PASTORAL AND AGRICULTURAL.

New Zealand Mail, Issue 951, 23 May 1890, Page 18

PASTORAL AND AGRICULTURAL.

THE FARM.

MR SMITH ELLIS’S REMEDY FOR RUST IN WHEAT. On the 35th ultimo Mr Smith Ellis, who claims to have discovered a means of preventing rust in wheat occurring, received an agreement from the Minister of Lands for Victoria, in which the G ivernment undertook to pay him £IO,OOO should' his remedy prove successful after a trial of three years. Mr Ellis then handed Mp’Dow the following letter for publication, which contains his preventive : WHAT IS RED R ST IN WHEAT. The priests of oi l declared to the ancient wheat-growers that such ’ diseases as rust and mildew were scourges sent by Go i We live in an age of progress and I am confident that the dav is at hand when such diseases will be accounted as vanquished by the modern wheat-growers. Rust in wheat is an internal parasite fungus that constitutionally affects the wheat plant. It is propagated and attains maturity in the sap vessels of the leaves of the plant, and on arriving at maturity it hursts forth, rupturing the womb of its fostermother, and at the same instant escapes into the atmosphere in the form of a pale yellow smoke. I shall hereafter denominate it, for want of a readier term, ‘ rust stnoke,’ the thing that we call rust being only the shell or alter affect of the parasite. ITS SECONDARY OR DESTRUCTIVE PROPAGATION. Every wheat-grower knows the meaning of • rusty weather’—warm, moist, and calm ; the atmosphere is heavy, the escaped rust smoke, which is the germs of the parasite, float in the moist atmosphere untd they have absorbed sufficient moisture to cause them to settle on the ground or other place, or on the leaves of another wheat plant; if on the latter, they at once strike into it, and recommence their w.-rk of destruction by absorbing the san of the plane and multiplying themselves indefinitely, again bursting upon the skin of the leaf to proceed on another round of destruction. From close observation I have reason to believe that a new generation of the parasite is reproduced in about every 48 hours. I mean that the production is continuous in already affected plants, but as regards healtlily plants newly inoculated, they produce a new generation of the matured parasite in about that time. I am also of opinion that it is only while the sap of the wheat plant is in a state of ‘ incipient fermentation,’ caused by the combined heat and moisture, the parasite is enabled to propogate itself so destructively. This opinion >s confirmed by the fact that the work of destruction ceases, on the occurrence of a fall of temperature of the weather. However, whether I am right or wrong in my conjectures, they are of small importance to wheat-growers, because they have no control over theconditions of this stage of its proDagation, which for distinction I call its ‘secondary propagation.’ ITS PRIMARY PROPAGATION. The question will arise as to where the ‘ rust smoke is located, and where to be found after harvest. The shortest answer is this :—Anywhere and everywhere in and around every wheat-growing district; but I will endeavour to answer it more clearly by asking a parallel question—‘ Where is the smoke to be found that issued out of the chimneys of any one of our cities in the month of Hovember last?’ We know that chimney smoke is composed of minute particles of soot, and that ws should see it distributed in and around that ci y were our eyes keen enough to see it. It is the same with ‘ rust smoke.’ Again, let us suppose that the soot was derived from gum wood, and that each particle of soot was endowed with the active conditions "f life wherever it came in contact with the kind of tree that produced it. Should we not then see the gum-trees around our city attacke Iby their jiarasite soot ? The cases are parallel, with the addition that the * rust smoke ’ is endowed with active conditions of life, whenever it comes in contact with the plant, in any living shape or form that produced it, or rather nursed it. and that whenever that contaot is accompanied by tlie necessary adjuncts of warmth and moisture, causing ‘ incipient fermentation,’ the ‘ rust smoke ’ or germ forthwith strikes or rises into its foster-mother, which, in this instance, is the germ of the seed wheat itself, and thus commences the * primary propagation ’ of the parasite ; the hidden secret of Nature that has puzzled and perplexed wheat-growers for thousands of years. MILDEWED SEED WHEAT. Every wheat-grower should be warned that his crop is liable to be destroyed by rust if even the smallest portion of his seed wheat is mildewed, as that state is, to a cert vnty, the predisposing cans i of the attack of the parasite. Ido not assert that mildewed saed will produce rust-!*fleeted plants under all circumstances, because the germs of the parasite may not be present at all times to take the opportunity of striking the seed ; but I do assert that I have proved by experiment that the*" conditions which produce mildew, namely, • incipient fermentation,’ are the same conditions that enable the parasite to strike the seed ; and by the ! erm ‘ incipient fermentation ’ I mean the convuenceinent of fermentation, and to stop at t! at stage. Those are conditions in which wheat-growers have full control over the prop ivition of the parasite, The necessary precautions to prevent fermentation of their seed, erst them absolutely nothing, and if they neglect to take the necessary ca r e of their seed, it is to their loss ; they have themselves only to blame. A NATURAL TEST FOR SEED YfHEAT. Wheat growers desirous of testing their seed to ascertain whether it has or has not been struck by the p>rasite n ay take a quart of seed from that portion of the hulk most ;ikely to have attracted mildew; the human eye is unable to detect any difference in these grains of wheat, so we shall refer them to nature's unerring decision. Open a drill in the garden ; if the soil is at all dry water the drill until it is wet Bin deep at least. Sow, cover in at once, and watch the blades as they appoar above the ground. If any of them have been struck by the parasite they will show a spot about the size of the head of a pin, and the exact colour of the common garden marigold, quite distinct from the pal.e yellow of the blade. Tf no s’ich spots appear on any of the three first Ma-V s th seed may bo depended on as sound :i' rh a y d appoar the seed is unfit to be used q s• 1 ‘-.1 for seed. Only one spot may appear in this sample ; one match starts a bush fire.

SIGNALS OF DISTRESS. Those spots are Hature’s signals intimating that the parasite has primarily propagated itself in those plants. - A magnifier shows that I those spots are situated in the interior of the I blade, and that the skin of the blade on each side is uninjured. These yellow spots will gradually enlarge themselves and change to a brown colour, and on close examination it will be found that the leaf at these spotshas lost its vitality—the parasite has entered, with the reaction of the sap, into the constitution of its foster-mother, and will remain there invisibly, excepting the recurrence of the spots on every new Daf, until that mother either withers and dies in dry weather, or lives on till the occurrence of rusty weather permits the parasite to enter upon its secondary propagation, hursts forth, and spread destruction wherever it can fall upon a wheat: plant to destroy. I am so sure that the presence of the yellow spot in the infant plant iu unmistakable evidence of the presence of rust in the crop that had I a crop giving such evidence I would at once proceed to plough it in and sow the land with some other kind of crop. THE YILLOW SPOT EXPERIMENT. Having decided to watch the development ot the yellow spot, I destroyed all my experimental materials ; then procured the dirtiest sample of wheat that I could find. Some of the grains had got malted. Instead of sowing jn drills, as in former experiments, I planted in one line four chairs in length, and dibbled in the seed, a single apparently sound seed at each space of one yard, and marked each site with a stick. Before the plants had put out their third bla.de the spot had shown itself on nearly one-third of their number, and I marked them by tying worsted to their sticks. The crop stooled out surprisingly, and when it had got about 30in high dry wealher set in, and soon aftpr that some few of the spotted ones withered and died without any apparent cause, the remainder grew on until rusty weather came on. I had carefully examined them all nearly every day for many weeks, and observed no difference between the spotted and the nnspotted ones ; hut now the spotted ones were showing rust ruptures, the unspotted ones none. On the third day after that time the unapt ttel ones showed them also, having caught the contagion, and in a week after that the whole row was red with rust. My mind was at rest. I had mastered the whole secret. ’ HOW TO GROW A PRIMARILY RUSTED CROP. Adopt the following courses, or half of them, and you will certainly succeed 1. Reap the wheat before it is ripe, while the skin of the grain is thin, the * rust smoke’ will penetrate it more easily. 2. Stack the wheat on the ground, or on a rubbishy stack bottom that will set up an ‘incipient fermentation.’ Was it instinct that taught our grandfathers to stack the seed grain over the cart sheds years before pillars wetje thought o'? 3. Winnow the grain slovenly, as it is only for seed ; loose chaff is an excellent vehicle for bringing the ‘ rust stnoke ’ into close contact with the seed. 4. If there is a short supply of bags, the peed can lie on sail cloth on the ground for a time ; or the hags of seed may he placed on an earthern barn floor supposed to be dry, or they may be placed on planks that lie flat on such a floor until seed time, and by that time the parasite will have got well into the seed. Sow on a too dry seed bed ; rain may come soon, but the ‘rust smoke’ lies there ready to strike the seed at once before the rain comes. 6. Permit wheat or other cereals, wild oats included, to grow as weeds on your holdings. Those weeds sow their seed on a dry seed bed, too, and are s re to spread rust broadcast in its secondary propagation. It is most likely that this was its original way of propagation. HOW TO AVOID A ‘ RUST-AFFECTED CROP. Every intelligent wheat-growfer will carefully abstain from adopting any of the beforementioned courses. He will see clearly that seed wheat from the day it is reaped to the hour that it sprouts to produce a crop, should never, under any conditions, be subject to a state of fermentation, because that state is the parasite’s opportunity. Sew early if you can, but not until after the rains have well soaked the soil ; the * rust smoke ’ perishes in water. While on this subject I cannot avoid referring to the subject of careless, slovenly neighbours. A man may be a careful, good manager, paying attention to every detail necessary for the production of a clean crop, and after all his care he may have the intense mortification of seeing his crop destroyed by the carelessness of others. Such a man has the sympathy of every right thinker, and in my opinion, he should be protected by law. Local inspectors could be appointed—intelligent, upright men, who are themselves personally interested in the success of the wheat crop of their district; they should have the power to examine and test any wheat, seed or crop, and, if necessary, declare in some newspaper that such seed is unfit for such purposes, and also to order and enforce the immediate cutting of any infected green crop, to prevent contagion and the increase of the parasite. We have the Scab Act, - and know how effective it has been in stamping out scab in sheep. We have the Thistle Act. and why not an extension Of that Act for the extermination of parasites affecting cereals and other seed-producing plants, for it is a fact that this rust parasite can adapt itself to almost any kind of seed. Such, at least, is my opinion, and in confirmation I may state that when making my experiments I accidentally inoculated some cauliflower seed with the parasite, and it pestered l he gardeners of the district by attacking their cauliflowers saved for seed with milk-white spots for years afterwards. Again I ask you in the interests of all to.aet promptly and unitedly in the eudeavoiir to stamp out rust in wheat. South Yarra, Victoria, April, IS9O. SALT AS A FERTILISER. Experiments to prove the virtues of salt in keeping farm crops in a healthy and vigorous condition have been carried on extensively in some parts of England, and the results lead to the following conclusions : That a dressing of 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre will check the rust in cereals, the finger-and-toe in turnips, largely protect oats against the grub and wire-worm, check the virulence cf potato disease, and

dissipate fungoid growths in pastures. It is also a preventive against moss, makes rough grass more palatable, and sweetens the herbage generally. THE CORN PLANT. Schweitzer finds that the corn plant takes up nearly all the ingredients it needs during the first stages of growth, and subsequently additions are mechanically absorbed with the water imbibed by the roots. This leads to the practical deduction that the corn plant, to develop well and profitably, must find during these early stages of growth an abundance of easily accessible mineral matter. Their presence in an insoluble condition then or later will not make up for any deficiency felt or experienced at that time. The young plant also takes up nitrogeu with great regularity. It is pointed out that one-fourth of the ash and onehalf of the nitrogen contained in the entire crop was removed in the ears, leaving threefourths of the ash and one-fourth of the nitrogen in the fodder to be returned to the soil in the manure of stock intelligently fed. The ejection of pollen by the corn tassel is spontaneous and may be readily seen on perfectly dry and hot days. The large amount of soda in the ash of the flowers, male and female, supports the idea that it is an essential element to the flowers proper development.

DOES MILK EXHAUST THE SOIL ? I have frequently heard it sta ed, both in public and iu private, and usually by land agents or land agents’ factotums who cause mare friction upon an estate between the tenantry and the estate than anyone else—that milk production is most exhausting. Sometimes this belief is based upon shear ignorance (although no one knows the subject better than the new race of agents) at others upon an incomplete knowledge of the subject. In the first place, it would be impossible to describe butter-making as exhausting in any one feature where the skimmed milk is consumed upon the farm. The only exported products are butter and pork or veal, or, where animals are reared for stock, the mature animal. What fertilising matter is removed iu butter? If butter were absolutely pure there would not be an ounce ; but, as it usually contains a small percentage of curdy and mineral matter, through being imperfectly cleaned, there is a removal, but a very slight one, of nitrogen and mineral fertilisers worth less than a shilling per cow per annum. We may dismiss butter-makiog, therefore, as a branch of farming which is more conducive to the preservation of fertility than to its exhaustion. The fertilising matter of milk is, in the curdy matter, or casein, and the ash. Casein is a highly nitrogenous matter, and cheese containing 25 per cent would remove from the land 3‘911b of nitrogen per cent of the cheese made, in additiiou to a quantity of mineral matter, principally phosphoric acid. Cheeae-making, therefore, is exhausting iu the sense that, like corn and all other farm crops which are produced for sale, it is a medium by which a certain amount of fertilising matter is removed from the eqil. But the value of this fertilising matter, including nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, does not exceed 15s per cow per annum. In other words, this will purchase, at market prices, as muoh of these plant food constituents os are removed in the cheese made by one good cow iu a year. If spent wisely, we are not sure that manures so purchased would not, in many cases, prove of greater service than the dung of the farm, had it been enriched by the constituents removed in the cheese, for dung is often so exposed that its value is considerably depreciated. The whey of milk contains manorial matter which amounts to the difference between the manurial matter contained in the cheese and that contained in the milk. New milk selling, therefore, is as exhausting as cheese and whey selling put together, and the value of the fertilising matter removed with it varies, according to the milking powers of the cow, between 20s and 25s per annum. The nitrogen- removed by a heavy milking cow, however, together with the potash and phosphoric acid, is brought back by the purchase of 6001 b of decorticated cotton cake—a fact which many fault-finders will scarcely credit; yet this would not cost a great deal more than the 25s which we have placed as the outside limit of the value of what a cow removes. By the use of such a food, however, the dairy farmer obtains another return, and one with which he is usually content, quite apart from the mannrial value of the ca«e. As a rule, however, we have found that dairy farmers who sell milk use a great deal more concentrated food than this ; hence the inference is that they are building up rather than removing fertility. Let us endeavour to prove these statements. Fertilisers removed in milk (Wolff) : Nitrogen, in 10001 b, 5’4 ; phosphoric acid, 2’o ; potash, I*7. A good cow yielding 650 gallons of milk would therefore abstract 35Tib of nitrogen, 13 0 .of phosphoric acid, and 111 bof potash in that milk. The nitrogen converted into ammonia would amount to 42*611b, By valuing the ammonia at sd, the phosphoric acid at 3d, and the potash at 2|d, we get a total sum of 23s 3d, although, if anything, the values are rather higher than the market prices of to-day. A rich cheese contains about 25 per cent oasein ; so that if each gallon of milk made a pound of cheese, as it should do on the average cf the year, such a now as we have suggested would produce of casein. This matter, according to recognised chemical data, contains 15‘65 per cent of nitrogen ; so that in the year’s cheese the nitrogen removed would be 25’421b, of the value of nearly 13s when calculated as ammonia. >

Decorticated cake contains, according to recognised analysis, 6*21 percent of nitrogen, l - 58 per cent of potash, and 3 ’OS per cent of phosphoric acid. A simple calculation will therefore show that the purchaser would obtain more nitrogen and phosphoric acid than he requires to make up the quantity extracted, but barely sufficient potash, a matter which would not be of much moment. It is not difficult to show that the manurial components removed in milk can be easily replaced by purchasing food, or by using guano or other suitable manures at a cost not exceeding 255. There is, however, another side to the question. Does the remark relative to exhaustion by cow-

keeping come with good grace from those who innocently connive at the wasle of the i standard manure of the farm, either by com. polling farmers to throw out their solid manure into the open yard to be washed by rain, or to drain away the liquid into a pond, a practice which is still very common, and yet some urines are reported by analysis to be actually richer in nitrogen than dnng. The absence of proper means of saving liquid and solid dung, as well as of preventing its adulteration by rainwater, undoubtedly cause the farmer to expend more money in purchased fertilisers than is necessary. He would therefore be in pocket by paying interest on the sum necessary for the erection of a proper midden or shelter for dung ; a system of drainage fiom his stockhouses ; and a general tank for the reception of the pure liquid, which, as we have sometimes seen abroad, where the most is made of the manures of the farm, is pumped over tha dung heap as well to prevent overheating as to enable the men to carry it on to the land with greater ease. If the reader will closely examine this question for himself, he will find that it is possible to manage a dairy farm with little, if any. greater expenditure in manure than is found nece sary in corn growing or stockrearing. More than this, we believe that it is possible to produce milk without purch \sing foreign foods of any kind while we have bean pulse and malt oombs to fly to, and that on suitable soils there need he no purchase of food at all if beans are cultivated as a regular crop.— ‘ Merlin ’ in the Sydney Mail.

' GLUTEN IN WHEAT. A matter which is of very great importance to all Australian agriculturists has recently received sorne attention from the Agricultural Bureau of South Australia. A letter written by Mr T Hack, secretary to the Flour Millnwnors’ Association of South Australia to the Oornmisshmer of Crown Lands was forwarded to the bureau. The letter pointed out that the ordinary samples of wheat grown in the colony were gradually losing their percentage of gluten. The committee of the association asked that the Agricu'turel Farm might be utilised to test the strength of various kinds of wheat, with the view of propagating amongst the farmers the sorts that were strongest in gluten. Tho millowners offered to assist by carefully testing tramples supplied them from the farm, and handing the results to the It appears that this is bat the revival of an old complaint made more than 10 years ago in the columns of the Garden and Field, wherein it was stated that the percentage of gluten was decreasing to an alarming extent. In 1562 the wheats of South Australia contained from 12 to 16 per cent, the * specke,’ such as sharps, bran, pollard, &c., being under 1 per cent. In 1879 the average of gluten rarely exceeded 13 per cent, was more often 9 to .12 per cent, in some samples as low as 4 to 5 per cent, and in some very inferior lots as low as 1 per cent, whilst the average of ‘ specks ’ amounted to as much as 4 or 5 per cent. In September or Ootober, 1881, “both of the South Australian daily papers and most of the country weeklies expressed b'oncem and alarm at the statements made in the Mark Lane Express to the effect that South Australian wheat was selling at lower prices than Hew Zealand on account of the inferiority of the former. The secretary of the bureau, reporting on the millers’ letter, says :— 1 There can be no doubt that tho diminution in the percentage of gluten in onr wheat is due to. partial exhaustion of nitrogen in the soil. This diminution exists not only upon the lands which have been continuously cropped nnder wheat, but also upon grazed lands, and even upon virgin lands from which the indigenous wood and shrubs have been removed. It is a fact that whatever product is removed from the soil whether corn, hay, wool, meat, roots, tubers, or what not—deprives the soil 'of just so much organic matter as may be contained in such product ; therefore, unless an equivalent is restored to such land, it cannot but be impoverished by the removal of any of its organic products.’ In this it will be seen that the bureau acknowledges that the wheat is depreciating in quality ; but beyond the statement that manures instead of being used in South Australis are' shipped away from it, the members of the bureau have not expressed opinions on the question, whiuh is likely to be submitted to Professor Lowriie of the Roseworthy Agricultural College.' When a piece of dough as ordinarily made by bakers is placed in a fine sie7e and submitted to a stream of water, the white fluid which passes away is starch ; the white stioky substance which remains like birdlime on the bottom of the sieve is gluten. Common wheaten flour contains about 101 b of gluten and 701 b of starch. The nutritive quality ot any variety of grain depends much Upon the proportion of gluten which it contains. Wffieaten bread that is veil baked contains—water 40, glnten 7, starch, sugar, and gum 51, salt and other mineral matters 2 ; total, 100 parts. The main object of all millers is to place as much gluten in the flour as possible. As the grain becomes deficient in gluten the flour loses in quality, and therefore the difficulty which the farmers of South Australia are called upon to grapple with is more important than ordinary observers would suppose. Sydney Mail. ON CHOOSING- SEED BARLEY. A change of seed always pays, and never more so than in the case of barley. We remember (says Bell’s Weekly Messenger) a farm which had a long and wqll-deserved reputation for fine samples, which for years did not grow aDy of fine quality, purely on account of the need of a change. The tenant was a first rate tiller, but he was rather obstinate about changing from a seed which bad done him good service, so, to all intents and purposes, he wore it out. The signs of a worn-out sample are uneven germination, a weakened growth, and a very uncertain and irregular ripening. On going into a field where the seed has been grown on the same farm too long without change, it will be easy seen just before harvest that the process of ripening is in many stages ; some may be plump in the berry, with a beautiful network

of fine skin and no coarseness at the ends ; another portion may be getting ripe, but the grains are coarse and harsh, with a dull, thick skin ; and there will be another and worse section, consisting of ears which are quite green or jnßt changing, with the berry ia the rfed row. A very badly prepared tilth may give the same results, but if the seed-bed was properly worked, aid the seed was vigorous the crop should be in the same state tbrouguout, and the sample uniform in quality, which can only occur when all ripens at the same time. There is one end to aim for in barley growing, and that is uniformity, for if there are kernels which wero cat at varying degrees of ripening, they will not germinate regularly, and theßull amount of saccharine cannot be extracted by the maltster. How necessary it is that the gerrpinatiou should be uniform is not fnlly understood by all, for the length of the germ, at the time it is checked by being put upon the kiln during the process of converting barley into malt, is not known to them. We have met several barley growers who were under the impression that the germshould protrude beyond the end of the grain. This is a nrstake, as could easily be seen by examining a sample of well made malt ; the upper shoot or plumule grows up in between the kernel and the husk, and is not allowed to grow the full length of the grain, but is put on the kilu so that it is stopped when it has travelled about one-half to two-thirds the length, for it is in that stage that the grain will yield the greatest quantity of saccharine. The process of malting is very commonly spoken of as being done to convert the starch in the.barley into sugar, but what is actually done is to produce distaste which will act on the starch when the malt is boiled in the mash tun, and then form Bugar. If the germ grows more than two thirds the length of the grain, it is done at the expense of the starch, which means it is less valuable to the maltster. Thus when a maltster has to deal with an unevenlyripened sample of barley, he has to either over-malt a portion or under-malt the rest ; and thisaccountsfor the variation in the prices given. A sample of well-ripened grams germinates much quicker than one which is not thoroughly ripe, as any farmer gets evidence of in a wet harvest, for the ripest always grows and spoils quickest ; and as there is this difference out of doors, it is much mere marked when everything favourable for rapid germination and growth is present, as is the case in the malting house. If this is borne in mind, the necessity of choosing seed which is uniform in quality and vigorous from the change of soil will be very strongly impressed. It will generally be found that a sample grows best which has hitherto been grown in a colder climate, but growers ■ iu any district should help one another by comparing the results obtained by seed from other parts, for there is much to be learned on this point by so doing. Perhaps sufficient care is not taken in choosing the variety according to the condition as well as natural characteristics of the land. For instance, a strong barley like the Golden Melon is more likely to produce a good sample on land moderately manured than when it has been heavily dunged; for in the latter case anything that is gross in its nature is more fully developed; while a sample of fine growth like the Peerless White can stand good doing, for it may become steely if it has not sufficient goodness m the land to develop it as it should. The nature of the land, too, should be carefully considered on the point of straw, for it is very necessary to choose a variety which will carry the crop in safety if it is one where the growth is inclined to be rank. A good average is. of course, generally obtained'in the Chevalier, but the study of varieties is very important to obtain the best for a particular district. CULTIVATION OF THE 30ILMr. T. K, Bow read a paper on cultivation at the Victoiian Irrigation Conference, and, inter-alia, said The importance of cultivation is too often imperfectly understood by the farmers who depend upon the rainfall for the supply of moisture, and it is seldom that in adopting irrigation the degree of increased attention to the working of the Boil is given which the new conditions demand. I am satisfied that there is no more frequent cause of failure in connection With early attempts at irrigation than insufficient cultivation, no department in which beginners require more _ direqtion, or in which, owing to precouceived notions, advice is so likely to he disregarded. It is satisfactory, therefore, to find that so many members of the conference who are leaders pf thought in the distriots which they i represent recognise the importance of the sub* ject. -DEEP OULTIVATIOTV. i ~ lb is necessary to distinguish between ploughing and cultivation. The terms do not mean the same thing. It is possible, to cultivate without ploughing, and ploughed ground is not always fully cultivated. Jn recommending deep cultivation, therefore, I do not necessarily speak in favour of deep ploughing, it is well unown that in many cases the deep ploughing of new ground give 3 for a time unsatisfactory results. The soil turned up by the process is frequently either of inferior quality or requires a year or two of exposure to'the sun and air before it becomes productive. In other cases deep ploughing gives satisfactory results, but deep cultivation without deep ploughing is recommended under all circumstances. It is. sometimes undesirable to turn up soil from a considerable depth so as to bury the surface son, and place inferior soil on the top, but it is always advantageous to cultivate deep. _ Ettershank who carries on deep cultivation by steam power near Serpentine, on the Loddon River, discards ploughing altogether, and at Mildura, where the ground is cultivated bysteam power to a depth of 20m., it is not ploughed. The process may be called subsoiliDg, and where steam power .13 nob used it is carried out by following the ordinary plough with, a subsoiier. The object is to provide a deep layer of cultivated soil for the support of plant life. A DEEP SEED BED. Even in a moist climate a deep bed of cultivated soil is found to be advantageous, but in the irrigation districts this is of much greater importance. The evaporation of moisture from the soil is greater, aqd the

sbpply of water is applied to the laud at considerable edat. The layer of cultivated soil is all that the farmer has to take in and hold the water for the supply of growing crops. The hard uncultivated soil takes in very little water, and holds that little for only a short time. The well-cultivated soil absorbs water like a sponge, and like a sponge retain.? it. A large sponge will hold more than a small one, and a deep layer of soil will hold more than a shallow _ odo. How quickly the sun draws all the moisture out of the soil to a depth of three or four inches, and if the cultivation is not deeper than this there is nothing left to support the crops. An inch of cultivated soil at the bottom is worth two at the top as a means of retainiug moisture, and it is bad policy to go to the expense of putting water upon a thin layer of soil to be quickly given off in the process of evaporation. It is not enough to simply shift or disturb the sub-soil, for a stratum of hard lumps will not absorb or retain moisture. What is wanted is wellworked soil, and the greater the of this the better for taking in and keeping the water applied. SURFACE CULTIVATION-. The frequent stirring of the surface is as necessary as deep cultivation. It is necessary not only to provide a deep bed of eultivated soil for the purpose of taking in a good supply of moisture, but also to keep the snrface iu a fit condition to retain it. Soil in the condition of a loose tilth consists of email particles, and these particles are surrounded by air spaces. A surface soil of this sortie a covering which checks evaporation. After a shower of ’•ain or an irrigation a thin crust or skiu is formed, and this consist? of a system of minute tube-like holes leading from the moist soil beneath to the outer ”air. The crust or skin is nature’s medium for carrying on this process of evaporation. Cultivation breaks up this medium of evaporation, and puts in its place a covering of pulverised soil. When everything is dry, and uncultivated soil Is wellnigh as hard as a brick, an empty sack is sometimes found iu a field.•“lt has lain there since harvest time, and when it is lifted the ground beneath it iB quite moist. A plank or a heap of straw on being removed is in the same way found to have kept the ground moist. Why is not the whole of the field as moist as the covered spots ? The cause is evidently the covering. The ceaseless process of evaporation has been going on iu the field, but the sack, plank, or straw has checked its operation upon tbe covered portions. We Ganuot cover the whole field with a sack, but by cultivation wo can form a covering that will almost equally well check evaporation. g6od advice. Horse owners (says the Melbourne Leader) should now lose no time in getting their animals clipped. Nature’s provision to retain the animal heat during winter is admirable for the horse doing no work. It keeps out mud and wet, and is just the thing for life in the fields. But we do not keep horses in idleness during winter ; they have to work, often harder than nsual. and then this thick, heavy coat is a decided disadvantage to the animal. So far from being a protection against cold or catarrh, it increases the risk of these, and respiratory diseases generally, while at the same time it causes debility. It is like compelling a man to perform severe labour when wrapped up in a thick overcoat. The man would strip to work, and resume his heavy clothing when at rest. This is also best for the horse, and so those who are wise cut eff the coat, and supply an artificial one when it is needed during idleness or rest. It is easy to see how colds, cougliß and debility may be associated with an unclipped coat. A heavy coated horse at fast work will sweat profusely in the coldest day iu winter. As long as motion is continued there is no particular danger in this., beyond the exhausting and debilitating effect that continued sweating has on the constitution ; but it is when standing still, or when returned to the stable in this condition, that the trouble begins. The rapidly radiating heat of the body becomes insufficient to keep the surface warm, the hair and skin grow gradually colder, and clasp the body like a matted refrigerator. Result, chills, oolds, chronic coughs, and perhaps inflammation of the lungs. Many oases of cough that , have defied ixk ioine have been cured by simply clipping th. coat. Horses work better, feed better, look better and are more -omfortable dipped than unclipped, provided that they are properly cared for when standing, idle.