller's Flat, May 1. Dear " Magister."—Miller's Flat woather notes for March and Api*il are:-For March the rain totalled .91in, none falling till the 2C'th. Average thermometer was 63.5 deg ; barometer, 29.7 Hitrlh winds from N.W. 21st and 28th. For April: Rain. l.fin; thermometer, 60.5 deg; barometer. 29.7. Hear frost on 19th, after which there wore misty mornings and overcast days. On 25th throe goldfinches visited the gardon. —Yours truly, Jas. Smith. Wairoa School, Hawke's Bay, May 1. Dear "Magistor,"—l have much pleasure in forwarding the following woather records as taken at the Wairoa School:—» Rainfall: April 3rd,. .65in; 4t;h, .37in ; sth. .41in; 6th, .Olin; 15th, Mia; 16th, .97in;' 17th, .48in: 18th, 03in; 19th, .lOin; 20th, ,55in ; 21st, .03i.n ; 22nd, .Olin; 23ird, .69in : 24th, 3.26 in; 25th. .Olin; 27th, .15in; 29th, .30in; tfOth. .23in;—total, 8.80i.n on 18 days. For 1911 to April 30, 25.24iu on 47 days. For comparison: April, 1907, 5.04 in ; April, 1903, 6.36 in; April. 1909,7.84 in; April, 1910, 4.34i.n; April, 1911, B.Boin. Average for April, 6.476 in. Temperature: Maximum, 78dieer on tho 13th; minimium, 52deg on the 20fch; average of minima, 58.0 deg ; average of maxima, 72.5 deg; averago at 9 a.m., 62.4 deg; average at 1 p.m.,

69.4 deg. Barometric Pressure: Maximum, I 50.5 deg on the 9th; minimum, 29.6d0g on

the 24th. j We have noted your kind comments on our chart work, and for the May record we aro using the conventional signs for drrfeci tion and force of wind. Of course, our ' charts omit some important points; but it is wise, I think, to make a few of the most important matters the subjects of particular study at one time. Did the oofipso of the sun set many of our purwls wondering? Smoked Q-lass was largely used l in Wairoa.. —I am, etc., j John Bowie, B.A. Head Master, Wairoa School.

" West Coaster" sends the following clippings, tho second paragraph referring to Greymouth. As usual, Bealcy leads: April is usually marked by a high rainfall in the Bealey Flat district, and the past month did ample justice to its reputation. On 18 .days rain fell, the highest rainfhil for 24- hours being 5.13 on April 27. The total fall for the month was 26.25 in. There were only two slight frosts reeorded, thei lowest temperature readied being SOdeg, while the maximum reading in the shade was 72deg. The total rainfall for tho month of April was 8.92 in. Rain fell on 14 days, and the greatest fall was on the 27th, when 2.15 in were recorded. CORRESPONDENCE AND NOTES. "West Coaster's" shell came to hand without further damage, and it is in safe keeping. A week or two ago I rea>cl that a ben up Wellington way somewhere had laid two esgs in one day; but I am told that that occurs often enough not to cauio any particularly special note. "West Coaster's" hen, however, demands an extraepecial notice. She should have been pensioned instead of consigned to the pot. % I saw the other day the photograph of a magnificent display of pumpkins. On a p ] ot 24ft by Bft the Kakanui School garden produced 5001 b weight of pumpkins, one alone weigh-ina: 991 b; in the same plot, too, was a marrow plant which ako yielded well.

On May 7, " Stone School" writes: "In your last Thursday's articles you speak of sowing machines in school. I have a lively recollection of the getting of a sewing machine for the old Stone School, Great King street, about the year 1865. I went round with a card for subscriptions. I would like to sec that card now. Some of the subscribers gave extraordinary namesmen of fame in the days of old. Perhaps Mr A. Stewart, formerly head master of Union Street School, could tell you something of it. It would bo interesting if that old machine could bo handed over to the Ea.rly Settlors' Association." _ In a letter covering h:s contribution <' John Spcns'' writes : —" I «rea.tly appreciate your conduct of Our Public Schools Co'umn and the new era you are opening out to the youn". You invite Nature notes. Mine is a 'Nature note' in deed and m truth." Owing to pressure on space the letter is held over. \. lady, some while ago, sent me a specimen in" a glass. Will she please call at the Times Office for it? I am sorry I omitted to return it at the time "West Coaster" (Grey Valley) writes on April 12:—Dear " Magister,"--! felt very much annoyed a few days ago when I found I had' overlooked the newspaper clipping about the rainfall recorded in February at Greymouth. I am sending. it on to you now, with clippings relating to weather conditions in Greymouth, Hokitika, and Bealey Flat during March. It was drier up here than in the Grey, and we oould have done very well with the extra showers, they had. Pioneers claim this to be the driest season on record in these parts, and certainly we all thought it quite bad enough, but when we bear how greatly other localities have suffered we can only be thankful. Two years ago we experienced seven weeks without a shower, but this autumn, while we did not get such a long spell with no rain, the weather was so hot and of such a drying nature that it played up with things much more. The drought is thoroughly broken, now, the last three weeks having been damp and very warm —conditions highly favourable for plant growth. Grass has grown at an amazing rate, and what wore so shortly since bare, brown places a.rc now a vivid green. We were not a little amused at the wording of a telegram from Dunedin that appeared in a local paper at the end of last month. So Dunedinites call a fall of .17 inches of rain in 11 hours copious. Dear me, we would barely designate a shower of that heaviness as decent. Seemingly opinions differ. But copious! It was reported here that thA Kuranda district, Queensland, was doused with 355 inches in three months. Surely 'twas a mistake, but no doubt the rains there were really copious. I pity the inhabitants of those regions. Ladybirds are imported insects, are they not? We have a black kind here, decorated with bright yellow spots. A pretty little creature it is. In Hawke's Bay, according to the March Journal of the Department of Agriculture, there is a red kind, with 11 black spots. It reads strangely to us folk. Do you know if this is correct? With every good wish for the continued success of the column. —Yours truly, West Coaster. I don't wonder at West Coaster being amused at reading that 17 points—less than one-fifth of an inch —are regarded in Dunedin as "copious rains," and that this flood indicates the break-up of the drought. As _ with inany other words, "copious" varies in intensity of meaning in different localities. I shall urobably use another day the statistics "West Coaster" sends. The Ladybird is an importation, and it is the eleven-spotted kind that is so effective in disposing of woolly blight and other insect pests. Grey Valley, May 8. Dear "Magister,"—l am • posting you along the April weather records of Greymouth and Bealey. Compared with other localities they make interesting reading. The Scotch have a saying, "Never look ?, gift horse in the mouth." Ponder the groat wisdom of these words for a moment, please. To be candid, I have in my nosaession the shell of a large double-yolked chaffinch egg. that is of no great use to me, and will only got broken. So the generosity of my heart prompts me to give it to you. If you have no collection of birds' eggs, "Magister," perhaps you have a friend who would regard it as a welcome addition to his. I think it is an unusual find myself, as I have never seen another such of any kind found outside the domestic fowlyards. , One large hen egg broken hove had three yolks. Isn't this chaffinch egg an immense one? Father brought the nest home, but it was in such a state — very full of life—that is soon made its way

into tihe fire. I put the two eggs by, then forgot them for several weeks. Whon they came back to mind I thought I was in for a picnic to save the larger one. Fearing what might happen,, I carried them into the backyard and carefully broke the ordin-ary-sized one to see what state the contents were in. It contained no yolk, and was fresh enough, being much better than its mate. I reckon the shell was worth savin,'?, anyway. The most remarkable* performance I have ever heard of iscreditod to a ben belonging to Greymouth friends of ours. No doubt to many readera this story will savour strongly of a Yankee yarn, but remember truth is stranger than fiction. I deal in facts. This particular hen took ill last spring, refused, to eats went black in the comb, and was plainly suffering greatly. It was decided to put the poor creature out of her m:sery, but when the master of the house found her lying on the floor moaning for all the world like a human being in agony his courage failed him. HaJf-an-hour later he went back to do the deed and found four eg:;;i lying beside her. First a double-yolked of monstrous size, then two ordinary ones perfectly shelled, and lastly another r/ith a soft shell. The hen, though in a sorry plight, recovered, and eventually found her way to the not. The large egg. on being broken, was found to be slightly red. showing that life was beginning to develop within it. Surely four eggs iaid by one fowl in half-an-hour bcaAs all orev:ous records I quite forgive you about that nest and contents, " Magister. With so manv different things about you to be identified, it is not to be wondered_ at if ccoasionally something goes astray. 1 nave no need to complain at treatment received at your hands, but ju=t the revere. Imagine my horror, a minute or two ago, on getting that shell to naok, to find that sonip insects have found their road into the tin and eaten a piece right out _of the smaller end. I send you the remains, but the specimen is completely spoilt, I am afraid" With best wishes from yours siaoerelv West Coaster. J *