READINGS IN IRISH HISTORY

New Zealand Tablet, 12 October 1916, Page 11

READINGS IN IRISH HISTORY

By ‘ Shanachie.’

CUSTOMS OF THE PAGAN IRISH. The clan or tribe system prevailed in Ireland, as it did in all other countries of Europe in early ages. A clan or sept consisted of a number of families all of one kindred, living in the same district and generally bearing the same name, such as O’Donnell or MacCarthy. A tribe was a larger group, consisting of several clans or septs, all more or less distantly related to each other. A tribe occupied a territory, of which each sept had a separate district. Over each tribe, as well as over each clan, there was a chief, and the chief of the tribe had authority over those of the several clans under him. If the territory occupied by a tribe was very large, the chief was a ri or king. Sometimes a king ruled over two or more tribes. From very early times, Ireland was divided into five provinces: Ulster, Leinster, Munster, Connaught, .Meath. Over each division was a ri or king. There was also a king over all Ireland called the ardri, i.e., the high king. The ardri lived at Tara till its abandonment in the sixth century, and the province of Meath always belonged to him, to enable him to maintain his court with due dignity. Besides this he was supposed to receive tribute from the provincial kings, who in turn were paid taxes by the chiefs of the tribes to whom the heads of each clan made payments. Very often during the life of a king or chief, a person was elected to succeed him, in order to prevent quarrels whenever a vacancy should occur. This person was called the tanist, and he stood next to the king in rank. The gradation of authority among the kings and chiefs seemed perfect: the high king ruled over the provincial kings, the provincial kings over the kings of tribes, and these over the chiefs of clans. It was perfect only in name. Much fault has been found with the clan system, and to it have been attributed many of the evils which befell Ireland. Yet it is well to remember that such a system existed among most, if not all, primitive peoples. The kings and chiefs could seldom be brought to unite heartily for any common purpose, so that invaders from over the sea were able to obtain a footing without meeting with any serious opposition. It should be remarked, however, that in this respect the people of Ireland were not worse than those of other countries at the corresponding period : the minor kings and chiefs of England were just as bad in the time of the Heptarchy. In England it so happened that the' kings of one particular state grew so powerful that they at length mastered all the others, and became the undisputed kings of all England, as in the case of Alfred the Great. In Ireland no doubt something of the same kind would in the end have come to pass; but before things had time to work themselves out in this manner, the Danish incursions and the Anglo-Norman invasion came and changed the whole fortunes of the country. Food and Daily Life.—For food the higher classes used the flesh of wild and domestic animals, boiled or roast, much as at the present day, with wheaten bread. The main food of the general body of the people consisted of various kinds of bread, baked on a griddle, also milk, curds, cheese, butter, fish, and fruit, and, for those who could afford it, pork and bacon. Pork was a favorite food among all classes. Oatmeal porridge was in general use, especially for children, and was eaten with milk, butter, or honey. The Irish rivers abounded then as now in salmon, a food which was in great demand. There was then no sugar, and honey was greatly valued. Beehives were kept everywhere; and the management of bees was considered such an important industry that a special section of the Brehon Laws is devoted to it. The people used honey in a great many different ways: they basted roasting meat with it; it was used on salmon while cooking and as a seasoning with all sorts of dishes. For drink the ancient Irish had—besides plain water and milkale, mead, and frequently wine brought from the Continent; for

in those days there was frequent communication, as well as considerable trade, with France and other Continental countries. The people of the higher classes often drank from a beautiful horn of elaborate and costly workmanship. A much more common drinking vessel was a mother, made of wood, with one, two, or four handles. In every great house there was at least one large-sized cauldron which was kept in continual use boiling food, so that guests might be. hospitably entertained whenever they happened to arrive. At intervals through the country there were houses of public hospitality where all travellers who called were entertained free of expense. Dress.—ln ordinary out-door life, the men wore a large loose frieze mantle or overall, which reached to the ankles; among the rich it was usually of fine cloth, often variegated with scarlet and other brilliant colors, and fastened at the throat with a beautiful brooch. Well-dressed people wore inside this a shorter tight-fitting garment, generally reaching to the middle of the thigh, but often below the knee, plaited up and down and fastened at the waist by a belt. In active life the outer mantle was thrown off. ' A single short mantle, always dyed in color, and sometimes furnished with a hood, was also much worn. It should be remarked here that the Irish were very fond of bright colors, and well understood the art of dyeing. The trousers were tight-fitting; the cap was usually coneshaped and without a leaf. The common people generally went bare-headed, wearing the hair long and hanging down behind and clipped in front just above the eyes. The shoes or sandals were mostly of untanned hide stitched with thongs, but sometimes of tanned leather curiously stamped and engraved. Occasionally the ladies of high families wore sandals of whitish bronze highly ornamented. In early times gloves were common among the higher classes. The women generally wore variously-colored tunics down to the very feet with many folds and much material—twenty or thirty yards—under which was a long gown or kirtle. Linen, whether used by men or women, was dyed saffron. The married women had a kerchief on the head ; the unmarried girls went bare-headed, with the hair either folded up neatly or hanging down on the back. They took much care of the hair, and used combs, some of them very ornamental. The higher classes were fond of gold ornaments, such as brooches, bracelets, rings, necklaces, twisted torques or collars worn round the neck, bright richlooking clasps to confine the hair. Other ornamental articles were made of silver or white bronze, enamelled in various colors, and set with gems. A great number of these, many of most beautiful workmanship, are preserved in the National Museum in Dublin. One torque of pure gold, found near Tara, measures five and a half feet in length and weighs twenty-seven and a half ounces. Dwellings.—Dwelling houses were mostly of a round shape, generally made of wood, very seldom of stone. The wall was very high, and was formed of long peeled poles standing pretty near each other, with their ends fixed deep in the earth, the spaces between being covered with wickerwork. The whole was smoothly plastered and made brilliantly white with lime on the outside. Some houses were fancifully painted all over in bands of bright colors. The top was cone-shaped, and, like English houses of corresponding periods, thatched with straw or rushes, with an opening to serve as a chimney. The fire was kept burning in the middle of the floor; but in all large houses there was a special kitchen for cooking. Families in good circumstances had two or three of these round structures beside each other, forming round rooms; but the poorer people had only one. The family commonly lived, ate, and slept in one large apartment, the beds being placed round the wall, and separated by boarded partitions; but we often find mention of separate bedrooms for different members of the family and for guests. A bath in a special bathroom was quite usual. r In houses of the better class the women had one apartment for themselves, called the greenan-that is, a sunny-house, in the most lightsome part of the building.