FARMING IN NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 79, Issue 4, 15 October 1949, Page 337

FARMING IN NEW ZEALAND

By

J. D. STEWART.

Rural Field Cadet, Department of Agriculture,

Christchurch.

MALVERN COUNTY is part of the great alluvial plain of Canterbury, formed by large, snow- rivers discharging vast quantities of greywacke shingle in front of the gorges which they have cut into the eastern slopes of the Southern Alps. The upper deposits consist of large bouldery material, followed by finer and finer debris as the plain slopes gently to the sea. The land is generally flat, the soils shingly, and the annual rainfall about 25in. Because of these conditions, farming systems have been based on short-rotation pastures and the growing of fodder crops for the production of fat lambs, together with the raising of cereal and other cash crops on the more fertile areas. The landscape is one of large fields, patterned by pasture, annual crop, and fallow and divided by mile upon mile of gorse hedges and long, straight roads. Away from the main rivers there is no surface water, and drinking water for livestock is supplied from the rivers by means of water races. Dry soils and summer droughts limit the intensity of farming and the mean carrying capacity of the grassland is slightly above 1 ewe per acre.

THE county, of which 147,000 acres 1 are occupied, is bounded in the north by the Waimakariri River, in the south by the main road between the SJth-weS the Selwwn River the south-weS bv theSelwwn River in the west by the Malvern Hills, and in the east by the Burnham-Sandy Knolls-Halkett road. The foothills region comprises about a tenth of the total area; Sheffield near the base of the hills is 1000 ft. above sea level and the highest points further inland in the county have an altitude of from 2000 to 2500 ft. The Malvern Hills are of some economic importance apart from their agriculture, as they produce lignite coal and a fairly high grade clay. The plains area of the county is in the 20-30 in. rainfall belt, but further , into the foothills rainfall averages 40in. . . . . .

The average rainfall over a 20-year period for stations in or near Malvern County is as follows: — ■ ’ ■ ■ . , Darfield 29.42 Darfield 29.42 Coalgate 33.42 Hororata 29.79 Burnham .. •• 28.00 . . • „. , , This precipitation is fairly evenly distributed, but its effectiveness varies greatly, as in December and January strong north-west winds and dry conditions frequently cause excessive evaporation. This factor makes the county ideal for the growing of cash crops, because the dry conditions help to ripen cereal and pulse crops and are favourable lor narvesung. The yearly variations from average rainfall figures are quite marked and these fluctuations are of great im-

portance to the farming of the county. For instance, while the average for Darfield is 29.42 in., the precipitation was 35.16 in. in 1944, 43.04 in. in 1945, 36.83 in. in 1946, and 31.94 in. in ! 1947. Dry’ seasons may suit farmers on the colder, wetter foothills, but those on the shallow, stony, or sandy plains land are adversely affected by the cumulative effect of drought, grassgrub, and porina grub. On the other hand, wet seasons are detrimental to the health of stock on the cold downs, but are welcomed by the farmers on the stony soils of the plains. Rainfall is variable during the most critical —November to March. It is -during this period that the crops ripen and are harvested and the land »is prepared for the sowing of winter forage crops and autumn-sown pastures and cereals. Fluctuations in rainfall during these months obviously affect the whole farming programme and rapid changes in the cropping programme and stock management may be necessary. Very wet seasons often make fattening of lambs difficult, as rape crops tend to be fleshy and lambs unthrifty. Reserves of feed, good hay or oaten chaff, may have to be used for fattening lambs. An advantage of a dry summer is that it facilitates the killing of twitch, which is one of the big problems of the arable cropping area. A good kill may be obtained by summer fallowing and keeping the twitchy clods worked about and turned to the sun. The average annual temperatures in Malvern County are from 53 to 57 degrees F., with a mean monthly minimum of 44 degrees and a mean monthly . maximum of 61 degrees. As winter temperatures preclude pasture growth, some form of supplementary feeding is required for about 100 days. Generally the climate of Malvern County is conducive to the rearing of

good, healthy stock and to the growing pf cereals and pulse crops for threshing - C os ' About nine-tenths of Malvern County is greywacke, alluvial, and wind-blown deposits, which have given rise to soils of varying degrees of maturity; the remaining tenth consists of soils developed from the ancient wind-borne material, which forms a blanket covering the downs, or soils developed on steep greywacke and sandstone. Fifteen soil series comprising about 50 soil types have been mapped in the county, but for the small-scale map accompanying

this article it has been necessary to group many soil types, which leaves the 17 units shown. , The recent and recent-to-young soils are those found on alluvial and windblown deposits laid down m very recent (geologically) times. There has been little or no development of profile other than the addition to the top few inches by decomposing plants of a small amount of easily-exhausted humus matter. Because these soils are of a very recent origin, there has not been time for impoverishment by the leaching away of plant foods such as lime, potash, and phosphate. Topsoils are dark grey to brownish grey

and subsoils are slate grey to brownish grey. Group 1 soils are sandy loams greater than 18in. deep to the underlying stones. They are capable of growing payable crops of wheat, oats, barley, and peas and of retaining quite high-producing short-rotation pastures °.f perennial . ryegrass and white clover. 1* maintained in good heart, this land will yield up to 50 bushels of wheat and 30 to 35 bushels of peas P er acre. Group 2 soils consist of sandy loams 12 to 18in. deep and support a type of farming similar to that carried on on group 1 soils. A limiting factor

with both these groups of soils is that, each being a readily-drained layer of sandy loam overlying gravel, they dry out quickly in a dry season, group 2 naturally drying out more quickly than group 1. Group 3 soils are shallow, stony loams and sands in which the total depth to stones is less than 9in. This group is affected severely by dry conditions, and cropping is not a feature on this land, which is used mainly for grazing. Group 4 consists of deep, fertile, moisture-retentive silt loams underlaid by gravels at more than 18in. from the surface. Group 5 soils are similar except that the total depth of soil is only 9 to 18in. and consequently they dry out more readily than group 4. The land in the two groups is very adaptable, being well suited to the production of wheat, oats, barley, peas, potatoes, and linseed and the growing of forage crops and lucerne. Highproducing short-rotation pastures are maintained. There are few cultivation problems, but care must be taken when preparing land for an autumnsown cereal to ensure that it is not worked down too fine, because in that condition it will run together during the winter and will bake and crack when exposed to hot sunshine. On this land it is essential to sow on a relatively rough seed-bed, allowing the weather and frosts to break down the land, and to roll or harrow the crop in the spring if necessary. The young-to-immature alluvial soils are a little older geologically than those already mentioned and, since the soil-forming factors have been in operation for a longer period, there has been some loss of plant nutrients by leaching. Concurrent with this process there has been a steady sprinkling of unleached, windborne dusts from the riverbeds, which has tended to keep the fertility at a high level. Topsoils are grey-brown and subsoils yellow-brown. Group 6 is silt loam of average fertility greater than 18in. deep. Group 6a is similar except that the topsoil is up to 18in. deep, while with group 7 stones are found at 9 to 18in. from the surface and the soils in this group are therefore correspondingly drier and less productive. All the land in group 7 is medium cropping land which will yield up to 40 bushels of wheat and, if it is well managed, will hold a good pasture for 5 to 6 years. Group 8 soils are shallow, stony loams 6 to 9in. in total depth and very droughty. The ability of this land to grow cereal crops economically is limited unless fertility can be built up sufficiently by good management. Frequently, hot, dry, north-west winds burn off the pasture in summer, and attacks on pastures by grass-grub and porina grub are common. Group 9 soils, immature alluvial soils, are the oldest geologically on the plains, having been exposed to the leaching action of downward percolating rain-water for the longest time. They have the lowest plant; food content. Topsoils are brownish grey to light-greyish brown and subsoils are brownish yellow to greyish yellow. The lime requirements of this group are greater than any other in the county. Group 10 is similar to group 9 except that fertility is lower, because soils in the group are shallower and more stony and tend to dry out badly

in summer and autumn. Groups 9 and 10 comprise approximately one third of the area of the county. Like the soils of group 8, they will not grow cereal crops economically unless fertility is built up. Summers usually are dry and pastures are frequently dried off by hot, north-west winds, The area covered by groups 8, 9, and 10 is used for sheep grazing, the predominant pasture sward comprising browntop, sweet vernal, and hairgrass. Where fertility is being built up and subterranean clover is sown with the pasture mixtures productivity is being raised. Meadow soils (group 11) occur in the Waireka Valley. They are fertile silt loams 3ft. or more deep with the water-table near the surface, which presents drainage problems and both open and mole drains may be used with advantage. The valley will grow good crops of grain, but conditions are wet enough to make cereal crops a risky venture and the land is bettersuited to the growing of permanent pasture for dairy cows. Spring sowing is usual when cash cropping is practised, barley fitting into the programme admirably. Down soils developed from loesslike beds are, for present purposes, divided on the basis of topography only. Group 12 consists of easy rolling silt loams of medium fertility and heavy, mottled subsoils, wet in winter

and somewhat droughty in summer, Group 13 soils are similar except that they are on rolling country. Group 14 soils are hilly and contain areas of chocolate-coloured volcanic ash soil, The down land, where it can be cultivated efficiently, will grow reasonable wheat crops and crops of oats and linseed and it will hold fair pastures of English grasses. The unploughable areas in the main carry poor swards of crested dogstail, danthonia, and browntop. The soils on the steeper hill country have been divided into two groups on the basis of their parent substance. Group 15 is made up of low-fertility sandy loams developed on sandstone and group 16 of low-fertility skeletal soils of greywacke origin with unweathered fragments of rock throughthe profile. The hill country is devoted to extensive, sheep farming, Th® , cover , comprises danthonia, browntop, and tussock and there are considerable areas of gorse and scrub, i j 1 u;|:, Land Utilisation The relationship of crops to pasture in the production of meat and wool is shown in Table 1, which indicates that the grassland of the county has a mean carrying capacity of 1 1/6 ewes per acre and that 14 acres of fodder crops are required for each 100 ewes, Cash crops occupy about the same area as forage crops.

MALVERN COUNTY : ••• ON THE : ; CANTERBURY PLAINS

Crop Production About five-sixths of the county is devoted to mixed arable farming the object of which is to establish and maintain a balance between the area in crops, the area in grass, and the stock carried. To attain this balance cropping rotations are developed. These vary greatly according to the type of land, but the aim always is: 1, to achieve maximum net returns; 2, diversify production and minimise risk; 3, maintain or build up soil fertility; 4, provide supplementary forage crops for stock; and 5, control weeds. On the better-class land, which is capable of growing a wide variety of crops, a multiplicity of rotations and cultivation practices is possible. On the lighter country (groups 8,9, and 10), where there is always a risk of wind erosion and where the soil is readily depleted if not handled well, rotations are generally simple and short. Cash Crops Wheat: The acreage in wheat has fluctuated violently over the past 20 years. Generally, however, it has been sown in two-thirds of the area devoted to cash crops and accounts for about a third of the total area cropped. Wheat may be fitted into a rotation at almost any stage, but because its fertility requirements are high, in Malvern County it usually follows pasture or a fed-off forage crop (for example, rape) out of pasture. In 1921-22 the area of wheat grown in Malvern County reached the relatively high figure of 16,400 > acres, which was a result of the depression, farmers finding that grain, which was not so dependent on overseas markets, commanded a readier sale than meat. In 1941-42 the same figure was again reached through farmers responding to war requirements. When overseas markets for frozen meat have been good wheat acreages have fallen. In 1924-25 only 9300 acres were grown and in 1946-47 only 9200 acres. Unfortunately in the past it has been most difficult to forecast the market situation and adjustments in farm practices have tended to lag behind economic trends. Originally 75 per cent, of the area in wheat was of the Solid Straw Tuscan variety, but since the introduction of Cross 7 the latter variety has rapidly replaced the former. Oats: The area in oats for threshing declined from nearly 6000 acres in 1920-21 to 2000 in 1946-47. The decline has been fairly steady and marked fluctuations usually coincide with fluctuations in total cash crops. The change from horses to tractors accounts for most of the reduction, while the increased use of alternative crops (peas and, on the deeper sandy

and deeper silt loams, barley) is also a factor. . Oats yield a more payable crop on lighter land than,wheat and even on the lightest land of the county, that about Burnham (soil groups 9 and 10), occasional crops are grown, yielding on an average 35 to 45 bushels per acre. On this land oats are usually autumn sown after grass and the land is immediately grassed down under a cover crop after the cereal crop has been taken. On the deeper sandy and silt loams of the county oats will yield up to 60 bushels and good crops on the best land over 70 bushels. The crop may be either autumn sown or spring sown. When autumn sown oats may follow grass ploughed early, rape, or, if the land is m good heart, wheat, When spring sown oats may follow turnips or wheat stubble or may be grown on land ploughed out of grass m winter. Seed-bed preparation is similar to that for wheat. When oats ar ? L.?- u l umn s .?Y n j i o^J ec '* : 1S to establish a seed : bed fairly fine underneath and relatively rough on top. Uneven - ripening and the possibility of shaking make it tinwise to attempt to direct head oats, especially as most of this county is subject to strong northwest winds. The crop may be picked up from windrows, but it is more usual to stack it and thresh from the stack. An advantage of threshing is that the oat straw is saved and this provides a useful reserve of feed against a severe winter.

As tractors have steadily replaced horses for draught on the arable farms the area devoted to growing oats for chaff declined correspondingly from 9891 acres in 1920-21 to 2077 acres in 1946-47. In the same period tractors increased from 5 to 264. This latter figure represents almost 2 tractors for every 3 holdings. The most rapid decrease in the area of oats grown for chaff was in the years 1940-48, when increased mechanisation was a feature of farming in Canterbury. However, chaff still has its uses and it is an excellent supplement to turnips as winter feed and rape as lamb-fattening feed. There is also a ready demand for chaff from racing stables near Christchurch. Peas: The acreage devoted to the growing of peas was relatively small until the beginning of the war, when good prices attracted more growers. The area in peas increased from 1173 acres in 1939-40 to 2441 acres in 1946-47. The land suitable for growing peas in the county is limited, a fairly deep, free-working loam being required. In this respect soil groups 4, 5, 6, and 6a are ideal. Peas usually follow grass in the rotation. The land is ploughed, deep worked through the winter, and top worked before sowing, usually in October, but sometimes late in September. Field peas mainly are grown, the Partridge variety being the most popular. An average crop will yield 30 to 35 bushels per acre. After peas the land is in good heart and does not require much cultivation before being planted with an autumnsown cereal.

Barley: The area in barley showed a steady increase from 222 acres in 1934-35 to 1167 acres in 1940-41, declined to 400 acres in 1943-44, but then rose sharply again, to reach 1708 acres in 1946-47. The decline from 1940-41 to 1943-44 corresponded with a general decrease in cash crops and the sharp rise in 1945-46 was probably the result of a wet season precluding the sowing of autumn wheat in some areas, the land being sown in barley in the spring. Barley may serve a useful function in Malvern County, where autumn sowing of wheat is necessary, but is sometimes difficult. The fertility, cultivation, and seed-bed requirements of barley are similar to those for peas. Potatoes: The area in this crop has never exceeded the 900 acres grown in 1943-44, when war conditions induced a keen demand. The number of

growers is fairly constant and usually small fluctuations in the potato acreage merely reflect changes in the acreage on individual farms. Potatoes are expensive to grow and harvest and to reduce costs per ton growers take steps to secure the best yields possible. Highest yields are obtained when the crop follows a good, vigorous pasture or a ploughedin green-manure crop. Early ploughing and the working up of a deep, loose seed-bed are the aim. Potatoes more than any other crop respond to cultivation after planting. When the crop has been taken out, usually in May, a minimum amount of working is necessary to prepare the ground for a cereal. The fertility requirements of potatoes are high and in Malvern County the most suitable areas for them are the soils of groups 1. 2, and 4 to 7.

The Halkett, Courtenay, Kimberley, Sheffield, and Annat districts are noted for the production of very fine potato seed. The altitude, the prevalence of dry, north-west winds, and the absence of serious aphis infestation ensure clean, disease-free seed. Linseed and linen flax: Up to 236 acres of linen flax were grown in Malvern County during the war, when a factory operated at Oxford a few miles outside the county. The area in linseed for threshing showed an increase from 27 acres in 1944-45 to 590 in 1946-47. Crops are grown on contract to a firm processing the seed for oil. Lupins: Lupins are becoming increasingly important in the county not only as a fodder crop but as green manure and a seed crop. On the shallow and stony' soils of groups 8, 9, and 10 lupins are very often sown with turnips for winter feed or with rape for lamb fattening. Depending on the season, portion of the lupin crop may be saved for seed, either as a cash crop or merely to provide seed for the following season. Forage Crops The total area in forage crops has not fluctuated to the same extent as that in cash crops, being usually from 18,000 to 20,000 acres. Generally the variation has followed the same lines as total sheep numbers, except during depressions, when forage crops have reached a peak and sheep numbers have decreased correspondingly. This has been due to the fact that the market for store stock has collapsed, which makes it essential for farmers to fatten their stock.

The fact that up to 8000 acres of rape are grown each year, representing between a third and a half of the total area devoted to forage crops, shows the reliance placed on rape as a -fattening crop.

Most of the soils of the county are very suitable for the growing of rape and on the better classes of land up to 15 lambs per acre can be fattened on it m an average season. However, it is not altogether reliable, as on the heavier land in wet seasons it tends to become watery and fleshy, causing lambs to scour, while on the plains hot north-west conditions often cause crop failures. Hard turnips each year occupy an acreage similar to rape. Usually they are sown about Christmas and New Year for winter feeding of sheep, Supplemented with hay or chaff, turnips supply a reliable fodder for carrying ewes through the long winter. On the soil groups 1 to 7. in an average season 1 acre of turnips would carry 400 ewes for 1 week if the ewes were, turned on to the turnips for 4 to 6 hours per day and given a run off. V On the stony and shallower soils . rape and turnips may be sown together, the object being to reduce the risk of crop failure. Usually 200 to 300 acres are sown each year. During the last 7 years swedes have become fairly popular along the colder foothills country, up to 500 acres being sown. Swedes are more reliable and heavier yielding than turnips on this colder, clay country, Turnips and swedes are usually sown on land ploughed out of grass in the winter or they may be sown after a previous crop of turnips or a spring cleaning fallow after a cereal. There has been a marked increase in the quantity of chou moelber and kale grown: From less than 100 acres in 1939-40 to 1360 acres in 1946-47. On the light country of soil groups 8, 9, and 10 kale has become increasingly

popular as a lamb-fattening crop, being more resistant to dry summers. Since 1940-41 the practice of sowing chou moellier with turnips and swedes has also developed. This minimises the chance of crop failure and provides a more-balanced and bulkier diet. The kale is often sown with new grass, to which in the initial stages it affords protection from hot winds. Because pasture growth is relatively late in Malvern County, greenfeed crops, of which about 3000 acres are grown annually, are of great importance, especially in starting off milking ewes. Ewes are frequently lambed on the greenfeed ' or, alternatively, are drafted on to it as they lamb. Throughout September and up to the time when grass is coming away ewes and lambs are carried mainly on greenfeed crops. Oats, which are sown in the early autumn on a fairly rough 1 seed-bed, have been the most common greenfeed crop, but they are beginning to be replaced by Italian ryegrass. Considerable use is also made of short-rotation ryegrass. Hay: Though the area saved for meadow hay has seldom exceeded 1000 . acres, lucerne hay is gaining steadily in popularity and appears to have excellent possibilities on soil groups 1 to 6a. In fact it can be grown with advantage on all classes of soils in the county, including the very light land in groups 8 to 10. The area cut for lucerne hay increased steadily, from 27 acres in 1927-28 to 366 acres in 1945-46, and was 691 acres in 1946-47. Most of the crops yield 3 cuts of about 1 ton per acre each year. Most of the crop is baled and stored for winter use. Lucerne is usually sown in early summer on a well-limed, well-pre-pared seed-bed.

Pasture Production „ , .. .... . . . Soil and . climatic factors make for short growing seasons ana short-lived pastures in Malvern County and grassland is not highly productive. White plover has a short growing season and F s . summer and winter production is hgm and perennial ryegrass ceases to produce fairly early in the dry seasons. Pa ?tures, if not managed carefully, > tO browntop ’ Xanthoma, s ’ Comparison of the figures for the area in sown grasses over several years with the number of breeding ewes for the same years shows that there has been quite a substantial increase in the carrying capacity of the sown areas. In this respect increased use of lime has had an important influence. Though the area in sown grasses showed little change from 1925 to 1930, the number of breeding ewes increased by 40 per cent, from 83,700 to 117,225. This improvement can be attributed partly to increased topdressmg with lime, as m the period mentioned the in & the JouSty Sealed frS 210itSS to 1050 ton? goring theslump whTn farmers were ex D mg 1 • siu F p when diffiSiltv were miJ ot increase m ® CU1 ‘ y ' ““ ng „ f s aia , ° n „ Between 1940 and 1947 breeding ewe figures rose from 120,600 to 124,000 and the amount of lime railed into the area was bled, the quantity for the J2 months ended March 31, 1947, being 12,400 tons. The use of Certified seeds has played a major part in pasture improvement in the county, the majority of farmers being aware of the advantages of using firstclass seed.

Perennial ryegrass forms the basis of the seed mixtures on all types of land, but other constituents vary somewhat. On the soils of groups 8 to 10 subterranean clover is serving a most useful purpose and over the past 12 to 15 years it has been one of the major factors in improving the productivity of these shallow and stony soils. A typical mixture containing subterranean clover is: 20 to 301 b. of perennial ryegrass, 21b. of red clover, 21b. of white clover, and 2 to 31b. of subterranean clover. Such a mixture usually is sown under a cover crop of rape, kale, or turnips, and after this crop has been fed off the pasture is nursed in the first year to ensure a good seeding of subterranean clover. Though in a dry season subterranean clover does not persist as long as red clover and may cease production 3 to 4 weeks before cowgrass, its total production and its ability to reseed annually make it . a most valuable plant to the light-land farmer. Where a good subterranean clover pasture has been maintained for a considerable period fertility may be built up to such an extent that volunteer white clover will appear. The ability of cocksfoot to withstand grass-grub attacks and to produce fairly late into the summer accounts for its increasing popularity on the shallow and stony soils. A typical mixture including cocksfoot is as follows: 151 b. of perennial ryegrass, 81b. of cocksfoot, 21b. of red clover, 21b of white clover, and 21b. of subterranean clover. A mixture of cocksfoot and lucerne may have value on these shallow and stony soils. Sown at the rate of 101 b. of lucerne and 51b. of cocksfoot per acre, this combination will, if handled well, give a sward that produces a crop of hay and light grazing when ryegrass has ceased producing.

On he land of so groups Ito 7 see d mixtures are fairly standardised, the following being typical: 201 b. of perennial ryegrass, 31b. of white clover, and 21b. of red clower. This ® ™|Jtlv vane 01 on a summer cr°p, .f re r greenfeed which the most S satisfactory’ results, Usually 1 ton of lime per acre is sown on the fallow land and lcwt. of superphosphate per acre with the seed. To secure a good stooling out of the plants the aim is to graze early and in this respect heavy stocking tor snort periods gives the best results. Where a ryegrass-white clover mixture has been sown a crop of ryegrass seed ray be saved in the first year, the lyegrass being encouraged by lenient grazing m late winter and spring. 11 in me second or third year white clover is saved, the pasture is heavily grazed m the spring and shut up later when the clover is coming away. When regrassing is done on the foothill country (soil groups 12 to 14) the mixture usually includes crested dogstail, which is reliable and produces fairly palatable sheep feed. Montgomery red clover is also well suited to this country. ' j r . l c j Grass and Clover Seed Malvern County has always harves t e d a considerable area of small seeds; as far back as 1921-22 more than i OOO acres were harvested and the fi gur es increased during the slump years 1931-34. Certification of ryegrass, which was started in the 1929-30 season, lent impetus to the saving ,of seed. The area saved for seed increased again in 1940-41 to more than 3000 acres .because of the excellent prices ruling, and in 1946-47 nearly 4600 acres were devoted to the production of grass and clover seed.

Cattle A + from the small pocket of soils in the Waireka Valley, the county is quite unsuited to dairying and cattle grazing . in 1946-47 daip y cows in mllk numbered 1062, which is an average of less than 3 cows per holding sen as g milking a few extra warmers we e m small amQunts of cream to factories to supplement the f arm revenue. gome small herds of beef cattle are run in the f oo thills country, though their numbers are limited mainly because little replacement stock is available aDle - Sheep The over _ all carrying capacity of the county on a 12-month basis is about j sheep per acre. On the more intensively cropped areas sheep are i ess importance to the farming economy than cash crops, but on the g ht land (soil groups Bto 10) and on the hills (groups 12 to 16) greater emphasis is placed on sheep husbandry. Breeding ewes have shown a s t ea dy increase throughout the period 1920-45, except for the slump period 1930-35, when increased areas were devoted to cash cropping. The numbers rose again in 1936 and in 193 f reached their peak at 135,000, they then declined to 111,650 in 1941, but there has been a recovery in recent years, the total m 1946-47 being 124,070. The proportion of wethers to breeding ewes in the years 1920-26 was relatively high—about 15 per-cent-being a reflection of the fairly widespread use of half-bred and Leicester rams, as a result of which there was a greater carry-over of wether lambs, From 1926 onward Southdown rams rapidly replaced other breeds and, as

the Down cross lamb fattens sooner and besides is a poor carry-over lamb, the practice of carrying over wether lambs has almost ceased. As much of the county is suited only to half-bred and Corriedale flocks, these breeds of rams have not fluctuated greatly. It is probable though that they will be replaced to some extent in the foothill country by a stronger-woolled sheep, a three-quarter-bred or a Romney, for the latter breeds are more resistant to foot-rot and produce a payable fleece under the colder and wetter conditions of the foothills. Ewe flocks are almost entirely half-breds and Corriedales. Very little breeding of flock replacements is done on the plains, replacements being bought mainly at the autumn ewe fairs or at the Addington market. Two-tooth or full-mouthed ewes from hill- and high-country flocks are purchased. Two ewe fairs

are conducted within the county, at Sheffield and Coalgate, and farmers may also choose their stock at the Amberley, Culverden, Oxford, or Little River ewe fairs. Transport and Markets The county is well served by rail, no point in it being further than 10 miles from a station The main west coast line runs through the county, with a branch line from Darfield to Whitecliffs, and the southern districts are served by the main south line, which runs through Burnham and Norwood. The area has a network of good roads, over which several cartage firms operate. Motor transport is increasing in scope, especially with regard to the fat lamb trade. The Addington saleyards are generally regarded as the hub of the live-

stock industry of Canterbury. Marketfluctuations there can influence farm management in Malvern County considerably and the store lamb position from early March onward is followed closely by farmers who may have a surplus of fattening feed or more lambs than they can finish. In dry seasons the store market will be swamped and prices low; in good seasons demand will exceed supply and prices will be high. Water Lack of water has been one of the main factors limiting farming on the Canterbury Plains, though it has been offset to some extent in Malvern County by the construction of an admirable water-race system which serves 116,850 acres and many small households. The scheme is controlled by the Malvern County Council. The map on page 348 shows the layout of the races and the sources of the water. From the main races a network of subsidiary races reticulates almost every paddock, there being about 300 miles of races. The maintenance and clearing ‘of the races is undertaken by the county council, which levies a rate of £2 per 100 acres. As the agriculture of the county has expanded and further subdivision has taken place the supply of water has become less adequate. In fact a dry season now creates a shortage of water and rationing is necessary. A scheme for utilising the abundant water of the Waimakariri River has been envisaged, even to the extent of having a survey made, but the possibility of an irrigation scheme from the Rakaia River instead has resulted in no further action being taken at present. Gorse Hedges Gorse hedges are a feature of the Canterbury Plains landscape and Malvern County is no exception. These

hedges were the answer to a fencing problem, there being no timber available in the early days for post and wire construction. The gorse was planted either on a sod wall excavated from a ditch or merely on the. angle of a single furrow. For the hedges to remain stock-proof and vigorous it is essential for them to be trimmed regularly and in the past finding sufficient labour for this work was a major problem. However, mechanical cutters mounted on tractors are now widely used. Farm Management Farm management varies chiefly according to whether cereal crops for threshing are included in the crop rotations or not, and this is largely a reflection of soil conditions. To some extent other modifying factors play an important part: For example, slope, rainfall, and cultivation problems limit the scope of cropping in the foothills. Table 2 gives a comparison between all the farms in the county which harvested cereals for threshing in 1945-46 and those farms which did not. Within the area growing cereals for threshing there is little difference between the carrying capacity of the sown grass areas on farms of various sizes (Table 3).

In the study of farm management methods which follows an endeavour has been made to discuss average methods, though to some extent the material is based on the opinions of farmers who have had better-than-average results. Mixed Arable Farms Light grazing and • cropping land (soil groups 8 and 10): This is a fairly extensive area of land to the north of the Burnham-Norwood road and merging into the light wheat land (soil group 9) in the vicinity of Aylesbury and Charing Cross. The size of the holdings is necessarily large and it appears that 900 acres are required for a paying unit. The products of the area are fine wools, store sheep, and some fat sheep and lambs. In some parts unsuited for breeding ewes only wether flocks are maintained. A good farm in the area is one of 1600 acres in the Norwood district. It has been developed to its relatively high state of productivity by the use of subterranean clover, the application of lime, the provision of shelter, and the ability of the farmer to modify ■his farming programme considerably when the necessity arises. This last factor is most important on light land. Each year about 200 to 250 acres have been ploughed, though bad grassgrub attacks may mean that even more ploughing may be required. The rotations are simple and of short duration, and there is no set plan for each year, acreages in crop being adapted to meet the requirements of the season. Turnips are the basis of all supplementary feeding, even to the extent of being sown with rape and kale. As turnips are the most reliable crop, the risk of a total failure is minimised.

A typical rotation may be: Old grass, rape and turnips, sow down to pasture under kale; or, where a crop of oats may be taken, old grass, oats, sow down with chou moellier; or old grass, oats, greenfeed, sow down with rape and turnips. The common seed mixture sown under a cover crop is 301 b. of perennial ryegrass, 21b of red clover, 21b. of white clover, and 21b. of subterranean clover. Meadow hay has been harvested in the past, but the quality generally has not been good ana an attempt is being made to establish lucerne for this purpose. If harvesting conditions are satisfactory, grass seed will give payable yields in the second or third year. The farm carries slightly more than 1 ewe per acre. Replacements are bought in as 4- and 5-year olds and mated with Southdown rams bred on the property. Ewes are lambed on autumn-saved pasture or greenfeed in well-sheltered paddocks. The value of good shelter is reflected in the lambing percentage, 105 to 110. A high percentage of lambs goes away fat off the mothers before Christmas, the remainder being fattened on fodder crops. In a good season usually 1500 store lambs and 1000 wethers are bought in for fattening. It cannot be stressed too strongly that a set programme cannot always be followed, as there are many factors —drought, grass-grub, porina, high winds, and even snow —which may make a quick change in the year’s programme necessary. Light wheat land (soil group 9): As the land gradually develops a subsoil and the degree .of stoniness decreases

and. depth of topsoil increases it becomes possible to grow occasional payable crops of wheat. This light wheat land is bounded in the east by the Hawkins River sedimentary, deposits and in the north merges into medium land more or less on a line with the Kirwee-Darfield road. A smaller pocket exists to the south of Homebush, between the Selwyn and the Waireka Rivers. The products of this area are wool, fat stock, some store stock and wheat and oats, and small quantities of small seeds, but the productivity is limited by factors similar to those which affect returns on the shallower and stonier land: Dry seasons make cropping risky and grass-grub and porina attacks on pasture are very costly. Subterranean clover, lime, and shelter are still the important factors in increasing production. Though larger than average and probably managed with more than average efficiency, a farm which gives a good picture of the way light wheat land is handled is one of 2500 acres near Charing Cross. Of the 2500 acres 300 are in straw crops, 150 in turnips, 180 in kale, 40 in rape, 130 in greenfeed, and 1600 in grass. Each year 400 acres of old grass are ploughed up. The usual rotation is: Old grass, greenfeed, turnips, rape, sow down to pasture under kale; or, when wheat is included, old grass, rape, wheat, sow down. The grass seed mixture used with kale is 101 b. of perennial ryegrass, 5 to 61b. of red clover, and 21b. of subterranean clover. The farm carries 2200 ewes and replacements are bred on the property. All the ewes are mated to Corriedale rams and 500 ewe lambs are retained

and reared on the farm. The lambing percentage is usually 100, which is good, considering that there are 500 2-tooths each year. Fifteen per cent, of the lambs go away fat off the mothers and the remainder are fattened on supplementary feed. There are no carry-over lambs and no lambs are sold as stores. Cast ewes are fattened for the works.

Lucerne hay from a 30-acre stand supplements the winter turnips.

Medium wheat land (soil group 7): This type comprises land in the Annat-Waddington-Kimberley area mainly and merges into the light wheat land near Darfield and Kirwee. The products are cash crops (wheat, oats and some peas, barley, and potatoes), small seeds, fat lambs, fat sheep, and halfbred wool. Rotations are widely diversified, as the land is capable of growing a variety of crops.

A well-balanced farm in this group is one of 700 acres in the Kimberley district close to the banks of the Waimakariri River. Generally the cover would be: 350 acres of grass, 200 acres of straw crops, and 100 acres of green and root crops. A normal rotation would be: Old grass, wheat, rape or turnips, oats, rape or turnips, grass down. To maintain this rotation 100 acres of old grass have to be ploughed up each year, which means that pastures stay down about 7 years.

The following pasture mixture is customarily sown under rape or turnips: 201 b. of perennial ryegrass, 31b. of white clover, and 21b. of red clover. A crop of ryegrass seed may be taken in the first year and perhaps a crop of white clover seed or a cut of hay (which on the average would yield 1| tons per acre) in the second season. Usually 1 ton of lime per acre is sown on the ploughed land and lewt of superphosphate is drilled with the seed.

The farm carries 700 breeding ewes, which are mated with Southdown rams. Replacements are bought in, half-bred ewes being obtained each year from the same high-country station. Forty to 50 per cent, of the lambs go away fat (36 to 381 b.) off the mothers, the remainder being fattened on supplementary feed. Cast ewes are fattened and sent away in the autumn.

For winter feed turnips are supplemented with hay. Lucerne is a good proposition on this country.

Medium to heavy wheat land (soil groups 1,2, 4,5, 6, and 6a) : Under this heading are included the Greendale, Gorge Hill, and . Halkett-Courtenay districts. A typical farm in the Greendale district is one of 311 acres on the west bank of the Hawkins River which annually grows about 60 acres of cereal crops, 50 acres of greenfeed, 10 acres of turnips, and 15 to 20 acres of rape. It is considered that a grain crop could be taken every 3 years if the land were suitably treated between crops. The usual rotation is: Old grass, rape, greenfeed, turnips, wheat, sow down to pasture under wheat.

Competition from fat-hen restricts the growing of spring-sown crops such as peas and barley.

The sowing down of pastures under wheat has given quite satisfactory re-

suits, though the more general practice in the district is to sow on a summer fallow. Half a ton of lime per acre is sown before sowing the pasture mixture and lewt. of superphosphate is drilled with the seed. No small seeds are saved apart from those required for the farm.

Five hundred half-bred ewes are carried, replacements being bought in as hoggets or young ewes. These are mated with Southdown rams mainly, while the finer-woolled ewes are put to Border Leicester rams. In years when feed is plentiful the Border cross lambs do better than the Down cross lambs. More than a third of the lambs go away fat off the mothers and usually 500 to 600 lambs are bought in and fattened.

The important feature of this farm is the emphasis placed on greenfeed in the stock-feeding programme. Half the greenfeed area is sown in Dun oats, at the rate of 501 b. per acre, and half in Italian ryegrass, at 251 b. per acre. By drilling before the end of February some feed is obtained before winter and it may even be used for finishing the lambs remaining after the main drafts have been sold. It is grazed periodically through winter and the ewes are lambed on it. It is possible to feed the Dun oats until November and then obtain a payable crop of grain or. chaff. The turnips are supplemented with lucerne hay, three cuts per year being obtained from a good 10-acre stand.

Intensive Grazing Land (Soil Group 11)

There is very little commercial dairying in Malvern County, but on a small pocket of meadow soil in the Waireka Valley about 150 cows are milked for cream supply to a Christchurch dairy factory. Some farmers believe that dairying in the valley could be expanded greatly if some drainage problems were overcome and the present methods of farming in the bottom end of the valley were changed. The dairy farms in the Waireka Valley usually include some hill country on which sheep are run.

A typical farm is one of 578 acres, 50 acres of which are in the valley floor. The soils on the flat are peaty, overlying shingle, which occurs at a depth of about 3ft. The Waireka stream has cut down to the shingle, providing an excellent natural drainage. The flat is never wet in summer and only odd places hold water in winter.

Thirty Jersey-Shorthorn cross cows are favoured —are milked and replacements are bred on the farm. The season (about 8 months) is not a long one, the limiting factor being the relatively long, cold winter. Average production per cow is 2401 b. of fat, which is quite good, considering that apart from a small amount of autumn grazing on 25 acres of the hill the cows are restricted to grazing on the flat during the milking season.

About 10 acres of hay are made each year from Italian ryegrass and oats.

The farm carries 3 or 4 TamworthBerkshire cross sows, which are mated with a Large White boar for the production of weaners.

A flock of 330 half-bred breeding ewes is maintained by retaining 80 to 90 ewe lambs each year. Lambs are sold as stores on the property about the end of February.

The flats respond to heavy dressings of lime, and superphosphate, applied at the rate of 2cwt. per acre, gives a good response.

Semi-intensive Sheep Farming (Soil Groups 12 to 14)

The lower foothills extend from Russells Flat and behind Sheffield to Homebush, Coalgate, and Glentunnel. The products of this area are wool and fat stock and some store and breeding stock. Some grain is grown on the easier country. Generally the country runs over a ewe to the acre. If treated well, it will hold a fair sward of English grasses and there is marked response to liming and topdressing.

In this district there is a definite swing from half-breds and Corriedales to Romneys. For example, on one farm of 1500 acres of fairly easy foothill country which runs 2000 ewes the flock is almost entirely Romney, having been bred in this direction since 1932. In that year Romney rams obtained from Southland were mated with half-bred ewes; three-quarter-bred ewe lambs were retained for breeding, and the process of selection continued.

Southdown rams are mated with ewes culled from the main flock on the basis of fleece and carcass conformation.

Occasional crops of oats are taken. These are stacked and held as a reserve of feed for years when conditions are severe.

Extensive Sheep Farming (Soil Groups 15 and 16)

Beyond the foothills bordering the plain the country is poor and, though some of the northern faces hold good tussock, a considerable part of the area is covered with gorse, scrub, and broom. The holdings, which are of 1000 to 4000 acres, carry about half a ewe to the acre. Here, too, there has been a swing in favour of strongerwoolled sheep. The products of the area may include a few lightweight, second-grade freezing lambs, but the land is devoted mainly to the production of half-bred and three-quarter-bred wool, store stock, and some breeding stock.

Turnips and swedes are grown for winter feed and some hay may be bought in.

Future Development

Malvern County has many features or problems common to the Canterbury Plains. The better parts are well farmed and present a neat and prosperous appearance. Progress in the county may rest on the building up of the lighter areas and in this respect wider use of subterranean clover would appear to be the first requirement, while irrigation would increase the production of substantial areas. Acknowledgments The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance given by the Soil Bureau, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, in supplying details relating to soils.

* Statistical Report on the Agricultural and Pastoral Production of New Zealand. t As at April I. t As at January 31.

* There were 13,535 acres classified as being in native grasses and tussock In Malvern County in 1945-46. The greater part of this is included in the farms not growing cereals for threshing and thus the number of ewes per acre of grassland on these farms is approximately 0.76.

Land under occupation— Acres Sown grasses, clovers, and lucerne 93,479 Cash crops . .. 16,983 Fodder crops .. .. 17,489 Fallow land .. ,. .. 3,787 Plantations, orchards, gardens, etc. 4,410 Unimproved land .. 15,016 Native grasses arid tussock land 13,608 Total area' occupied 147,226 Livestock Total Breeding ewes 1 124,076 Total sheep .. .. .. .. 1196,176 Total cattle .. .. .. .. }2,446

TABLE 1—LAND AND LIVESTOCK, MALVERN COUNTY, 1946-47*

in cash crops in fodder crops Breeding Size of farm Number as percentage as percentage ewes per acre (acres) of holdings of sown grass of sown grass of sown grass 101-150 5 70 • 50 2.0 151-200 9 49 26 1.3 201-250 13 40 16 1.7 251-300 25 32 21 1.7 301-350 24 .23 20 1.6 351-400 13 19 23 1.2 401-450 15 21 22 1.4 451-500 10 25 23 1.3 501-550 18 34 22 1.6 551-600 4 21 ■ 19 1.3 601-700 5 23 22 1.5 701-800 14 25 21 1.4 801-900 11 24 25 1.4 901-1000 7 13 12 1.05 Over 1000 20 II 16 1.2

TABLE NUMBER OF BREEDING EWES PER ACRE OF SOWN GRASS FOR FARMS PRODUCING CEREALS FOR THRESHING Area Area

No. of farms Total area (acres) No. of ewes Ewes per acre of sown grasses Fodder crops per 100 ewes (acres) Sown grasses Fodder crops Cash crops Farms growing cereals for threshing 193 69,675 13,691 16,557 95,886 1 1/3 14 Farms not growing cereals for threshing 63 15,977 2,350 515 22,591 *1 2/5 10

TABLE 2—CARRYING CAPACITY OF MALVERN COUNTY FARMS, 1945-46