FARMING IN CANTERBURY

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 81, Issue 6, 15 December 1950, Page 503

FARMING IN CANTERBURY

THE period 1880 to 1900 in the development of Canterbury farming is described in this, the second article of a series of four compiled by P. R. Stephens, Assistant Investigating Officer, Department of Agriculture, Wellington, from notes supplied by officers of the Extension Division. Last month’s article dealt with the first period, from the founding of the province in 1850 to 1880, and in the January issue of the “Journal” the third period, 1900-1920, will be described. This article deals with the growth of population, the opening up of the land by roads and railways and the subsequent spectacular rise of “bonanza” wheat farming, the beginning of the meat export trade and the changing farm management patterns caused by this new trade, the rabbit menace, and the start of scientific training in agriculture.

POPULATION TRENDS 1850-1880 When the first census in New Zealand was taken in 1848 there were 265 people (159 males and 106 females) living in the Akaroa district, which included the whole of Banks Peninsula. Of the 184 people born outside New Zealand 120 were from Britain and Ireland, 10 from British colonies, and 54 from foreign countries, most of whom would be from France. When the 81 colonial born are excluded it can be seen how the cultural influence of the French was being submerged under that of the English-speaking people. The occupations of the people in the settlement showed their dependence on agriculture. Adult male workers numbered 104, of whom 42 were farm workers, 18 land proprietors, farmers, and merchants, and 22 mechanics and craftsmen. This last group included sawyers, carpenters, joiners, black-

smiths and shoemakers, all tradesmen much needed in a new community. Their number also shows that a somewhat diversified though simple economy had evolved in the previous decade. The remainder of the male workers included shopkeepers, clerks, overseers, sailors, and fishermen. The growth of Canterbury’s population, both from migration and natural increase, between 1851 and 1881 is shown in Table 1, on the next page. Increases in those born in New Zealand and those born outside New Zealand were recorded at all censuses. An ' important aspect of Table 1 is the increasing population of New Zealand born. In 1858, 8 years after the first ships arrived, the percentage of New Zealand born to total population was 22 and by 1881 it had risen to 44. Though most of these people by 1881 would still be in the younger age groups, the rise of a native-born population without direct ties to another land must have been exerting an influence on the social fabric.

Overseas Immigration ■ By 1858, only 8 years after the founding of the settlement, there were 7029 people resident in Canterbury who were born outside New Zealand People had thus been arriving at an average of about 900 per year. Actual immigration would be larger, because this figure makes no allowance for deaths and people departing from the province. Andersen writes: “From 1855 to 1870, 88. emigrant ships arrived in Canterbury, bringing 15,029 statute adults”. Presumably these entered under the Canterbury immigration schemes. From 1858 to 1870 a total of 29,972 immigrants entered Canterbury, so that it seems that about half the immigrants in this period did not enter under assisted schemes. This high number of immigrants in the 1870’s is a consequence of Vogel’s policy. ' From 1872 to 1881 there was a total of 39,075 immigrants into Canterbury, of whom 27,982 were helped under immigration schemes, the greatest number coming in 1874. Internal Migrations Gold was found in every South Island province except Canterbury. But Canterbury, in the centre of the South Island and surrounded by goldbearing provinces, was in a . unique position to be affected by internal migrations induced by gold discoveries. The Maori Wars in the North Island were another cause of population movement.

HEADING PHOTOGRAPH:

A bullock

wagon on Kinloch Station, Banks Peninsula. On this station the use of bullocks was continued for longer than elsewhere.

Little direct evidence appears to be available on the volume of internal migration between provinces. Though no precise proportional relation between gold production and population is assumed, it is probably a fair assumption that gold production trends afforded some indication of population movement on the goldfields. The Otago gold rush began in June, 1861. Between the censuses of 1858 and 1861 the number of males migrating from Canterbury appears to have been appreciably large. By the census of 1864 the flow had reversed and the gain in the second period far exceeded the loss in the first. Though some of these had fled the Maori Wars in Taranaki, the majority doubtless came from Otago in 1863 and 1864. The Westland rush initiated in December, 1864, attracted tens of thousands, most' arriving by sea. First arrivals were naturally from within New Zealand, but equally large numbers arrived with the “Australian invasion”, which began in 1865. Outward migrants from Canterbury between the censuses of 1864 and 1867 appear to have been more numerous than during the Otago rush, but still the number relative to the growth of Westland was small and possibly the loss to Canterbury was not as great as is often believed. Many, people from Canterbury had most probably pre-

viously been migrants from the Otago goldrush. From the census of 1867 to that of 1881 Canterbury gained population continuously from inward migration. This is in contrast to the South Island as a whole, in which internal migration was outward and therefore to the North Island. This became obvious in the census period of 1867-1871, when Otago had the greatest outward migration of any province. Rural and Urban Population No clear line can be drawn between rural and urban population. Towns with a population of 1000 or more have been classified as urban; townships with fewer than 1000 and population in open country have been classified as rural. Urban population comes from three sources; from natural increase in the towns themselves, from people migrating to urban areas, and, last, from accretion, that is, by townships gradually growing to such a size that they are classified as urban or by towns expanding until they absorb townships and population on their fringes. The growth of rural and urban population in Canterbury from 1851 to 1881 is shown in Table 2. From 1851 to 1864 urban population consisted only of the towns of Christchurch and Lyttelton. Urban areas

added later (with the census date in which they were first included shown in parentheses) were: Timaru (1867), Kaiapoi (1874), Sydenham, Rangiora, Oxford, Ashburton (1878), and Waimate (1881).

By the census of 1851 only a year had elapsed since the first Canterbury settlers had arrived, there being 1216 people in Christchurch, 1142 in Lyttelton, and only 915 in rural areas, including 441 in Akaroa. At that date the pastoral occupation of the plains had scarcely begun.

Seven years later, at the census of 1858, the distribution between rural and urban areas was reversed. The total population of urban areas was just a little higher than in 1851, but the rural population had soared to 6389. From 1858 both rural and urban population gradually increased until 1874, but between 1874 and 1878 the urban population had doubled, though the rural population had increased as well. Occupations Changes in the occupations reveal the developing nature of an early settlement. Initially, emphasis would be on agriculture, but at the same time as settlement became more widespread there would be a heavy demand for labour on roads and communications. This in turn would naturally be followed by the development of industry and commerce. Up to 1874 occupational statistics for males and females are combined in censuses, and separate figures are not available. From 1874 statistics by sex are available, but in the same census the classification of occupations was revised so that comparison with earlier censuses cannot always be readily made. However, statistics are available for those employed in agricultural and pastoral occupations and a safe comparison between all censuses seems feasible. To achieve a comparison between agricultural and pastoral occupations and other occupations, the following assumptions and methods have been employed: — 1. Agricultural and pastoral workers for the censuses of 1871 and before have all been regarded as males. 2. The total male labour force has been regarded as total males less those under 15 years of age. 3. Males under 15 years are in the same proportion in rural as in urban areas. By applying this percentage to the total males . in urban and rural areas an estimate of the labour force in urban and rural areas is obtained. The results of computations made on the basis above are shown in Table 3. Numbers of workers engaged, in agricultural and pastoral occupations show a regular and substantial increase at each census, except in 1871 and 1881, when there were halts in progress but no recession. The most outstanding fact is the large number of ■ non - agricultural workers in rural areas. Numbers rose at each census except those for 1867 and 1874. However, as a percentage of the total labour force the group declined in general over the whole period. These men would be engaged in opening up communications and generally preparing the way for settlement. That the numbers so engaged,.

appear to exceed those engaged in agriculture until 1874 may seem surprising, but until the work of the nonagricultural labour group was completed more intensive settlement was severely handicapped. The urban labour force rose to about 3600 in 1864 and remained substantially constant until 1871. In the next decade it rose steadily to reach 12,000 by 1881. The greatest proportion of the urban population in Canterbury was located in Christchurch, where the new secondary industries were growing up. TRANSPORT Once the site of the capital was selected the first need of the settlers was to push ahead with the Sumner road begun by Captain Thomas before the arrival of the colonists; this was a source of financial worry to Godley, and for ■ some years freight from the port to the capital came by sea to Sumner in spite of the exorbitant charge of 255. per ton. The purchase of a small schooner was one of the few occasions on which Godley did not leave transport to private enterprise. Much discussion took place in the Provincial Council about the means to • overcome the difficulties of transporting freight, and until the Sumner road was opened in 1857 the sea route remained the only one in spite of its dangers. Great use was made of small coastal boats in the first decade, especially in North Canterbury, the mouths of the Kaiapoi, Waimakariri, and Ashley Rivers all being miniature ports. Building of Roads Road construction did not really begin until a Road Ordinance was passed in 1856; most of the work was done by contract under the supervision of waywardens, the contractor being paid in land selected from Crown lands to the value of £2 per acre. Not very much progress was made, however,

IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSPORT FACILITIES

until a number of road boards were set up under the Road Ordinance of 1863. Local levies, toll gate revenues, and Provincial Government grants provided the financial backing for the steady improvement and extension of roads which followed. These boards received an increasing share of provincial revenues and were given wide powers over drains, ditches, and streams. Road boards formed the beginning of local administration in country districts and at a time when interest in local affairs was greater than now their life was a lively one. Keeping their toll gates functioning was not the least of their worries. . Bridging

of rivers and metalling of roads meant the passing of another picturesque feature of early Canterburythe slow and lumbering bullock teams, which gave way to the teams of heavy draughts. The number of horses in Canterbury showed the most rapid increase in the prosperous 1870’s, and it was not until the turn of the century that the numbers rose rapidly again. The name always associated with coaching is that of the firm of Cobb and Co., who commenced business in Christchurch in 1864, running twice and later three times a week to Timaru and once a week to Waitangi (later Waitaki). Services were also run

EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS

northward to Kaiapoi, Rangiora, and Oxford and later to Akaroa and Hurunui. The grandeur of the west coast route and the glamour of life on the “gold coast” excited the greatest interest. The west coast road was- completed in record time and a coach was running to the coast a little more than a year after the discovery of the . goldfield was first announced. Begun in March, 1865, and completed within a year by over 350 men, the road was 160 miles long and cost £150,000. Though Westland had a road to Canterbury very early in its existence, the reluctance of the Provincial Council to do much more to the roads in the area was one of the main reasons for the demand for Westland’s separation. Communications linking Canterbury with Marlborough and Nelson were much longer delayed. The Cheviot and Amuri districts were a long way from Nelson, but at the same time they were not Canterbury’s responsibility, and as the land was taken up in large runs, very little was spent on public works. A through road from Blenheim and Nelson to Christchurch was eventually opened in 1891 and even then was not a particularly good one, especially the stretch from Waiau to Kaikoura. The Government was reluctant to proceed with the opening up of this area. by roads and railways until the large estates were acquired, as otherwise the value of these estates would have been enormously enhanced at the expense of the State. Expansion of Railways William Sefton Moorhouse has been described as the forerunner of Julius Vogel because of the bold and skilful way in which he stressed the need for public works; it is at least certain that the remarkable expansion of railways within the first 20 years of the province’s history was due to his vigour and foresight. His own words in introducing the Canterbury Loans Bill of 1862 expressed his ideas most forcibly: “The geographical peculiarities of the settlement are conclusive

arguments why the railroad is at once the most convenient and inexpensive medium of communication. It is certainly impossible for settlers to effect a beneficial occupation of the rich arable tracts at a distance from the port if they are to remain dependent upon the slow and highly expensive transit of produce by the old-fashioned macadamized road”. The first railway in Canterbury and New Zealand, between Christchurch and Ferrymead, was opened in 1863, and 2 years earlier the construction of the Lyttelton tunnel had been started by Holmes and Co., of Melbourne, who had the benefit of the geological knowledge of Julius von Haast. The breach was first made in May, 1867; by December a train ran from Christchurch to Lyttelton. Progress on the south line was much slower; the seemingly level plains presented more difficulties than was first apparent, . and by 1864 the Council’s finances were rather strained. William Rolleston, who followed Moorhouse as Superintendent, favoured a policy of retrenchment, and by 1867. the line had reached only Selwyn. Charges were also made that the Provincial Council railway administration was inefficient and that the contractors were making excessive profits. • • H The revival of prosperity after 1870 enabled the line to be pushed ahead more rapidly; the stretch between Rakaia and Ashburton was laid down in 1874, Timaru was reached in 1876, and by 1878 the first through train ran from Christchurch to Dunedin. Besides the main line, branch lines had been extended to the Methven, Springburn, Fairlie, Waimate, and Oxford areas. By 1880 the Canterbury railway system was much as it is today, with an “interior main line” from Oxford to Temuka projected. After 1880 steam power appeared more and . more on the roads as well, with traction engines pulling long rakes of trucks piled with sacks of grain or bales of wool. To complete their railway system the people of Canterbury demanded the

construction of the Midland Railway to bring the west coast’s supply of coal and timber within their reach and at the same time to open up the coast. as a market for agricultural produce. Despite the popular clamour, Parliament was not prepared to do anything, even refusing to adopt the arrangement that representatives of Canterbury, Westland, and Nelson had made with an overseas contractor in 1885. Undeterred, the Canterbury promoters concluded an agreement with a London syndicate to which Vogel as Colonial Treasurer agreed. The company was a land grant construction corporation established in London in 1886 with a capital of £500,000; 6,000,000 acres of Crown land in three provinces were set aside in sections for the company to take up as each section of the line was . completed. On the Canterbury side the work advanced very slowly, and up to 1895 only 5 miles of line, from Springfield to Kowai, had been laid, though much better progress was made in Westland. In the following year the Government refused any further extension of the term of the contract and took possession of the line. Prolonged litigation followed the company’s claim for £1,800,000, the Privy Council finally deciding in favour of the Crown. RISE OF ARABLE FARMING A complex set of factors produced the “bonanza” wheat farms of the late 1870’s and 1880’s, the most important probably being the construction of the railway and the need to plough up the tussock-covered plains before planting better-quality grasses. The first export of wheat to England was made in 1867, when a firm of merchants in Kaiapoi dispatched some parcels of wheat in the Matanoka and the Mermaid.

Up to 1875 the trade was of fairly modest proportions, but from then it

LARGE-SCALE ARABLE FARMING IN CANTERBURY

expanded very rapidly, the record being reached in 1883, when 5,000,000 bushels, of which nearly 4,000,000 came from Canterbury, were exported from New Zealand. Undoubtedly in the late 1870’s and early 1880’s wheat production was much more profitable than anything else on the better-class land, the average price being 7s. 7d. per bushel over the years 1871-1880. The introduction of labour-saving machines over the same periodreapers and binders, traction engines, threshing machines, and more efficient ploughs—speeded up the change-over, and for some years it seemed that large-scale wheat growing for export would always have a significant place in the New Zealand economy. High Freights As usual, freights were high, up to 2s. 6d. a bushel, inferior types of ships were used to carry grain, partial damage was not covered by insurance, and growers were often careless enough to ship various qualities under one brand. . The smaller farmer who could not himself consign was again at a disadvantage, especially as he was more dependent on the return from wheat than the large landowner who utilised only part of his land for grain growing. On some of the large propertiesthe Levels, Pareora, and Waikakahi — of the land was sown down in a crop at some time or another, primarily for the purpose of breaking in the land before sowing down grass. . Two of the ' best-known wheat growers in this period were John Grigg of Longbeach and Duncan Cameron of Methven. These two men developed the productivity of their estates by very different methods. Grigg by largescale draining and Cameron by an elaborate system of irrigation. In 1879-1880 Longbeach grew 3000 acres of cereals; by 1891-1892 the area had been extended to 4600 acres of wheat. 2000 acres of oats, and 280 acres of

barley. In 1894 on Cameron’s Springfield estate there were 5500 acres in wheat and 1200 in oats. Other places at times also had large areas devoted to cereal production. The Studholmes in 1883 had 3500 acres in wheat and 1200 in oats at Willowbridge and one year exported 175,000 bushels of wheat; at Waikakahi in the 1890’s there were about 4000 acres in grain each year. Grain acreages were also large on Elworthy’s Pareora estate and on the New Zealand and Australian Land Company’s properties at the Levels, Acton, and Pareora. On the large estates costs of production were very low—about Is. 3d. per

bushel at Longbeach and Acton and up to Is. Bd. on rolling country at Pareora. As the wheat sold from 3s. 6d. to 4s. a bushel, the profitability of the trade can be realised. Much of the ploughing was done by contract, the usual rate being ss. per acre, and when tussock land was being broken in the contractors usually received a fixed proportion of the crop. Declining Yields While virgin soils were available even the haphazard methods adopted on some properties gave payable returns, and under favourable conditions yields from cereal crops were high. It is reported that in 1880 70 bushels of barley per acre were threshed in many districts and yields of from 50 to 100 bushels of oats and 60 bushels of wheat were quite common. Nevertheless, though the average yield per acre varied from year to year, it was generally low and declined as the area was extended. The growing of cereals often spread to unsuitable land and even there they were grown in a very short rotation. Green manuring was never practised and artificial fertilisers were practically unknown. Under such conditions it is not surprising that fertility declined. The average wheat yield in Canterbury dropped from 24 bushels per acre for the 5-year period 18811885 to 20 for the period 1891-1895. Average yields of oats dropped from 30 to 25 bushels over the same period. The most popular wheat varieties were Tuscan (known in the export trade as New Zealand Longberry), Hunters, and Pearl (both called New Zealand Shortberry), though numerous others were introduced. Some of these found favour in certain districts, but little was heard of them beyond these districts and the farmers’ knowledge of varieties was very limited.

LARGE-SCALE ARABLE FARMING

Other Grain; Crops Though a large area of barley was grown, there appears to have been little choice of varieties, Peruvian and Kinver Chevalier being the ones most widely grown. Kin ver Chevalier is still widely grown and has proved to be a good yielder and a high-quality malting variety. . For milling, the Potato oat was the most widely used and Black and White Tartarian were the . most popular varieties for horse feed, it being claimed that they gave not only a greater amount of straw but also an increased grain yield of from 5 to 10 bushels over any other variety. In many cases farmers paid' little attention to the selection of suitable seed, and the average sample probably contained a high proportion of weeds as well as broken and shrivelled grain. Oats were a common impurity in wheat and frequently were the cause of lower prices for wheat. The rate of seeding generally recommended for wheat sowings was 1 bushel per acre, though heavier seedings were sometimes made. Greenfeed crops were not widely grown, but the usual rate of seeding for oats and cape barley sown for this purpose. was 1 bushel per acre, with a rather heavier rate when these crops were to be saved for seed. The need for some . type of seed treatment to control ball smut was soon . recognised, and in 1881 Lincoln College carried out experiments to find out. the. optimum strength of bluestone pickle. . In the previous season germination of seed wheat had been seriously affected by a dressing of about 8 to lOoz. per . bag. For some time unsatisfactory results were obtained until it was found on analysis that, some of . the so-called bluestone on the market contained only 7 per cent, copper sulphate, the rest being

sulphate of iron, which was of no use in treating ball smut. Early Pasture Mixtures Though much land must have been laid down in pasture between 1870 and 1890, there was no general agreement about the correct mixtures to sow. A South Canterbury farmer writing in Brett’s Colonists’ Guide in 1883 recommended for a permanent pasture in his district a mixture made up of 151 b. of perennial ryegrass, 31b. of Italian rygrass and cowgrass, 101 b. of cocksfoot, 21b. of timothy, meadow foxtail, and red clover, 11b. of crested dogstail, 31b. of smooth-stalked meadow grass, lib. of alsike clover, and 51b. of white clover, a total of 471 b. The same writer suggested for sowing down in March after the land had been under bare fallow all summer a mixture of. 201 b. of ryegrass, 101 b. of cocksfoot, and 5 to 61b. of clover. This is roughly similar to the mixture that Professor Wallace, writing in 1890, declared to be most common in New Zealand. According to him, cocksfoot was the most widely used European grass in New Zealand. Akaroa Cocksfoot ' Cocksfoot was introduced on Banks Peninsula as a pasture grass after the clearing of the bush and it soon became obvious that wonderful crops were produced. The first attempts at threshing it were made by Ebeneezer Hay, and after his death in 1863 his sons carried on. In 1867 Edwin Goodwin leased some land from the Hays; when the seed was very ripe it was threshed on canvas sheets with flails, a method that was generally adopted. By the 1870’s farmers throughout the peninsula were saving large quantities of seed, 1874 being the first year with a really bumper crop. It is said that 120,000 sacks of cocksfoot seed at 801 b. to the sack were harvested. In spite

of the difficult nature of much of Banks Peninsula, thousands of acres were ploughed (much of it after a bush burn) and in sown crops followed by grass, chiefly cocksfoot. From 1880 to 1900 cocksfoot production continued on a large . scale. After reaching a very high level in the early 1900’s production gradually declined, a trend that has continued up to today, though improved strains have been developed. . Value of Wafer Races Though railways and roads provided access all over the plains, it was not until water races were constructed that the land could reach full productivity. The paradox of the situation was that huge quantities of water rushed down the beds of the rivers to the sea while the land between lay arid and bare. Subdividing was greatly hampered, as those properties which did not have a river frontage had no means of watering stock. "/ Charles Reed of Westerfield in the early 1870’s was the first runholder, to prove the value of water races, and he was followed by Duncan Cameron of Springfield, who in 1874 constructed a main race which ran for 13 miles from the intake; by 1880 he . had almost 40 miles of races on his property. It was his example that stimulated the interest of county councils and road boards, the Courtenay Road Board beginning a scheme in 1877 which included a dam in the Kowhai River and a Umile tunnel through the hills; the scheme was later taken over by the Selwyn County Council,,which reticulated much of the light land with a system of subdividing channelling. Further schemes were developed by the council, including the Waimakariri race begun in 1886. After a poll of ratepayers had approved the scheme the Ashburton County Council began the construction of a water race system in 1880. Within

6 years 800 miles of races had been constructed at the'.extremely low cost of £2500 and ultimately the total length was raised to 2270 miles. For 3 years the council operated a 90-acre “irrigation farm” to demonstrate to farmers the use of the system and to experiment with ' different techniques. When “the benefits derived from irrigation were clearly demonstrated to the Council” the farm was sold. In South Canterbury irrigation systems were on a smaller scale, the first scheme being proposed in 1882 for the Orari Plains by the Geraldine County Council. Steady progress was made until by 1908, 491 miles had been constructed; a further 231 miles were in use in the Counties of Levels, Mackenzie, and Waimate at the same date. FLOUR MILLING The early settlers milled the grain grown in their family plots with small hand mills like enlarged coffee grinders. The task was arduous and some of the more ingenious of the settlers. contrived to harness the wind or streams to power their mills, the first successful one being William Webb, of Okains Bay, whose mill, with a good wind, could grind three sacks a day. Inwood’s mill, opened in 1852, was the first commercial venture, and in 1853 three more were added, two water powered on the Avon and a windmill on the Heathcote. The millstones were about 4ft. in diameter and were worked horizontally in pairs, the lower one stationary and the upper rotating; About 2001 b. of flour were ground per hour. Most of the early mills were situated on streams and were driven by waterwheels developing about 5 h.p. A few were wind driven; one in Antigua Street was later moved to Leithfield, where it was destroyed by a severe gale in 1885. Another, Parr’s mill, was erected ,in Timaru, but the motive power was too erratic and it was not successful. By 1881 there were 39 mills in Canterbury, of which 26 were water driven and 10 steam driven. At one stage there were seven mills on the Avon, one on the Halswell, one at Lincoln, two on the water race at Darfield/two on the stream at Brookside and Irwell, one on the stream at Southbridge, two on the Southbrook stream at Rangiora, one on the Cam, one on the Cust, and one on the stream at Amberley; altogether there were 19 within a 30-mile radius of Christchurch besides those in Mid- and South Canterbury. Introduction of Roller Mills Millstones were used in New Zealand until 1882, by which date roller mills had been successfully operated in America and Europe for a long time, but New Zealand millers had declined to make any changes. The introduction of roller mills was largely the result of an accident. In 1881 Bruce’s Waitangi mill at Timaru was burnt down and while his new mill was being built Bruce visited America and took with him samples of New Zealand wheat. After prolonged tests it was

EARLY AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY

DEVELOPMENT OF “COLONIAL” PLOUGH

found that roller mills could mill flour from New Zealand-grown wheat, though the moisture content was much higher than in American wheats. As a result Bruce decided to import a complete roller plant, and in September, 1882, the first roller-processed flour was produced in New Zealand. It became so popular that the mill could not cope with the demand even .by working 140 hours a week; the plant turned out 2 tons of dressed flour per hour and in the first season produced 13,000 tons. The new roller mills produced much better flour than the old stone mills; milling was much quicker and as steam replaced water as the motive power bigger mills were built. This, combined with the extension of railways, speeded up the change-over from the old to the new. FARM MACHINERY In 1843 the Deans brothers used a plough, a set of harrows, and 3 horses to break in their land at Riccarton, their only other tools being spades, mattocks, hoes, and rakes, with which they managed to plant over 7 acres of wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes in the first year. Some idea of what implements a settler brought with him can be gained from a letter written by Thomas Tancred to John Deans in 1852. He proposed bringing an iron plough, an iron harrows, a 2-horse cultivator, a simple drill for corn and grass seed, a portable 2-horse threshing machine, a hand winnowing machine, and possibly a Hussey reaping machine. As early as 1857 single- and doublefurrow ploughs were being offered for sale in Canterbury and from 1863 onward the Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Association’s show catalogues provide an interesting record of the plough’s development, the growing number of exhibits by local makers showing how country blacksmiths were extending their range. The doublefurrow handled plough was introduced into Canterbury in 1868 and was followed in 1875 by a 3-furrow model. Three years later the show catalogue mentioned a double-furrow plough the lever plough—made by P. and D. Duncan, which marked a very great advance; it was this type of 3-wheeled plough which made possible the “bonanza” wheat farms of the 1870’s and the 1880’s. Pulled by a team of 3 horses (later 4 horses ygjiere used when the 4-horse yoke was developed) and light of draught, this plough could turn over 3| to 4 acres of land in a day. The "Colonial" Plough The history of the “colonial” type of ploughthe 3-wheeled lever plough seems a little uncertain, but the following at least sheds some light on its invention and development. At the Leicester show of the Royal Agricultural Society of England held from July 16 to 22, 1868, a trial of double-furrow ploughs was held and it is reported: — Two double- ploughs were also put to work by Messrs. Howard and Ransome. Each had two horses attached, and the soil being extremely light (a vetch stubble), they both did their work beautifully and with perfectease to . the horses;' in an ■ ordinary texture of soil we believe the same work could be accomplished by three horses with similar ease, thereby saving one horse and one man.

A like attempt was made with a doublefurrow plough (2515) of very peculiar mechanism invented by Mr. Pirie of Scotland and manufactured by Messrs. Fowler and Co. Its work was very deficient in exactness compared with that of the two former, but the exhibitor having a single-furrow plough (2516) on the same principle, he particularly begged to have it tested and we therefore obliged him by. placing it on similar conditions to those attaching to the General Purpose Plough. To furnish a correct test, we .gave it two bouts in the dynamometrical trials; but we regret that in the case of this, a new inventor and exhibitor, we cannot speak more favourably of its work, the proof of draught by the dynamometer being much more than of the other ploughs tested. This “peculiar mechanism” invented by Mr. Pirie, of Kinmudy, an Aberdeenshire mechanic, is important, for it embodied the entirely new principle of carrying the body of the plough on 3 wheels, one on the land and 2 bevelled ones running in the furrow to take the side thrust. By dispensing with both the side and sole plates, which formerly carried all the swing plough’s weight and much of the 2wheeled plough’s weight, friction was lessened, with a resulting reduction in draught; the glazing of the bottom of the furrow and the tendency to develop a plough pan were almost completely obviated. Further trials of the new type of lever plough compared with the old swing type were held near Edinburgh in 1869, the double-furrow ploughs fitted with oblique wheels proving more successful in every way. Each of the .double ploughs was easily handled by one man and the work done by them was more than twice as great as that performed by the single ploughs. Interest in the tests was very widespread, which makes the failure of the new type to become popular in Scotland all the more surprising. Thus in about 12 months Pirie’s invention had developed into a workable plough and it is perhaps paradoxical that the recognition of his great invention came not from the country of his birth but from the colonies 12,000 miles away. A New Zealand visitor to Scotland in 1878 writing to a friend in Canterbury (the letter was published in ' “The New Zealand Country Journal”, 1878) says:— . You will agree that no implement so revolutionised farming in New Zealand as the twofurrow plough and the large harrows; in fact, the capability of one man to do the work of two has had a great deal to do with the advance of agriculture with you, the saving often permitting a fair profit where none would have otherwise existed. Now, in Scotland, the double-furrow plough is nowhere to be seen. That contention is supported by George Gray, who in an address to the Bothwell Farmers’ Society in Bellshill, published in the “North British Agriculturist” of August 17, 1893, said when speaking of Scottish ploughs:— About 30 years ago we had the doublefurrow plough, but they were as quickly thrown aside, their greatest fault being probably their weight. Still, it is astonishing that on light and. level soils, when the fields were large, . they did not meet with greater favour, for in; New Zealand they are the standard implement and have fairly monopolised the field. In New Zealand, it was found that the early English and Scottish doublefurrow ploughs were too light in construction. James Gray, the founder of Reid and Gray in Oamaru in 1868, first manufactured the double-furrow

LOCAL MANUFACTURE OF FARM IMPLEMENTS

“colonial” plough for John Grigg of Longbeach. This was later improved by both P. and D. Duncan and Reid and. Gray, and double-furrow ploughs by both firms were used on Longbeach. The Rt. Hon. William Massey ploughed with both makes of ploughs when he was employed there. The important features of this style of plough building as far as New Zealand was concerned were: first, that it formed the basis for the constructtion of strong, light-draught ploughs of from 1 to 3 mouldboards, of both walking and riding types, and subsequently of tractor ploughs from 1 to 5 furrows; secondly, it was a blacksmith’s plough in that its body was of wrought iron on wheels of cast iron—a plough that could be made in the blacksmiths’ shops and the foundries of a new colony only 30 years old. Thus, in the 40 years after the first plough was pulled by bullocks in the fertile lands of the Canterbury Plains ploughs had advanced in construction and design until thousands of doublefurrow ploughs drawn by 4-horse teams were at work and the 3-furrow model drawn by 6 horses attached by the block yoke had made its appearance and was to be the dominant ploughing arrangement until displaced by the tractor in the 1920’5. New Harvesting Methods In the first stages of settlement all reaping was done by sickle or scythe and it was not until 1856 that the first machine, Bell’s “Improved Reaper”, was imported. It was used during the 1857 harvest in the Deans estate and “effected a great saving”. Two years later a Burgess and Key reaper was brought out. The grain fell on a plat-' form of the machine and was raked off by a man following behind, the sheaves being tied by hand. The McCormick and the Samuelson sidedelivery reapers followed, the latter being the most efficient machine of its type. The revolution in harvesting methods came with the introduction of the reaper and binder in 1877, the first machine, a Woods, tying the sheaves automatically with fine wire. The McCormick and the Osborne appeared on the scene soon after and in the end the McCormick displaced all rivals. Though the general use of wire binders marked a great advance, the danger to stock from pieces of w ; re in chaff was always present until the Appleby knotter was developed in America. . A threshing machine was brought to Canterbury in 1850 by Wentworth Cookson, “a four . horse powered” machine which was not used very much. A different source of power was tried out in 1853 by John Deans when he brought from Scotland a water-power threshing machine which, after some mishaps, was installed in a stream and worked remarkably well. All these early machines threshed the grain from the crop and then the grain was winnowed by hand or put through a winnowing machine. When steam power became available in the 1860’s the threshing mill and the winnower were built as one machine, forming the combine or threshing combine, later known as the mill. One of the first mills was imported in 1865 with the earliest portable engine. All the early mills were small, light, and low,

ADVANCES IN FARM MACHINERY

because they had to be manhandled into position at the threshing site. Greater Use of Horses During the first decade of settlement bullocks were used more frequently than horses for general farm work and for pulling wagons. Gradually the horse ousted the bullock both for ploughing and other cultivation work, for the slow-moving bullock could not be expected to plough the large areas then coming under cultivation. Bullocks were, however, used in the heavier work of stumping and hauling timber and heavy wagons of grain and wool. As communications became better and roads and bridges were formed they were displaced by horses; by 1880 bullocks were scarcely used at all. Horses and bullocks were used in the. early stages of settlement to provide power for threshing machines, being harnessed to “horse powers” and, as they walked round in a circle, their power was transmitted through bevel or spur gears to a shaft and so by pulley and belting to the threshing mill. These . “horse powers” were also used for grinding grain, making butter, cutting chaff, and winnowing or separating, the chaff from the grain after threshing. ' In the mid-1860’s portable steam engines were introduced to New Zealand, one of the first being imported by Osborne and Rennie of Prebbleton. It was moved about the country by horses and was used mainly for driving threshing mills, which thus could be made larger. In 1878 a Hornsby steam engine and combine was exhibited at the A. and P. show, as. was an agricultural locomotive, and 3 years later an Aveling and Porter 8 h.p. traction engine with rope, winding drum, and water, lifter was selling for £460. By . 1880 the horse was almost universally the source of power on

Canterbury farms and stations, bullocks were being replaced, wind and water power were used where convenient, steam power had been used for 15 years on farms for threshing, and the steam traction engine, a machine that was to extend greatly the limits of arable land in Canterbury, had made its appearance. Until this time development had been mainly on. the drier tussock lands, but' new methods were enabling the heavy, scrub-covered swamps to be tackled. Broadcast sowing machines were exhibited in 1868, there being several models over the next few years, one of them being the Hornsby seed drill. The first American grain drill, the McSherry, a force-feed, 10-coulter machine, was imported in 1877. . In the same period a number of other implementsmowers, horse rakes, and even a hedge-clipping machine— Advances in Locally Made Implements It is not surprising that the early blacksmiths soon graduated into makers of agricultural implements, one of the best known being Joseph Keetly, of Kaiapoi, who early acquired a reputation for ploughs which ranged from single- to 3-furrow models: besides these he made harrows, clod crushers, cultivators, rollers, “horse powers”, and even “reaping machines with the latest improvements, specially adapted to the country and quite superseding those imported”. Another blacksmith, James Little, of Woodend, early acquired a reputation for his harrows and light tine harrows. He also made chain and drag harrows, a double mould or drilling plough, and a potato lifter for fitting to. a plough. In addition.to the advances in plough design and construction made by P.

and D. Duncan and Reid and Gray, new machines were brought to Canterbury farmers by a number of other firms. Morrow, ' Bassett and Co. introduced the Burgess and Key sidedelivery reaper and in 1878 the McCormick wire binder, which proved so popular that 820 were sold in the first year. John Anderson arrived from Scotland in 1850 and built his forge at “The Bricks”, commencing to make implements in a small way in 1857; he exhibited in 1868 a wool press and a reaping machine and a few years later a threshing. machine. Later, Anderson’s Canterbury Foundry turned to making heavy engineering equipment, though it made 50 threshing machines in all. Andrews and Beaven from 1878 onward developed the manufacture of chaffcutters, grassseed cleaners, and other machines for preparing stock feed. REFRIGERATION As early as 1870 the problem of surplus stock was beginning to be felt in Canterbury and that year John Hayhurst started the first boiling-down works at Milford, near Temuka. About the same time the New Zealand Meat Preserving Company started a works at Washdyke; similar businesses were started at Templeton and Styx and a number of larger stations had their own. None of them was particularly' successful, and those firms which attempted to can meat for export failed completely, much of the trouble being caused by the uncertain quality of the meat canned and the amount of mutton and offal lost. Experiments had been going on overseas for some years in an endeavour to find some practicable way of freezing meat and in 1879 a cargo of frozen beef . and mutton was successfully shipped from Sydney to London. In 1881 the New Zealand and Australian Land Company arranged for a shipment in the sailing ship Dunedin, which sailed from Port Chalmers at the beginning of 1882 with 5000 carcasses, most of them from the company’s estate ,at Totara near Oamaru, but a few from Longbeach. First Works at. Belfast Interest in the new experiment was widespread in Canterbury, and as early as 1881 the Canterbury Frozen Meat Company was formed. ST"

. . . INTRODUCTION OF REFRIGERATION

Some of the best-known runholders were included in its directorate. Works were constructed at Belfast in 1882 and slaughtering began in February, 1883, the ' first shipment being made in the British King in April of that year. The company in the first few years adhered rigidly to the rule of accepting nothing but prime wethers, , prime lambs, and maiden ewes, though pressure from farmers compelled relaxation of the rule in 1890. Additions to the works were made in 1887, and in 1899 a new works . was built at Fairfield and another in 1904 at Pareora. The first ventures in meat freezing were made by the larger runholders and catered largely for their needs. The Canterbury Frozen Meat Company merely killed and froze the sheep; the owner was responsible for consigning them and disposing of them in London. For the smaller farmer with a limited supply of stock this system was not especially profitable, and in 1888 the Christchurch Frozen Meat Company was formed to cater for his needs by a system of pooling consignments. This company also pioneered another activity, the use of by-products, which had previously been wasted. In 1893 it took over the business of the South Canterbury Freezing Company at Timaru, the works being enlarged and renamed Smithfield. Though. the British market provided an almost unlimited demand for meat, New Zealand’s exports in the first few years had to face a good deal of prejudice and it says much for the quality of Canterbury’s exports that this opposition was broken down so early. Prices tended to fall during the 1880’s and the high freight and insurance rates added to the meat producers’ difficulties. Freight was then about ltd. per pound and with insurance the total was about 3d. per pound at a time when the meat was selling in London at 6d. to 7d. Frequent charges of monopolistic exploitation by the shipping companies were made, but by 1890 the total freight and . insurance rate was down . to 2d.; by 1897 freight alone was down to Jd.

Supremacy of Canterbury Lamb When refrigeration was introduced Canterbury was fortunate in having large numbers of Merino and half-bred ewes which were mated to Leicester rams and produced lambs which matured fairly early and would fatten for killing. The British housewife demanded a small, lean, and tender joint and found Canterbury lamb the ideal in every way. Canterbury took the lead as an exporter of frozen meat in 1886, when 161,000 mutton and lamb carcasses were dispatched; by 1891 the figure had risen to 691,000 and the total exports from Lyttelton and Timaru remained about this figure until 1900. SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING The meat trade required the sheep to be in prime condition when slaughtered. Feeding practices improved with the fencing subdivision of properties which allowed the cultivation of good pastures, feed crops, and cereals in rotation. It was soon realised that in the climate of Canterbury supplementary feeding was necessary. Turnips were used from an early date and formed a most im-* portant part of the feeding programme, with soft turnips for late autumn, Green Globe for mid-winter, and swedes for late winter and early spring. Hay, oatsheaf chaff, cape barley, straw, kale, mangolds, and young grass were also used. Spring lambing utilised the flush growth of November and December and the lambs were finished on rape, which became the general crop for fattening and proved a splendid forerunner to the wheat crop. Rape and Turnips Initially many turnip crops were sown after a grain crop immediately after harvest, but it was found that this did not leave a long enough growing season. The crop often failed and the consequent loss of winter feed placed the farmer in a difficult position. On the plains turnips were mostly sown as the first crop after ploughing from tussock and were followed by

oats and grass, many thousands of acres being brought into cultivation in this manner. On the better land it was found that a winter fallow after wheat left the ground in good order for sowing in the following November. On this

better land also a rotation of turnips out of lea, followed by wheat, oats, and then rape sown with grass, was found good practice and maintained the fertility of the land.

As early as 1883 the more progressive farmers were finding that early ploughing of the ground and winter fallowing gave much better results than did the practice of ploughing the stubble straight after harvesting and then sowing. No manure was used, though farmers were advised as early as 1880 to sow 1 or 2cwt. of bone meal with their turnips. Later, from 1890 onward, with an increasing range of manures available from freezing and boilingdown works, a little was used, as was some imported Japanese superphosphate. Locally made superphosphate was also used, there being a reference in the “Country Journal” in 1883 to an experiment with 1 ton of Mr. Moorhouse’s superphosphate to 11 acres of turnips. The article concluded with the suggestion “that the application of superphosphate to light land will so increase its fertility that it will compare most favourably to land of excellent quality to which no manure has been applied”.

Rates of seeding varied considerably from 2oz. to: 41b., but with experience Boz.. to lib. was found to give a good crop thick enough to be thinned out by. cross . harrowing. Undoubtedly, swedes were the first type to be introduced into Canterbury, but in the 1880’s the most popular varieties on the plains were Red Top as well as Mammoth Purple Top: these gradually gave way to Green Globe. Ravages of Insect Pests Beetle damage to turnips was common and farmers were advised to use bone meal “to force the young plant up and into rough heart” so that it would be safe from attack. In 1886 and 1887 the turnip crops in Canterbury and elsewhere, but particularly in Canterbury, suffered from the ravages of the diamond-backed moth. In some cases the loss was up to 75 per cent, and caused much concern, for as one writer stated at the time, “Without the turnip, the trade in frozen meat could not be carried on to such an extent”. Until 1895 the official statistics gave combined figures for. rape and turnips, the total area in 1880 being 85,000, acres; in 1890, it was 132,000 acres, rising to 202,000 acres in 1900. THE MENACE OF RABBITS Refrigeration brought renewed hope to Canterbury’s farmers; the danger of invasion of rabbits from the south threatened to dash their hopes to the ground.. ~ Small colonies of rabbits were liberated in parts of Canterbury during the 1860’s and 1870’s, but did not cause any alarm, and it was not until Canterbury farmers had the warning example of Otago and Southland placed before them that complacency was destroyed. The first Rabbit Nuisance Act, passed in 1876, proved to be ineffective and in 1882 a new Act was passed providing for Government inspectors to supervise the destruction of rabbits and for the prosecution of those who failed to do so. By 1886 the danger was much greater. A Parliamentary committee

ESTABLISHMENT OF LINCOLN COLLEGE

examining the problem was told' by the Surveyor-General that “rabbits are spreading all along behind the Mackenzie Country and, judging from what happened in Otago and Southland, possibly a year or two hence they will come down in myriads on to the plains of Canterbury, unless efforts were made to check them”. The following year the Canterbury Chamber of Commerce and the Agricultural and Pastoral Association published a report on the danger, demanding that legislation be strengthened where necessary and that existing laws be enforced rigorously. Meanwhile the expected invasion of South Canterbury was held up, although the rabbit inspector at Ashburton was sufficiently alarmed by the discovery of a colony of rabbits in the upper Rangitata to recommend the building of a rabbit-proof fence from

the upper reaches of the river to the sea. But the same year (1887) the rabbit inspector at ■ Timaru reported that his district was freer of rabbits than it had been for some time, though there was continual danger from a beachhead the rabbits had secured on the northern bank of the upper Waitaki. To meet this danger the Government in 1887 began to construct a rabbitproof fence running up the Hakataramea River and then northward to the Tekapo River, with a branch over to Lake Pukaki and another continuing up the Tasman River. It must have proved reasonably effective and the severe check the rabbits received during the great snowstorm of 1895 brought their advance to a halt. In the north the Hurunui fence proved an equally strong, barrier. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION The need for some form of education . in agriculture was realised very early in the Canterbury settlement, and

in 1872 the Provincial Council set aside 100,950 acres of pastoral land as an endowment for a school of agriculture. From the proceeds of the sale of part of this endowment a farm was purchased, buildings were constructed, and in 1880 the Lincoln School of Agriculture was opened with eight students in residence.

The first Director, W. E. Ivey, was a product of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, Gloucestershire. The policy of this institution, founded in 1845, was that agriculture should be taught against an agricultural background and that a residential college closely associated with a farm was the proper setting for its teaching. Ivey endeavoured to carry out these precepts in New Zealand and was in the forefront of the agricultural revolution— change from exploiting the land by continuous cropping to the' building up of fertility by mixed farming, better cultivation, rotation of crops, and the use of fertilisers. Manurial trials, crop variety trials, the feeding of wheat to stock, the cross breeding of sheep, and general farm management all found a place in his early reports.

With George Grey, who was appointed Lecturer in Chemistry in 1883, ivey worked for an improvement in the quality of fertilisers and was primarily responsible for the first Fertiliser Act of 1892. His successor was James Bayne, who extended the experimental work and was an early advocate of the Southdown ram for fat-lamb production.

Lincoln College was under the control of the Canterbury College Board of Governors, who were not themselves familiar with the problems of teaching . agriculture. Dissatisfaction with this position . and with the management of the college farm caused the Government to appoint a commission of inquiry which reported in 1888 in favour of separation from Canterbury College. Though this step was very necessary, it led to much controversy, and legislation making the change was not passed until 1896.

. Most of the credit for. the college’s subsequent rehabilitation must go to William Lowrie, who was appointed Director in 1903. He reorganised the syllabus, brought the farm into good condition, and was a pioneer in the use of superphosphate with all crops. He was followed in 1909 by R. C. Alexander, under whose direction over the next 25 years the work of the college was widely extended.

During this period Hilgendorf began his work on seed selection, other scientific investigations were begun, the farm further improved, and the range of teaching expanded. In 1930 Canterbury Agricultural College was made a constituent college of the University of New Zealand, two chairs in agriculture and agricultural botany were established, and new laboratories were built. Acknowledgment Acknowledgment is made to Mrs. A. M. A. Ashley, Messrs. J. L. MacFarlane, C. R. Straubel, W. Bowman, and W. Little, and P. and D. Duncan Ltd., Reid and Gray Ltd., and the Canterbury A. and P. Association for the loan of material used to reproduce illustrations in this article.

Note: For the 1864 and earlier censuses Westland’s population is of little consequence, though it is for the 1867 census, for which separate statistics on some items can be obtained, but not on birthplaces. Based on data for the 1867 and succeeding censuses, an estimate of 2300 New Zealand born was made for Westland in 1867.

Census ' Population Increase Born in N.Z. Born outside N.Z. Total Born in N.Z. Born outside N.Z. Total December, 1851 — — 3,273 —— — — December, 1858 1,938 7,029 8,967 . —— — — 5,694 5,694 December, 1851 .. 4,055 11,985 . 16,040 117 . 4,956 7,073 December, 1864 .. 7,076 25,200 32,276 3,021 13,215 16,236 December, 1867 .. 10,800 27,500 38,300 3,700 2,300 6,000 February, 1871 17,667 29,134 46,801 6,800 1,600 8,400 March, 1874 24,147 34,628 58,775 6,480 .5,494 11,974 March, 1878 36,840 55,082 91,922 12,693 20,454 33,147 April, 1881 48,931 63,251 12,182 12,091 8,169 20,260

POPULATION TRENDS IN CANTERBURY ... TABLE 1—GROWTH OF POPULATION IN CANTERBURY 1851-1881

Census year Total population Urban population Rural population Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 1851 .. 1,965 1,308 3,273 1,419 939 2,358 546 369 915 1858 .. 5,301 3,666 8,967 1,420 1,158 2,578 3,881 2,508 6,389 1861 .. 8,939 7,101 16,040 2,643 2,506 5,149 6,296 4,595 10,891 1864 .. 18,931 13,345 32,276 5,155 4,072 9,227 13,776 9,273 23,049 1867 .. 21,206 17,127 38,333 5,249 4,935 10,184 15,957 12,192 28,149 1871 .. 25,781 21,020 46,801 5,869 6.031 11,900 19,912 14,989 34,901 1874 .. 32,294 26,481 58,775 8,509 7,730 16,239 23,785 18,751 42,536 (878 .. 50,424 41,498 91,922 16,598 15,437 32,035 33,826 26,061 59,887 1881 .. 60,590 51,592 . 112,182 20,190 18,788 38.978 40,400 32,804 73,204

TABLE INCREASE IN RURAL AND URBAN POPULATION IN CANTERBURY 1851-1881

Census year ' Rural labour force Total rural labour force Urban labour force Total labour force Agricultural and pastoral occupations Numbers of other ■ labour force 1858 .. 800 1,700 2,500 900 3,400 1861 .. 1,400 2,500 3,900 1,600 5,500 1864 .. 2,600 6,900 9,500 3,600 13,100 1867 .. 4,200 5,700 9,900 3,300 . 13,200 . 1871 .. 4,700 7,300 12,000 3,500 15,500 1874 .. 7,900 6,200 14,100 5,100 . 19,200 1878 .. .. 12,600 7,800 20,400 10,000 30,400 1881 .. .. 12,800 11,100 .23,900 12,000 35,900

TABLE 3—COMPARISON BETWEEN NUMBERS IN RURAL AND URBAN OCCUPATIONS IN CANTERBURY 1858-1881