FARMING IN NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 80, Issue 4, 15 April 1950, Page 353

FARMING IN NEW ZEALAND

Rangiora and Eyre Counties

By

P. VAN PRAACH,

formerly of the Extension Division,

Department of Agriculture, Christchurch.

ETWEEN the Waimakariri and the Ashley Rivers lies an area— Rangiora and Eyre Counties—remarkable for its diversity of farming, types of land ranging from that capable of carrying only a few store sheep to high-producing dairy land comparable with the best in the higher-rainfall areas in the North Island. In general the area presents a well-ordered pattern of farming with lighter land to the western and southern boundaries and land with increased carrying capacity and productivity further eastward toward the coast. Farms in Rangiora and Eyre Counties are well cared for and prosperous, being bounded by the neat gorse hedges so common to the Canterbury Plains and watered by a reticulation scheme maintained partly by the county councils and partly by the farmers. Land values range from a matter of shillings per acre for lighter land to figures in the vicinity of £7O to £9O an acre for heavier land and the size of holdings varies inversely to land values.

BESIDES farming, other industries such as freezing works at Kaiapoi, two flourmills at Rangiora and one at Wetheral, and a twine works and woolscouring plant at Waikuku all help to maintain th P arnnnmie structure of nnnntilt »t f S S Th. the counties at a high level. The development of local industries such as the Kaiapoi Woollen Mills, while not directly affecting farming in the counties, indirectly benefits the farmer by providing local markets for eggs and meat. Rangiora and Eyre Counties, with a total occupied area of 148,551 acres, are bounded in the north by the Ashley River, in the south by the Waimakariri River, to the east by the sea, and to the west by Wolffs and Bennetts Roads. A feature of the

Climate

district is the large area covered by the beds of the Waimakariri, Ashley, anb Eyre Rivers. This has a considerahle bearing on the farming economy, especially as the shingle beds deposited by the r]vers during the formation of the Canterbury Plains form the natural causeway of the underground water which affects this area. The boundary between the two counties stretches in an approximately straight line from Bennetts to just north of Kaiapoi township. The area is well served by road and rail, there being three railway lines which traverse the area in such a way that all parts are convenient to the railway. This, together with the good roads, allows the rapid movement of stock and quick marketing of farm produce so essential to the farmer.

Rangiora and Eyre Counties experience a normal Canterbury Plains type of climate, most suitable for a mixed arable type of farming, and lie in the 25 to 30in. rainfall belt.

TABLE I—AVERAGE DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL IN RANGIORA, 1918-1939.

Month Rainfall January .'. .. .. 2.72 February .. 2.02 March .. , .. 1.50 April 1.83 May 2.07 June 2.13 July .. .. .. 2.39 August 2.04 September .. .. 2.27 October .. .. 2.08 November .. 2.10 December .. ... .. 2.45 Total 25.60

Table 1 indicates a fairly even distribution of rainfall, except during February, March, and April, when the average is lower. This is typical of all the Canterbury Plains and affords ideal conditions for the ripening of grain crops. There is also a danger of drought during these months. The average annual rainfall of 25.60 in. is too low for the maintenance of truly permanent pastures and is thus a factor necessitating a mixed arable type of farming, except near the coast. Here the high water-table and the moisture-retaining nature of the soil enable maintenance of more permanent pastures. The rainfall increases further inland nearer the foothills in the west, where there is a section commonly known as the north-west shower belt.

Recent and Recent-to-young Soils (Alluvial and Littoral) Droughty to well drained 1. Kairaki complex. ' la. Kairaki complex, unconsolidated. 2. Waimakariri and Paparua shallow stony loams. 3. Waimakariri and Paparua shallow sandy loams. 4. Waimakariri and Paparua sandy loams. With better supply of moisture 5. Waimakariri and Templeton shallow silt loams. 6. Waimakariri and Templeton silt loams and silt loams on sandy loams. 7. Kaiapoi silt loams. 8. Sprlngston and Papanui shallow silt loams and shallow t sandy loams. 9. Springston silt loams and silt loams on clay loams. Young-to-immature and Immature Soils (Alluvial) 10. Lismore shallow stony silt loams. 11. Eyre shallow stony silt loams and shallow bouldery loams.

12. Lismore shallow silt loams. 13. Eyre shallow silt loams. Grey Soils (Alluvial) 14. Tai Tapu silt loams, etc. 15. Temuka silt loams. 16. Temuka shallow silt loams. 17. Temuka peaty silt loams and very peaty silt loams. 18. Temuka silt loams on clay loams. 19. Temuka swamp complex. Saline Soils (Alluvial and Marine) 20. Motukarara weakly saline silt loams. Soils of the Downs 21. Mairaki silt loam. 21a. Mairaki silt loam, easy rolling phase. 21b. Mairaki silt loam, undulating phase. 22. Mairaki strongly mottled silt loam. 23. Taiko hill complex.

TABLE RAINFALL IN AREAS SURROUNDING RANGIORA AND EYRE COUNTIES Rainfall No. of days in. of rain Amberley 27.32 106 Oxford 40.33 107 Christchurch 26.10 126

The rainfall station at Oxford is in the north-west shower belt and the tables show the extent to which rainfall increases as this region along the foothills is approached. The wide variation of the rainfall from year to year adds yet another hazard with which the farmer must contend.

Winds: Hot, drying north-west winds experienced in late summer assist in providing excellent harvest weather. Strong north-westerlies may sometimes reach gale force and are a hindrance in harvesting clover and grass seed. The north-easterly winds, which are colder and may bring rain, have the

effect of balancing the north-wester-lies to some extent. Southerly winds, occurring mainly in winter, are the main rain-carrying winds in the district. Frost, hail, and snow: In the past 5 years at the Eyrewell Plantation there was an average of 100 frosts a year, temperatures as low as 22 degrees F. occurring during July. These heavy frosts tend' to halt growth over the winter, Snow is never very heavy in the area, although it did lie in places to a depth of 2ft. in July, 1945. Generally, no more than a few light falls are experienced and, as they seldom lie on the ground for long, snow presents no problem to winter feeding of stock. Hail, on the other hand, is an important climatic factor in the district, particularly in certain areas lying in fairly well-defined hail belts.

The hail storms are often of sufficient force to flatten crops and there is a risk of crop destruction from hail throughout the growing and harvesting season. Sunshine: The hours of sunshine in the district are generally high, except near the coast, where the ground is lower lying and coastal fogs sometimes cause overcast conditions. This has the effect of shortening the working day, particularly during the harvesting season. In general the climate is fairly equable. The main hazards are frosts and the tendency to drought on the land further in from the coast. This necessitates provision of supplementary winter, autumn, and early spring fodder crops. The north-west winds, although at times a handicap, facilitate the ripening and harvesting of cash crops.

Soils

a eenerahsedTicturTof Dart P of g a more detailed 3 soil map U of the whole o?thl Canterbury Plains and downland. In Rangiora and Eyre Counties 42 soil types were mapped, but in the map shown these have been reduced to 23 types and 2 phases. Soil type names have been chosen from those areas on the plains and downs where the types occur most extensively. It must be understood that, these soil types do rathfr natural of the soils without wholly taking into consideration artificial changes resulting from draining, liming, and fertilising. About 85 per cent, of the two counties consists of flat, alluvial, greywacke gravels, sands, and silts of the overlapping fans of the Waimakariri and Ashley Rivers. Downland made up of older greywacke alluvium covered by wind-blown dusts mainly from the Ashley River comprises the remaining 15 per cent. In the case of the alluvial soils (types 2 to 20) fertility depends mainly on depth of soil to stones and texture of topsoil and subsoil, these factors in turn accounting for the amount of moisture retained. Another important factor which affects fertility is the amount of leaching that has taken place. Soils highest above the rivers (Lismore and Eyre series) are the most leached, while those at lower levels and closer to the rivers are very recent in origin and are therefore ; relatively unleached (types 2 to 9 and 14). 1. Kairaki complex is made up of coastal sand dunes moderately well or mn r e ed trees dU flat P sandv areas and hollows containins? £VomVe Ashlev and Wai Tfkarirl RhzTrs y and Wai a . . . ’ , , la. Kairaki complex unconsolidated is the seaward margin of the dunes, held m places by scattered vegetation, but for the most part freely eroding. Groups 1 and la are mostly used in conjunction with groups 14 and 20 for dairying or fattening of livestock. A typical pasture has as its main constituent strawberry clover, which pro-

vides a good sward and a bulk of feed adequate for dairy cows. 2. Waimakariri and Paparua shallow stony loams, averaging about Gin. in depth of topsoil and subsoil, are very droughty. 3. Waimakariri and Paparua shallow sandy loams average about 15in. of topsoil and subsoil. Though droughty, they do not dry out quite so quickly as the foregoing types. 4. Waimakariri and Paparua sandy loams average more than 18in. of topsoil and subsoil, so that their moistureholding capacity is better than that of type 3. 5 and 6. Waimakariri and Templeton shallow silt loams, because of their heavier texture, retain moisture better than sandy soils of the same depth. Waimakariri silt loams and silt loams on sandy loams are greater than 18in. in depth to the underlying stones, so that they suffer much less in dry weather. 7. Kaiapoi silt loams are in most places 36in. or more in depth and their supply of moisture in most seasons is adequate. 8 and 9. Springston and Papanui shallow silt and shallow sandy loams are 15in. or more in depth. They are situated at lower levels than surrounding dry types and therefore receive sufficient moisture by seepage through the underlying gravels to carry pastures through periods of low rainfall. In winter surface water sometimes accumulates. With good management types 6,7, 8, and 9 should be capable of maintaining permanent pastures. 10, 11, 12, and 13. Lismore and Eyre soils are moderately leached of plant foods and chemically the initial lime requirement is about 2 tons per acre. Lismore and Eyre shallow stony silt loams (10 and 11) average 7 to Bin. in depth and droughts are severe. Lismore and Eyre shallow silt loams (12 and 13), averaging 15in. in depth, retain moisture better. Of these last two Eyre shallow silt loam, being somewhat less leached, is the , more fertile.

14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19. Tai Tapu and Temuka soils are low lying and badly in need of drainage. They occupy what was formerly known as Rangiora Swamp, from which escape of water to the sea is largely prevented by the barrier of coastal dunes. Tai Tapu silt loams (14) are very fertile soils capable of supporting permanent pastures, but Temuka soils (15 to 19) which are more leached, require phosphate and lime to maintain a good permanent sward. 20. Motukarara weakly saline silt loams consist of a damp stretch, parallel to the sea, of low-lying alluvium immediately inland of the unconsolidated coastal dunes. Drainage would prove difficult and if successful the next problem would be the removal of salt. 21, 21a, 21b, and 22. Mairaki series, consisting of silt loams on heavy: silt loams to clay loams, is broken up topographically into flat (strongly mottled), undulating, easy rolling, and rolling land. The flat and easy undulating types are wet in winter and give some trouble in cultivation. All types chemically are leached and show a lime requirement of up to 3 tons per acre in the first year of application. On types 21, 21a, and 21b overcropping, accompanied by ploughing up and down the slope, has led to loss of topsoil by erosion and this loss, though ■probably less marked, can be seen clearly going on today. 23. Taiko Hill complex is moderately steep and has eroded strongly in the past. Profiles are very variable. Types 1, la, 2,3, 4, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 21 to 23 topsoils are low in humus content. Most paddocks on types 21 to 23 have lost topsoil by sheet erosion, and wind has removed several inches in places from cultivated paddocks on types 2to 4 and 10 to 13. These winderoded spots are sometimes referred to by local farmers as “starvation paddocks.”

Underground Water (Undercurrent) The farm management in this area is so intimately connected with drainage problems and the seepage of underground water that it is essential to study the effects of the high watertable on farming. In the area of Flaxton, Ohoka, and Camside the level of the water-table was formerly coincident with the surface, but, owing to draining, the level was lowered considerably. In the past few years, owing to various factors, the watertable has again risen and is now affecting farming practices over a large area- . • » # w, It has been ascertained from research by the . Geological, Survey, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and discussion with local inhabitants that the water-table is affected by a slow-moving undercurrent of water. The origin and control of the undercurrent are a matter of much conjecture among local and scientific investigators. It appears to have an association with rainfall and is similarly associated with levels of nearby rivers. The undercurrent has been known to rise above the surface of the ground without any corresponding change in the level ,of rivers A common theory also is that there is underground seepage from the higher Oxford territory, with a definite time lag between heavy rainfall near Oxford and the effects of undercurrent at Horrelville and lower down the plains. . The moving undercurrent travels in beds of shingle and is apparent for long only on Tai Tapu and Temuka soils (14 to 19 inclusive on the map on page 354). Here water rises to the surface, forming small swamps, retarding growth, and l.eaving the land in such a condition that a lapse of up to 12 months is required to restore its natural ferK nf^xcrileTSJJpsVwheTetc 0 mrf „adv Jr be harvested being JELEd bytte risiSF &ab£. g

The unsatisfactory drainage system as it exists today may be attributed to the following:— 1-. The deterioration of the present drainage system due to neglect m clearing away silt, weeds, and the overgrowth of willows.. The protection of drains from stock is also essential and does not appear to have been given proper consideration in the past. 2. The building up of riverbeds, which raises the water levels of both the r j ver and the water-table when the two are related. A good example of this is afforded by the land just north of Wilson’s siding. Some years ago, before the main drain had built up its own bed, that an( was good, heavy crop pi n g land, but now it is unsuitable even f or winter grazing of cattle, . . , ~ 3. The excessive rainfall of the three years 1944 to 1946, which were the wettest three consecutive years m the history of the district. 4. Changes due to more intensive cultivation have also had their effect on the drainage system. . The excess water of the Cust River and surrounding country meets at the end of the Cust main drain and it is at this junction m times of heavy rainfall that a backwash and consequent flooding occur. The mam problem is to relieve this focal point and clear existing drains. A drainage scheme of the North Canterbury Catchment Board proposes a diversion of the Eyre River into the Waimakariri River and the Cust River into the Eyre, with a system o f cross drainage. This would help to prevent an accumulation of water in the lower parts of the district, parts of which are close to sea level, and would help to carry off much of the excess water caused by springs. An example of the benefits of draining in the area can be illustrated by th! deepening of Creig’s dram at

Clarkville in 1946. This lowered the water-table of the nearby country about 2ft. and enabled excellent crops and pastures to grow where before only niggerheads, rushes, and swamp plants were flourishing.

Land Utilisation The land is used for mixed farmsheep fattening, dairying, and cropping. If allowance is made for the number of cattle in the area, the over-all carrying capacity of the grassland is approximately 2 sheep per acre. Dairying plays a greater part than in most other areas of Canterbury; in fact, 11 per cent, of the dairy cows in milk in Canterbury are in Rangiora and Eyre Counties, which have only 4.1 per cent, of Canterbury’s sown-grass areas. The ratio of area in plantations to area occupied is also relatively great, due to there being a State forest of approximately 19,300 acres on the lighter land of the south-west.

TABLE LAND UNDER OCCUPATION AND LIVESTOCK* IN RANGIORA AND EYRE COUNTIES, 1946-47. Acres Area occupied 148,551 Grasses, clover, and lucerne 88,181 Fodder crops (including barley, wheat, and oats fed off) 8,724 Cash crops (including chaff oats) 15,495 Fallow land 3,508 Plantations 15,220 Unimproved land 20,411 No. Dairy cows (in milk) 5,955 Total cattle 12,192 Breeding ewes 86,708 Total sheep 126,724

Pasture Production The increased pasture production over the past 25 years is due to many factors, among which the evolution, distribution, and widespread use of better types of pasture plants are the most outstanding. Farmers in this district appear to have taken full advantage of the Government-spon-sored scheme of seed certification. Throughout the area pastoral farming plays an important part on the arable farm, and the preparation and sowing down of pastures merit as much or more attention as is paid to the cultivation of cash crops. Seed mixtures are studied with a view to achieving pasture production all the year round and consequently vary according to the type of soil. On light land (types 2,3, 10, 11, 12, and 13) a typical seed mixture would contain: — lb. Perennial ryegrass 20-25 Subterranean clover 3 White clover 2-3 The use of subterranean clover on this light land has been one of the deciding factors in contributing to increased pasture production. • Subterranean clover gives a tight sward to the pasture during its early growth and forms .a nutritious feed even when it has dried off. It is sown on light land, particularly on Waimakariri and Paparua shallow' stony loams and on shallow silt loams and shallow stony silt loams of the Eyre

and Lismore series (types 2, 10, 11, 12, and 13), where early lambing is practised in order to take advantage of the early clover growth. Subterranean clover has limitations and should be used as a means of building up the fertility of the soil to a point where it can maintain better strains of grasses and good crops of Certified white clover. The most common method of sowing is to drill the subterranean clover seed. On the medium land (soil types 6, 7,8, and 9) a typical seed mixture would contain: — lb. Perennial ryegrass 20 White clover 2 Montgomery red clover 3 Crested dogstail 1 On good heavy land (Tai Tapu and Temuka soils) a typical seed mixture would contain:— lb. Perennial ryegrass 10 Short-rotation ryegrass 15 Timothy 3 Montgomery red clover 3 White clover 2 Certified seed of the class appropriate to the use to which the pasture is to be put should be used. Shortrotation ryegrass has increased in popularity, particularly on town milk supply farms. It lasts 4 to 5 years on good land, has all the feeding quality of Italian ryegrass, and makes good winter and early spring feed. Porina (Oxycanus) and grassgrub are a serious hindrance all over the area and present an important problem, especially to the farmer on the lighter land.

Although in general it is now economic to poison the porina grub, it is nevertheless one of the factors limiting the life of pastures in the district. Cocksfoot is an important ingredient of pasture mixtures because of its greater resistance to and quicker recovery from attacks of porina and grass-grub. Use of Lime A great deal of the increased pasture production is attributable to the increased use of lime in late years. On the whole the various soil types of the area show a satisfactory or very good lime response. Farmers point to the increased growth of clovers as evidence of the benefits accruing from liming. Liming before sowing down appears to be more popular than topdressing on established pastures. This is a general practice in the counties, because pastures at the best are of a short duration and it is felt that more rapid results are obtained by applying the lime to the land in a cultivated state. In these two counties on certain areas of heavy land, notably on the Mairaki soil series, liming is as heavy as 4 tons per acre, but on an average about 1 ton per acre is used. Some indication as to the extent liming has increased is shown by the amount of lime railed into the two counties. In 1935 approximately 640 tons were railed into the area; for 1949 the figure was nearly 8000 tons. All of the lime used comes from outside the county, mainly from Amberley and Waikari. . Increase in Topdressing That topdressing of pastures with artificial fertilisers has increased over

the past 20 years is evident from the fact that there has been an increase in artificial fertilisers railed into the two counties, from 1243 tons in 1928 to 2187 tons in 1949, and a decrease in the acreage of cash crops sown. A common practice is to topdress with 1 to 2cwt. of superphosphate per acre every other year. On the more intensively farmed areas, notably on dairy farms, annual topdressings of superphosphate are made. Carrying Capacity The livestock statistics for the two counties indicate that there has been only a slight increase in the carrying capacity per acre of sown grass. The increased productivity of the pastures is reflected not in an increase in total number of breeding ewes and dairy cows, but in a reduction of the acreage in green fodder and root crops and an increase in the area of sown grass cut for hay. The acreage in forage crops decreased from 13,000 in 1920 to 8800 in 1947 and the area in grass and lucerne cut for hay has increased from 1400 acres to 6800 acres over the same period; this indicates that surplus grass rather than annual root and green crops is being used for winter feeding. The increase in surplus grass available for winter feed has been the direct result of widespread use of Certified pasture seeds, liming, and topdressing. The growing of lucerne for hay has increased in popularity over the period. In 1928, 344 acres of lucerne were cut for hay and silage and in 1947 this had risen to 1707 acres. Lucerne does well on all but the very poorest and the wettest soil , types. From = 3 to 4

cuts may be taken from a good stand of lucerne. There is little grazing of the lucerne except where it is used in a special-purpose pasture with, perhaps, a mixture of cocksfoot. Such a mixture will give excellent feed and is especially useful on light land provided it is not too intensively fed off.

Small Seeds Small seeds include perennial and Italian, ryegrass, cocksfoot, crested dogstail, and clover (red, white, subterranean, and strawberry). The area of small seeds harvested in the district has always been relatively large, although it is subject to changes, with price fluctuations. For instance, over the past few years high prices have caused a marked increase in production of small seeds.

TABLE 4—AREA SAVED FOR GRASS AND CLOVER SEED Year Area (acres) 1920 3,677 1925 4,327 1930 1,438 1935 5,448 1940 2,680 1945 5,005 1947 8,436

The fluctuations in production also show a marked relation to the number of breeding ewes. Breeding ewe numbers rose from 75,000 in 1935 to 97,000 in 1938, while the acreage in small seeds dropped from 5400 acres in 1935 to 2900 acres in 1938. This would be related to the recovery of lamb prices after the slump and the extra profit in producing fat lambs as against producing small seeds. Yields of seeds vary greatly with the seasons, but an average yield of ryegrass on the light land (for example, Eyre and Lismore shallow silt loams) is 10 to 12 bushels, increasing to 25 bushels on the heavier soils. Yields of clover seeds vary from 501 b. of machine - dressed seed per acre on medium to light land to 2001 b. on the heavier land. , It is the policy of some farmers to grow small seeds only when it fits in well with the general rotation or farming programme. Most farmers in the area harvest some seed, but in general they consider small seeds more as a very profitable sideline. Naturally, if they were seed specialists they would vary their seed mixtures accordingly. Beekeeping The area is well suited for beekeeping, giving on an average 701 b. of honey per hive. The importance of bees in pastoral farming with a rotational system incorporating the growth of legumes cannot be overestimated. It is essential that a district such as Rangiora and Eyre should be well supplied with bees and it would appear that the district is well stocked with beehives, having an average of 10 hives per square mile. The map on this page shows the distribution of beehives in the district. It may be noted that the areas having better pastures have a greater concentration of bees, although if the area is more intensively cropped, as around Clarkville, the concentration is not so high.

Crop Production Owing to the effects of climate, particularly the comparatively low rainfall and the poor moisture-retain-ing qualities of the soils, the majority of pastures are short lived, seldom lasting longer than 5 to 6 years. Therefore, a mixed arable type of farming is almost inevitable, cash crops and pastures being complementary rather than competitive in the pattern of land utilisation. A system of rotation farming is adopted in which pastures are followed by forage and cash crops, which are alternated in such a way as not to impair soil fertility. Cash Crops Wheat: There was a sharp decline in the wheat acreage after 1922. This drop may be attributed to the fall in price of wheat from 90d. per bushel in 1920-21 to 58d. in 1923-24. There was a change-over to dairying and this is indicated by an increase in the number of dairy cows in the counties from 5088 in 1920 to 7929 in 1924. • The rise in the wheat acreage after 1926 is explained by the recovery of wheat prices and the fall in butterfat prices. In fact much of the land devoted previously to dairying . was unsuitable for the purpose. The wheat acreage remained at a fairly high level during the depression years, although wheat prices fell considerably. This was because wheat, being dependent on a local market, was more stable in price than lamb and wool prices and gave a quicker cash return. Since 1936 the wheat acreage has declined, due to the following factors: — 1. The high prices of fat lambs and wool, together with the small amount of labour required for their production. 2. The natural desire of the farmer to maintain and build up his soil fertility while he can, so that when the need arises he will be able to “cash in” on

the stored-up fertility by growing cash crops without detriment to his land. An indication of the drop in the wheat acreage can be obtained by considering the wheat resources of a local flourmill. Twenty years ago the mill obtained all its wheat from the neighbouring countryside, whereas now it gets 60 per cent, from outside the district, although the annual output of flour and bran, etc., has not increased. The wartime increases were due to farmers responding to the call to grow more wheat. One of the factors causing the wheat land to be used for other purposes is the overwhelming growth of weeds, particularly obvious in the Clarkville and Ohoka districts. Wheat is placed in the rotation when the fertility is highest; it is usually sown in winter after grass or after a green fodder crop, depending on the fertility and condition* of the soil. Cross 7 variety has practically replaced Solid Straw Tuscan, as it heads better and gives better . yields. Hunters and Dreadnought varieties are more popular on the heavier land. Oats: The area in oats, both as a cash crop and for chaff, has decreased to an even greater extent than the wheat acreage. The acreage of oats for threshing has dropped steadily from 4843 acres in 1920 to 1529 acres in 1947, the chief reason for the decline being the general reduction in the acreage of cash crops explained previously. Another important factor contributing to the decrease has been the replacement of horses by tractors as a farm motive power, as a considerable area of oats was grown for oaten chaff when horses alone were used for draught. The principal variety of oats grown is the Gartons Abundance, which is sown, usually in the spring, at about 2 bushels per acre with approximately lewt. .of superphosphate. Potatoes: The acreage in potatoes was fairly constant over the period 1920 to 1945, although there was

a marked rise from 1926 until the end of the depression, in 1935. That year 2059 acres were grown, but the acreage dropped to 1431 acres in 1937. The rise in 1926 can be attributed to the increased overseas demand for potatoes and the resultant attractive price. The acreage remained high during the depression because as a cash crop potatoes gave a relatively good return. Since 1936 the acreage has remained fairly constant, except for a considerable decline in 1947. Potatoes usually follow grass in the farming rotation. Because of the intensive inter-row cultivation, potato crops are useful in cleaning up old pastures and leave the ground well prepared for winter wheat. There is some excellent ground for potatoes in the district, particularly on the free-working silt loams of the Temuka and Tai Tapu soil series. These soils occur chiefly around Rangiora, Flaxton, Wilson’s siding, and Wetheral, where yields average 7 to 8 tons per acre. Of the varieties planted in the district Aucklander Short Top and Dakota predominate. Harvesting is done in May, June, and July. The labour shortage during the war has induced far more mechanisation in the form of mechanical planters, diggers, and in some cases baggers. Fortunately, most of the area is situated where school labour can be obtained to assist in harvesting. If possible the table potatoes are sold off the paddock, and the seed potatoes are pitted and graded. Otherwise, the whole crop is pitted as one sample and graded by itinerant graders who tour the district during winter. Some of the farmers always hold the crop in storage, for although it may entail two or more gradings, they are compensated by the higher prices offering later in the year. Barley: The area of barley for threshing is shown in Table 5. s TABLE S—AREA IN BARLEY FOR THRESHING Year Area acres 1936-40 average 447 1941 1097 1942 1244 1943 1439 1944 1377 1945 1576 1946 2537 1947 2310

The unusual rise in the barley acreage during and since the war may be attributed to the following factors: — During the war, when imports of feed barley from Australia ceased and the North Island demand was increased by more pig production, the price of feed barley rose until it was almost on a par with malting barley. Owing to the relatively wet seasons during the later war years, autumn sowing of wheat was impracticable and as an alternative barley was sown in spring. As a cash crop barley is sown at the rate of 1| to 2 bushels per acre, usually with 1 to 2cwt. of superphosphate or reverted superphosphate. It is harvested in the autumn, being windrowed by the binder and picked up with the header. Yields vary widely according to the strength of the land;

in general 35 to 45 bushels would be a good crop yield on light land and 60 to 70 bushels on heavier land, Malting barley is most important in the district, specially selected barleys of the 2-row type being used, the most popular of which are Research, Archer, and Chevalier. Linseed: Linseed as a cash crop does not fit into the general pattern of other cash crons but depends rather on the demand for linseed oil. From 1920 until 1931 more , than 1000 acres were usually grown, the area sometimes exceeding 2000 acres, but with the closing down of the linseed-oil factory at Auckland in the early 1930’s the acreage fell. During the depression the price of linseed was more than halved and overseas markets were unreliable. In the later war years the linseed acreage sown in the district increased from nil in 1943 to 802 acres in 1947. This was due in part to the setting up of a linseed-oil factory at Dunedin in 1 n 4 o . Linseed can be grown on a wide variety of soils, although a reasonable amount of rainfall is required on lighter soils to ensure a good crop. An average yield would be about scwt. per acre. It is a good crop in a rotation, particularly following a run-out pasture and preceding wheat. It leaves the soil well worked up and does not appear to deplete the soil fertility to any great extent. It is also a useful alternative to spring oats, wheat, barley, or peas. Peas: Peas have also been a profitable crop on the better land of the district. Statistics indicate a steady rise in acreage, especially during the war The total acreage in 1921 was 959 acres and this rose to 2740 acres in 1947 • .... . , . _ ~ The increase in acreage during the war may be attributed in the main to the increased demand for garden peas in the canning industry and the resultant demand for seed, for which garden varieties are grown in this

area. There was also an increased demand for feed peas, mainly the Partridge and Prussian Blue varieties, due to. the cutting off of European supplies during the war. Peas are most suitable in the farm rotation when preceding a cereal. They leave the soil in good condition, and iar he th e C land is easily prepared February the land is easily prepared for an autumn sowing. nut of P grass sown ana may begrown out o g P.}°^ bed or after a winter fallow fsnowing wheat a wmter IaIIOW following wheat. Peas which are harvested m autumn are cut with the mower, wmdrowed, and left to dry before being picked up by the header harvester. Many of the crops are grown under contract to local seed merchants. Linen flax: This crop was grown purely as a wartime measure as linen flax was no longer available from Europe. The largest area grown in the two counties was 226 acres in 1942-43. It was grown m well-drained areas at Ohoka, Waikuku, Cust, and Springbank and was sent to the Wai - kuku linen flax factory. Forage Crops n these counties fluctuations of forage crops (rape, turnips, turnips a nd rape, swedes, chou moellier and kale, barley, wheat, etc., fed off) are coupled with fluctuations in cash crops, as stock and cash crops compete f or tk e use o the land. Thus, land utilisation tends to swing toward that type of production which at the time is most profitable; that is, when lamb prices are relatively more profitable than wheat prices the forage crop acreage tends to rise and cash crop acreage declines. This applies in general, but during a depression, when all prices are uniformly low and the farmers are seeking to maximise their incomes by exploiting to the full all the avenues of farm production, the acreage of both cash crops and forage crops is at a high level. This was evident during the years 1930 to 1935. From 1935 to 1943 the competitive

factor re-emerged and the acreage of cash crops and forage crops varied more or less in inverse ratio. . Rape: Rape has always played a leading part as a summer and autumn fattening crop. It also plays an important role in the preparation of land for wheat and as a restorative after wheat; it is a common practice to sow down pastures in the spring with a light crop of rape. Excellent crops of rape may be grown on light to medium land, provided summer rainfall is normal, but rape on Tai Tapu and Temuka soils is inclined to become too leafy and watery and to scour the lambs. The time of sowing depends on the individual farmer’s programme but it is general to • sow in breaks of fortnightly intervals from November to January. Turnips: This is also an important forage crop in the district, although in the past 25 years it has lost some popularity and now forms about 30 per cent, of the total fodder crop acreage, against 40 per cent, in 1920. This gradual fall in the acreage of turnips may be attributed to the susceptibility to club-root disease and attacks by the brown beetle.. The general change from factory to town-milk supply has also caused a decline in the turnip acreage. As turnips have a tendency to taint the milk if fed directly before milking, the trend is more toward hay and silage for winter feed. • Turnip yields vary from 25 tons per acre on light land to 45 to 50 ‘tons per acre on heavy land. The crop can be followed by an autumn sowing of wheat if fed off

as early as May, but generally it is followed by a spring-sown cereal or another green fodder crop after a short fallow. It is usually sown in summer (December) on land ploughed out of grass in winter and after a green fodder crop. The time of sowing is determined by the movement of the brown beetle, the adult of the grassgrub. This beetle is usually in full flight during November and in early December, when it feeds ravenously, on turnips in the smooth-leaf stage, that is, 5 to 10 days after germination of the seed. To avoid brown beetle damage, it is usual to sow turnips after the first week in December. A mixture of turnips and rape is now popular. The two crops when sown together serve a dual purpose as a summer and winter feed crop. Chou moellier: Chou moellier and kale have gained popularity as a supplementary feed crop only in the past 10 years. The growth , of dairying for ■ town-milk supply, particularly in the Waikuku area, and the need for supplementary winter feed for milking cows has raised the demand. Chou moellier is a good feed for cattle, stands high, is easy to grow on the stronger soils, gives much bulk, and fits in well . with hay or silage in providing a balanced diet. It may also be used in place of rape as a summer fattening feed for lambs, but this practice is not popular in the district, as kale does not appear to do as well as rape on the lighter land. The cultivation and place in rotation of chou moellier are similar to those of turnips. The time of sowing

depends on the use of the crop, but as a winter feed it is sown in October and November. Swedes: A very small acreage of swedes is grown, mainly on the wet, sour ground, where swedes give a better and more reliable yield than turnips or chou moellier. Greenfeed: Barley and oats as greenfeed are special-purpose crops grown to produce nutritious forage at special times of the year; for example, for flushing ewes in March or April before tupping, for lambing ewes in August, and for milking cows in autumn or early spring. Mangolds: Over the years the acreage of mangolds grown has dropped until it is now of little importance. There are many reasons for this, one of the main ones being the use of alternative feed such as chou moellier, kale, lucerne, and hay.

Livestock Livestock have always been of some importance in the two , counties and over the past 27 years have increased at the sacrifice of the acreage in cash crops. The relevant figures show that the number of dairy cows in milk rose from 5088 in 1920 to 5955 in 1947 and sheep numbers rose from 104,482 in 1920 to 126,724 in 1947, whereas the acreage in cash crops dropped from 21,476 in 1920 to 13,971 in 1947. . Sheep: Fat-lamb production, which has increased over the period, forms the main part of the farming programme on Eyre and Lismore shallow silt loams and other light soils. The increase in breeding - ewe numbers from 58 per cent, of total sheep in 1920

to 69 per cent, in 1947 is a fair indication of this. Changed methods in breeding fat lambs are indicated by Table 6, which reveals the extent to which the Southdown has replaced Border and English Leicesters.

TABLE 6—BREEDS OF RAMS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL RAMS IN RANGIORA AND EYRE COUNTIES Border and English Leicester Southdowns Per cent. Per cent. 1920 54.1 14.9 1930 23.4 41.9 1940 8.6 62.9 1945 9.8 58.8

The rise in the use of the Southdown ram is due to changes in the demand of the Smithfield market for the smaller joint characteristic of the Southdown. The Southdown has the . advantage over the Leicester in that its progeny are quicker maturing and kill out at prime weight and at an earlier age (3 to 4 months). The decline in the Southdown percentage from 1940 to 1945 is due to a. modern trend toward the Romney breed. The main breed of ewe is the halfbred, but there is a tendency for three-quarter-breds and Romneys to become more popular on the heavier land. Stud, breeding of all types of sheep is common to the district. One stud sheep of interest is the Merino, which is bred on light land (Eyre shallow silt loams) at Fernside and Swannanoa for sale to high-country runs. Owing to the nature of farming it is usual for farmers to buy in their replacements, but in the last 25 years many farmers, especially on the lighter land, have taken to breeding their own replacements. It enables them to maintain more even flocks and frees them from the risks of price fluctuations. The lambing percentage varies with the seasons and other conditions, but on the average it is fairly highabout 100 to 110 per cent. Dry sheep are usually shorn about October and wet sheep in November and December. . Some farmers shear before lambing. Two of the main reasons are that it is easier to get shearers before the November-Decem-ber rush and some farmers hold that ewes lamb more easily and take to shelter more quickly, so affording the

lamb more protection. Pre-lambing shearing is of course not practical unless there are good shelter belts. Dipping is done about February or March and goes on into April. Crutching is carried out about May or June, usually before sheep are put on winter feed, in order to prevent any tendency to scour..

Cattle Unlike most of the Canterbury Plains parts of Rangiora and Eyre Counties are admirably suited to dairying. Dairy cows form about 50 per cent of total cattle. Beef cattle play a relatively insignificant part in the farming programme; they are run mainly on the heavier, wetter parts of the area. Dairying predominates mainly on the heavier soils about Tuahiwi, Flaxton, Camside, and Waikuku. The number of dairy cows has not changed significantly in the past 15 years. The total was unprecedentedly high m 1922 because of high prices offered for butter by the United Kingdom and the settlement of returned soldiers on the land. The drop in numbers after 1924 was due to a fall in overseas prices, and the rise during the depression is attributed to farmers wishing to sustain gross income despite falling prices. Since the depression the number of dairy cows has been fairly constant. The most notable feature of dairying in the district is the change-over from factory to town-milk supply due to the extra urban demand and the utilisation of good dairying land for building sites in and adjacent to Christchurch. In . the last 2 years 13 dairy farmers in the district have changed from factory to town supply. In 1946, 6000 gallons of milk were carted daily by the Canterbury Cooperative Dairy Company, the sole transport company in the district carrying milk; in 1948 the figure reached 11,000 gallons daily in winter. Pigs In the two counties pigs play a comparatively minor part and the total number of pigs has decreased from 4618 in 1925 to 2158 in 1947. There are no pig farms of importance in the district and most pigs are run in conjunction with factory-supply dairy farms. The decrease in the number of pigs may be attributed to the changeover from factory to town-milk supply

and also to some extent to the prohibition for several years of the sale of cream for consumption. Farm Management Systems Systems of farm management are related to soil types (for numbers of types reference should be made to the map on page 354) as follows: Extensive Farming (Soil Types 10, 11, and 12) . The soils on which extensive farming is practised are droughty and leached of plant foods. In an unimproved state the cover is mainly hairgrass, browntop, sweet vernal, and weeds, but the use of subterranean clover, superphosphate, and heavy dressings of lime (up to 3 tons per acre) can effect great improvement to pastures. Because of the nature of the soils and the lack of irrigation, the moisture content is low, while the. stony topsoil and the naturally low fertility combine to make the production of cash crops and fodder crops for fattening purposes uneconomic. The main products are wool and some store stock. The land, which carries about 1 sheep to 3 acres, is used chiefly for wintering old ewes and wethers, principally half-breds. Foot-rot is uncommon and the risk of infection is lessened by the breeding of replacements.

In general the value of the land ranges from 15s. to 30s. per acre and 2000 to 3000 acres are an economic farming unit. Much of this land, which is situated around the Eyrewell plantation, is run in conjunction with the more fertile Waimakariri and Paparua soils along the south bank of the Eyre River. Arable Mixed Farming Semi-extensive cropping (soil types 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 13): This area is typical of the land about the Eyre River and around Fernside, as shown on the map of farming systems on page 365. The soils are sandy loams and silt loams, mostly with stony topsoils. The area is capable of supporting fairly good pasture provided sufficient moisture is available, although the porous nature of the soil results in rapid drying out during summer. Typical pastures on this land are of a short-rotation type, being ploughed up after 4 or 5 years, by which time reversion to sweet vernal, hairgrass, and twitch has occurred. The use of subterranean clover has enabled the building up of fertility until much of the land is now capable of supporting white clover. The principal feed crops are rape and turnips. Cereals can be grown as fodder crops to fit into a rotation, but when harvested they give only light yields. The main products are wool, store stock, some fat stock (principally fat lambs), a small amount of cereals (mainly wheat), and some small seeds (principally clovers). There is a fair response to lime and fertilisers, but the limiting factor is the lack of moisture, and a system of irrigation would transform this light land into highproducing country comparable with the best in Canterbury. Lucerne will grow on the deepest parts, giving an average yield of 2J tons per acre from

two cuts per year. Peas are not usually grown, except perhaps as a preparatory crop for grass.

In general the price for the land is £4 to £5 per acre. It is capable of carrying 2 sheep to 3 acres if well farmed, ewe flocks being principally Corriedales and half-breds. Semi-intensive cropping (soil types 4, 5, 6, 13) : This is typical mixed arable farming land, characteristic of the Canterbury Plains, producing principally fat lambs, grain, and small seeds. : The pastures are of a relatively short duration, seldom lasting more than 5 years. Cocksfoot grows well and is more resistant to porina (Oxycanus) and grass-grub. The use of Certified seeds has lengthened the life of pastures to some extent, but it is still the practice to plough up pastures after 4 or 5 years because of the dying out of the sown grasses and the depredations of the grass-grub. Under conditions of normal ; rainfall (25 to 27in. per annum), however, this land is high producing. In the two counties a considerable area of the average cropping land is affected by the undercurrent, which makes cropping rather hazardous, although a number of farmers claim that the undercurrent is beneficial to the land, especially in dry seasons. Rape and turnips form the main fodder crops, with a tendency for chou moellier to replace the turnips to some extent. Breeding ewes are mainly Corriedales. Though it is most common for farmers to buy their replacements rather than breed them, there are some stud flocks 'of the English Leicesters, Southdowns, and Romneys.

This land is capable of producing good crops of wheat with an average yield of 35 bushels per acre. Oats and barley are popular, both as fodder and cash crops, yielding on the average 45 bushels per acre. Small seeds, especially in recent years, have played a very important part in the cash-crop programme. Red and white clover are the most important in this respect, although the growing and harvesting of short-rotation ryegrass for seed is gaining popularity. Lucerne grown for hay is becoming more popular, as it grows well on this type of land, especially on the deeper soil types of the Waimakariri, Templeton, Paparua, and Eyre series.

This type of land, which is capable of carrying slightly over 1 ewe per acre, may be valued at up to £2O per acre. An economic farming unit is about 250 to 400 acres.

Intensive cropping (soil types 6,7, 8, 9, 14): This area contains good, heavy moisture-retaining soils of high fertility, capable of withstanding drought.

Pastures are of the short-rotation type essentially associated with arable farming. They can be used for either hay, grazing, or small seeds. Because of high prices for fat lambs in recent years, the tendency has been to leave pastures down for longer than the usual 4 to 5 years, as the soils are able to support the longer rotation, and to limit -crop production in favour of pastoral farming.

However, wheat still plays an important part in the farming programme on this type of land. In a good season yields up to 70 bushels per acre can

be expected, the average being about 50 to 60 bushels per acre. Linseed also produces well and has been grown much more extensively since 1944, in which year 66 acres were grown against 900 acres in 1946. Oats and barley give yields up to 80 bushels per acre. This land is heavy enough to grow cereals, principally wheat, on the first furrow. It is deep ploughed in April, harrowed several times, and seed is sown in May. Peas and potatoes also play an important part in the cash-cropping programme. Forage crops, (mainly : rape, turnips, and chou moellier) are grown as supplementary feed crops. Lucerne as a hay crop is cut three or four times a season, yielding 1 to lg tons of hay per cut. Small seeds are usually harvested only when good pasture growth ensures sufficient stock feed, although on some farms grass and clover seed production is made . an important source of income. On this heavy, intensive cropping land most lambs are fattened off the mothers, and main drafts go to the freezing works in January. Some of the lambs are ready for the Christmas trade. In general the price for land is £3O to £4O per acre and the economic farming unit is 200 to 300 acres. Dairying (soil types 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19): These are meadow soils of the Tai Tapu and Temuka series, heavy, very fertile, and inclined to be too wet, but they respond well to draining where it is possible. The main areas are found on pockets of land at Tuahiwi, Flaxton, Camside, and Waikuku. The heavy nature of the soils, together with their moisture-retaining qualities, enables the growth of longer-lasting

and better pastures. It must be noted that although this land makes excellent wheat country, it is more profitable when utilised for dairying, especially with the expansion of the city milk supply. Most of the areas with soils of the Tai Tapu and Temuka series are subject to up to 15 degrees of frost during the winter, and supplementary fodder crops, chiefly hay . and . lucerne with some chou moellier and turnips, are generally provided. Mangolds have lost popularity, although they are still grown to some extent. Some cash crops are grown on this land, which is capable of yielding as high as 100 bushels of wheat per acre in favourable seasons. Potatoes are perhaps the most important of the cash crops, yields averaging 8 tons per acre in districts such as Camside, Clarkville, and Rangiora. Small seeds, especially clovers, are harvested when . the pasture growth exceeds the stock-feeding requirements. In reality, many of these dairy farms are actually mixed arable farms, dairy cows merely replacing sheep in the livestock programme. Drainage on much of this land presents a problem. A considerable amount of mole, tile,. and open drainage is required and it is important in farming this type of land to keep drains free from weeds. Valuations are high, rising to £7O or £BO per acre, but 75 to 100 acres of this land is sufficient for an economic single-unit farm. Downs country (soil types 21, 21a, 21b, 22, 23): Mairaki and Taiko soils .present farming problems peculiar to the Downs country. Much of the downs was excellent wheat-growing country, but due to a

period of overcropping and bad farm management, much of the fertility has been lost. During the 1920’s a rotation on this land included three or four successive crops of wheat before the land was sown down in pasture. Consequently, the soil could grow only poor pastures full of twitch and weeds. Most of the area is now undergoing a rebuilding process by means of fodder crop rotations, fertilising, and liming. A typical rotation would be: Grass is broken up and sown with either linseed or rape, or fallowed, being then autumn sown in wheat, which is harvested in February. A cereal crop for greenfeed is sown the same autumn and either ploughed in or fed off according to the feed position. This is followed by a summer fallow to remove any remaining twitch, and the land is limed at the rate of 1 to 2 tons to the acre before being sown down in grass in the autumn. Small seeds are now important on this downland, principally red and white clover, Certified perennial ryegrass, and short-rotation ryegrass. Once fertility has been built up the land is capable of producing payable crops of wheat, linseed, and peas. However, fat lamb and small seeds production provides the greater proportion of the farming income at present.

Proper drainage is a first essential, but it presents a difficult problem, as there is no adequate main drainage system into which to lead individual farm drains and prevent flooding of lands lower down. With suitable tile and mole drainage this land would be capable of running cattle throughout the year. The value of the land varies from £l2 to £l5 per acre, depending on soil fertility. Successful farming in the area usually requires heavy capitalisation in the initial stages, when soil fertility is being rebuilt, but there are instances where farmers without using a large amount of capital have by judicious farm management and foresight attained equally high productivity. Hilly or complex downs (soil type 23): This small area, the steep portions of the Mairaki Downs, is not comparable with any other section in the two counties. The land is. steep, broken, and unploughable, and if it were farmed to any great extent erosion problems would be met. Small pockets are used for wintering cattle and sheep, but most of the country is still covered with original manuka scrub, though gorse is making inroads. From an economic viewpoint the planting of trees might be considered the best means of utilisation.

Coastal farming (soil types 1, la, 14, and 20) : This narrow strip of land, about a mile inland from the coast, comprises ridges of coastal sand dunes bounding pockets of quite fertile but often saline soils (for example, Motukarara soils). The sand dunes have been consolidated by the extensive growth of marram grass, and. strawberry clover provides the main constituent of. the pasture on the heavier, more saline pockets of land. Where the salt has been leached out of the soil good stands of white clover and perennial ryegrass have been established, while browntop grows quite readily on the poorer soils. Strawberry clover is volunteer and farmers have no knowledge of its introduction. It was first harvested for seed in 1916 and now provides quite a remunerative secondary source of income. Dairy farming is the main activity, with some cattle and sheep fattening. Utilisation of the heavier pockets and sand dunes is complementary, the latter being used mainly as a winter run-off, thereby spelling the heavier, wetter portions and allowing stock to benefit from the drier conditions. It is difficult to estimate the carrying capacity due to the variation of soil types, but a typical example of a farm in the area is one of approximately 600 acres (370 acres of heavy land with 230 acres of sand dunes), carrying 800 ewes and 70 head of cattle. Owing to the very quick growth in the summer it is possible to buy in and fatten sheep and cattle. The improved drainage methods utilising tidal flood gates and a more intensive open drainage system have done much to improve the carrying capacity, but because the land is low lying, drainage will always be a major problem. Drainage Problem Rangiora and Eyre Counties are typical of the more intensively farmed portions of the Canterbury Plains in that a considerable area of them is devoted to highly productive mixed arable farming; but one of its peculiar problems is that drainage is most important and close attention will have to be given to it before production can be raised to a marked degree. Acknowledgments The assistance given by officers of the Soil Bureau, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Christchurch, and by farmers in the district is acknowledged.

RETURNS OF SHEEP OWNED DUE THIS MONTH UNDER Section 52 of the Stock Act, 1908, all owners of sheep are required, before May 14 in every year, to render a return showing details of the number of sheep kept as at April 30. Forms for this year’s returns will be sent out by Inspectors of Stock on April 27. Any sheep owner who does not receive a form should notify his nearest Inspector of Stock, Department, of Agriculture, who will see that a form is made available. The returns are used subsequently to compile a Dominion list of sheep owners. This list is also used as an electoral roll for the election of the electoral committee of the New Zealand Meat Board and the Wool Board.

* Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Production.