STUDIES-IN FARM MANAGEMENT

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 71, Issue 5, 15 November 1945, Page 477

STUDIES- IN FARM MANAGEMENT

A Pukekohe Small Holding

THE Pukekohe district has for many years been noted as one of the leading vegetable-producing areas in New Zealand, arid in particular for its early potatoes, which appear in most North Island markets in October and November. This article by W. V. Hadfield, Instructor in Agriculture, Wellington, tells of a change-over from dairy farming to commercial vegetable production, and describes in detail some of the more important vegetable crops.

r T" I HE Franklin County, which is THE Franklin County, which is J situated approximately 25 miles south of Auckland, comprises an area of 358,400 acres. It is bounded on the north by the Manukau Harbour, the boundary continuing in a straight line through to the Firth of Thames, which also bounds its eastern extremity. The Waikato River marks part of the southern boundary, which also extends from Mercer to the Firth of Thames. To the west the county is bounded by the Tasman Sea. T opography The extreme west of the county consists of a rolling sand-dune strip, inland of which is rugged country, interspersed with fertile strips. To the east of the county is the Hunua Range, which is covered with heavy

scrub and bush, and is only partially developed. On the lower slopes of the range, however, are fairly fertile valleys which are farmed quite extensively. Twenty thousand acres of swamp land lie to the south of the county, some of which only awaits stop-banking, drainage, and development before it becomes comparable with other drained areas of the Dominion. The central portion of the county, on and around the Pukekohe Hill, is made up of a red-brown loam, which is eminently suited to the growing of vegetables. This soil is volcanic in origin and varies in fertility, depending on the amount of leaching which has occurred. The Waikato River is one of the most interesting features of the South Auckland district, due to the part it

has played in the geological formation of many of the districts through which it has flowed. It is thought that, after a very early eruption of Taupo, now an extinct volcano, the river was turned into the Bay of Plenty. Later disturbances appear to have 'altered its course to the north, where it emptied into the Firth of Thames. In following this course it turned the Waikato Basin into a lake, which was eventually filled in. Much of the Firth of Thames gradually filled in, and formed a great morass, which has now been drained, and makes up the Hauraki Plains. As the result of further disturbances the Waikato sought the sea, by way of the Waiuku Channel and the Manukau Harbour, filling up the 20,000-acre depression of Aka Aka and Otaua and silting up half the great bed of the Manukau. The river finally changed its course, breaking through direct to the Tasman, not far from its present mouth.

Climate

The climate is a mild one, with no great extremes of temperature. The mean temperature range on the average is only 13.7°. The relative humidity figure of 79 per cent, is high for New Zealand, and this, together with warm conditions which normally prevail, presents conditions favourable for crop diseases. The annual rainfall figure varies around 50in. and is fairly evenly spread throughout the year. The summer months are dry, due partially to the lower precipitation and also to the fact that the ground dries out very readily, because of the poor moisture-retaining qualities of the'subsoil. Winds are only moderate, ~ and only light frosts are experienced.

Early Settlement The following accounts of the early settlement of Franklin and surrounding districts have been summarised from the late Henry E. R. L. Wily’s

book, “South Auckland: The Story Of Its Pioneers.” The first settler appears to have settled as a trader at Raglan as early as 1828. One or two Europeans settled at Port Waikato and Manukau, and by 1830 missions had been extended in South Auckland districts, and Maoris were instructed in agriculture. Naturally enough places which could be reached by water were the first to be settled, and for this reason Waiuku came early into prominence as a trading port. In 1840 the selection of a site on the Waitemata for the capital of New Zealand gave an impetus to settlement, and Manukau and Franklin soon became settled. Two years later 500 farmer settlers spread out in these two counties. At this stage roads were non-existent, except in the vicinity of Auckland, and tracks and pack-horses were the only means of transport. By 1860 the Main South Road was metalled as far as Pokeno, and from it cart roads ran to link up

the surrounding country. Until the time of the Maori Wars of 1863 the country was well populated. Papakura and Drury had become busy townships, and outside of Auckland Waiuku had become the most important business centre. Tuakau, Paerata, Mauku, and other districts became settled, and East Pukekohe was a compact farming community. After the Maori Wars settlers began to drift back to their farms, and there followed a period of intense immigration, and settlements were formed throughout the country. From 1870 the introduction of Vogel’s Public Works schemes and the start of the railroad system marked a period of steady progress. In the early stages land for settle-' ment was marked by the usual land grabbing, and some land was purchased at ridiculously low figures. After the initial rush a settled Government saw .to it that the Natives secured a reasonable price. By 1850 the greater part of Franklin had been

acquired, except for blocks which were set aside as . Native reserves. A year later the first sale of Crown lands is believed to have taken place. Prior to grassing down much of this country was covered in forest, which was felled, and the grass seed was sown on the ashes. A good burn was usually obtained by careful underscrubbing, followed by tree felling. After a good burn had been secured it was usual to wait for rain to allow the ash to become incorporated in the soil before broadcasting the seed. Much of this bush felling, however, was indiscriminate, and in later years erosion set in on the slopes of the steep, broken country to the east. As a result of bush burn sowings, cocksfoot seed production became a new rural industry, particularly around Pukekohe. If a crop of wheat were desired, it was frequently sown with grass seed, and a yield of 35 bushels to the acre was not uncommon. Original fencing consisted of temporary rail fences, made of

Prior to grassing down much of this country was covered in forest, which was felled, and the grass seed was sown on the ashes. A good burn was usually obtained by careful underscrubbing, followed by tree felling. After a good burn had been secured it was usual >to wait for rain to allow the ash to become incorporated in the soil before broadcasting the seed. Much of this bush felling, however, was indiscriminate, and in later years erosion set in on the slopes of the steep, broken country to the east. As a result of bush burn sowings, cocksfoot seed production became a new rural industry, particularly around Pukekohe. If a crop of wheat were desired, it was frequently sown with grass seed, and a yield of 35 bushels to the acre was not uncommon. Original fencing consisted of temporary rail fences, made of wood saplings, and although durable only for about 5 years, they were nevertheless reasonably stockproof. Later fencing was constructed from posts and rails sawn and split from puriri, and some of these are still in existence.

In Franklin the timber trade was established at an early date, and sawyers were active around the shores of the Manukau, and in the Hunua forest area, where totara was plentiful, though kauri was in limited supply. Puriri, a valuable hardwood, was plentiful on the volcanic land around Pukekohe. Kauri gum also was scattered throughout the area, and gum digging was a popular enterprise.

In the 50’s a flax mill was set up near Waiuku, and at the height of the industry 40 or 50 mills were operating in Franklin alone.

South of the river potatoes, barley, maize, and pumpkins were grown. Flour mills, in operation further south, used the port of Waiuku to ship flour

to Auckland, and shipments were actually made to California.

As other more suitable areas in the Dominion became developed, wheat growing disappeared, and the Franklin County became a pastoral area with market gardens predominating on the suitable land around Pukekohe.

Land Utilisation

The Franklin district is best described as pastoral, with dairy farming in ascendancy. Some good dairying land, however, is confined solely to sheep and fat cattle raising, while the more hilly areas not particularly suited for butterfat production are mainly sheep and cattle propositions. On and in close proximity to the Pukekohe Hill is a limited area of red-brown volcanic loam which is admirably suited for the production of vegetables. To the north of the county is a heavy silt loam, known as the Karaka complex, where a large area of peas is grown annually. A number of farmers on the better-class dairying land around Pukekohe are turning their farms over to vegetable production, and this article describes how this has been accomplished on one particular farm.

" The following is a list of crops and livestock in the Franklin County as taken from the 1943-44 A. and P. statistics.

CHOPS and livestock, FRANKLIN COUNTY, 1943-44. Acres , Acres •Market gardens 1,590 Pasture (cut Potatoes .. 869 for hay and Onions .. .. 288 silage) .. 25,594 Annual crops Nos. (other than' Dairy cows in market gardens, milk .. 78,116 potatoes, onions) 1,857 Total cattle .. 128,538 Pasture ' . .. 209,419 Sheep shorn: .151,497 Grain, etc. .. 769 Total pigs .. 30,823 • Horses .. 5,156 Total area occupied .. 290,908 acres. Average size of holdings .. 112 acres •The area used for market gardening is actually higher than the figure shown, as a considerable area of market gardens on the Pukekohe Hill is within the Pukekohe Borough, and the A. and P. statistics do not include figures for areas within a borough.

A PUKEKOHE SMALL HOLDING.

The following study of a Pukekohe small holding exemplifies the process of changing over a typical dairy farm to vegetable production. The main feature of this change-over is that it has been accomplished without extra capital and has necessarily been a gradual one. This particular farm of 36| acres, consisting of 15 paddocks varying from 2 to 4 acres, is not an ideal layout for a market garden. Prior to 1942 the farm was confined to dairying, with only 5 acres of cropping, which was regarded merely as a remunerative sideline. As a result of the appeal for vegetables for the Armed Forces, the owner • decided to change his farm over to market gardening, to accomplish which it was necessary to bring pasture land into crop over a period of years, rather than to attempt an immediate change-over.

Location and Soil

The farm is situated 5| miles west of Pukekohe, and 1| miles from Mauku. The soil is a medium to light loam, varying in depth from 9in. to 12in. overlying 12in. of clay. Below this is a softer clay, with the watertable at 2ft. 6in. The soil appears to respond readily to applications of lime and potash. In its native state this country had a cover of trees, of which puriri predominated, and it is a. feature of this country that the better class of land is to be expected where puriri was dominant. When the present owner took over the farm it was milking only 16 cows, but by carrying out a strenuous programme of topdressing and harrowing the fertility has been built up so that the farm eventually carried 28 cows.

Fencing and Drainage

Fencing consists mainly of barberry hedges, which give adequate shelter and do not take up excessive room. Hedges are trimmed back each April after growth has stopped. Some of the original shelter has been provided by macrocarpa trees, which are gradually being removed, as they

shade crops and harbour birds, which can do extensive damage to young seedlings in the spring. In addition, macrocarpa trees, when they open up, tend to become draughty, and this is a factor in retarding growth.

Most of the paddocks are drained by 2gin. tiles placed 6in. below the hard clay, close to the water-table, and feeding into open drains.

Dairy Fann Management.

Prior to undertaking the growing of vegetables the owner milked 25 cows, which were put to the Aryshire bull so that they calved in June and July. The usual policy has been to buy in heifers for replacement purposes, provided the price was reasonable. If the price is much in excess of £lO per head, it is considered expedient to rear own stock replacements. A replacement of 25 to 30 per cent, has been an average yearly figure.

The most serious stock disease has been contagious abortion, though in one year there were cases of facial eczema. Cases of mastitis have been negligible.

Over a number of years the herd has averaged close on 3001 b. of butterfat per cow.

Pastures and Supplements

Prior to rationing pastures were limed every two years with | ton per acre. Topdressing consisted of a yearly application of 3 to 4cwt. of superphosphate in the spring,

and 3 to 4cwt. bonedust, superphosphate, and potash in the autumn. In the past about a third of the farm has been closed up in April and feed rationed out to the herd as cows came into production. Pastures are ryegrass and white clover dominant, with paspalum and cocksfoot present. Buttercup appears to be the dominant weed in this country, but liming and close grazing appear .to keep it in check. Six acres of hay have been saved annually, and 2% to x 3 tons per acre is an average yield on this farm, though in some years it has been necessary to buy in a little extra hay for feed. An acre of White Belgian carrots or a similar area of mangolds has normally been grown for feeding out in August, when feed supply is normally low. . In view of the early calving normally experienced, the owner has not found it necessary to provide for supplementary feed during the summer, as the herd normally passes its peak of production in November.

Pig Management One breeding sow is usually kept for every 8 cows milked. The Large White sow is crossed with the Berkshire boar and two litters of 8 pigs is the yearly average. The first litters, which usually come in about May or June, so that feeding coincides with the maximum herd , production, are sold in September or October as store and buttermilk pigs, and a few held until January or February are sold as baconers. Of the NovemberDecember litters, half are sold in February as weaners and half in April as porkers. One sack of bran is fed to the sow, up till » the time of weaning, and a little meal is always added to the skim-milk. Carrots or mangolds are also fed to the pigs. Market Garden Management.

Cropping Programme Over the past few years the following crops have been grown on this farm: —Potatoes, onions, cabbage, carrots, tomatoes, peas, beans, and beetroot, most of which have been grown under contract to the Internal Marketing Division and trucked to the Department’s depot at Pukekohe. Peas and beans have in the past been grown for use by Army camps, and tomatoes are grown for. canning and sauce. Approximately 20 acres of the farm are at present in crop and 14 acres in pasture. The remaining 2| acres

is made up of the homestead block and a small area of bush. The owner maintains that a farm of this size does not constitute an economic unit if dairying only is the practice. It is his opinion that 50 acres, carrying 35 cows, is a minimum one-man unit on this class of country. As a consequence, since 1938 5 acres of the farm have been set aside for growing potatoes and onions. This area has been maintained, until, as a result of the appeal for vegetables, the area was increased to 10 acres in 1942, 15 acres in 1943, and 20 acres in 1944. By 1945 it is hoped to confine the whole of the area to market gardening. By this method of a gradual change-over from butterfat to vegetables no extra capital has been necessary in making the change. Table I gives an indication of the crops grown each year and of the reductions in milking cows occasioned by the yearly, increase in the acreage of crops. The acreages in the table do not necessarily correspond with the yearly figures mentioned previously, as

double cropping has been practised in most cases. . . ' Cultivation The first crop after grass is usually potatoes, and cultivation consists of skim ploughing in the autumn and, after a few weeks, when the turf has rotted sufficiently, discing to break it up. The ground is then deep ploughed to a depth of 9 to 12in. A harrowing of the furrow is usually all that is necessary to leave the ground fit for planting potatoes. Seed-bed preparation requires extra cultivation. Crop residue is disced and cross disced until finally chopped up, and the ground is then ploughed, harrowed, and boarded (with the clodcrusher), and left to lie in this condition until the next rain. The next operation is to harrow, board, lime, and topdress with manure. A final harrowing and boarding generally results in a firm, fine seed-bed. The power unit on this farm consists of 4 draught horses, which perform all cultivation work and seed-bed

preparations. The owner intends purchasing a tractor in the near future, but maintains that the horse is more satisfactory for inter-row cultivation.

Cultivation equipment on the farm consists of a single 1 mouldboard plough, 1 set tandem disc harrows, 1 set of heavy , tine harrows, 1 set light harrows, 1 set chain harrows, and 1 board or clod-crusher. For inter-row cultivation two horse scarifiers and four wheel hoes are in use. Seeding is done with a single-row mechanical seeder.

Crop Rotations

Potatoes are usually the first crop out of grass. . If this is a. winterplanted crop for production of early potatoes, it is frequently followed by a summer-planted crop of potatoes harvested in the autumn. Onions followed by winter or spring cabbage constitute the second-year crop, and potatoes or tomatoes in the third year are followed by an autumn-sown green crop, which is ploughed in for green manure. Another type of rotation adopted is:—Out of lea intoearly potatoes, followed by carrots or tomatoes, for the first year. In the second year crops may be winter or spring cabbage followed by summerplanted potatoes, and in the third year onions are followed by winter or spring cabbage and the area then sown with a green manure crop. Peas and beans have no set place in the rotation, and fit in almost anywhere. Onions are frequently fitted into the rotation following -harvested carrots. Carrots sown after winter or spring cabbage or vice versa is a practice sometimes adopted. Carrot crops following each other is not a recommended practice.

Individual Crop Practice Onions;

Second-crop ground is preferred for onions, as it is fairly free of fibre, which i interferes with wheel-hoeing work. Ground previously cropped also tends to set hard and firm, a condition which also favours onion growth.

Pukekohe Longkeeper variety is sown with the mechanical seeder in 12in. rows, usually from July to August. The rate of seeding is 51b. per acre, on ground which has had a previous application of 1 ton of lime and 15cwt. to 1 ton of finely-ground bonedust. As soon as the seed. germinates and rows can be seen the crop is cultivated continuously with wheel hoes until excessive bulb growth prohibits further working.

Onions are not thinned, but require from three to four hand weedings. The crop is harvested usually in February, or late January at the earliest. This is done with a special arrangement which • is attached to the wheel hoe, which, when pushed through the rows, cuts the onion roots and lifts the bulbs out of the ground. Onions are then left on the ground to dry out. Depending on weather conditions and the thickness of the necks, it may be two to three weeks before they are in a fit condition to. bag and store.

A feature of this particular farm is the storage house used for storing onions through to October, when the advantage of an increased price is obtained. Very little loss results from decomposition, the estimate being approximately 2 per cent. Loss of weight through storage is approximately 14 per cent., the total loss of 16 per cent, being small when compared with the £l2 increase in the price for the October-delivered crop. The storage house is constructed of unlined weatherboard, and is of a lean-to type, dropping from 9ft. to 7ft. in height. The flooring is of 9in. boards with lin. spacing, and raised 3ft. from ground level. The floor space is 19ft. x 15ft., and the shed will hold up to 30 tons of onions. Onions are stored loose in the shed, and the tops are not removed until the onions are bagged up ready for disposal.

Cabbage:

Autumn-planted cabbage is seeded in the nursery in open beds during February, and is planted out in March or April. The variety preferred for this time of the year is Henderson’s Early Market, the next preference being the variety Golden . Acre. The crop is harvested usually from June to August. Charleston Wakefield variety is preferred for the springplanted cabbage, though Golden Acre and Springtide are also grown. Spring cabbage seed is sown in the nursery beds late in April, planted out during July and August, and harvested from October to December.

Crops planted in the autumn receive 17cwt. blood and bone and superphosphate per acre in a ratio of 2 to 1; 3cwt. of limonite is also added. Spring-planted crops receive lOcwt. of the above mixture, although the quantity applied varies according to the

quantity of manure used on the previous crop. If the previous crop has had a liberal application, the cabbage may not receive its full quota. Manure is applied through the potato planter, in 30in. rows, and plants are set out on the ridges. Spring-planted crops are spaced 9 to 12in. apart, and autumn plantings are approximately 15in. apart. The cabbage crop is usually hand hoed once, cultivated with the horse scarifier, and finally moulded up with the moulder. The crop is harvested when fully mature, the owner being prepared to lose a small proportion of the crop through over-maturity, rather than lose weight through harvesting an immature crop. Produce is cut and bagged and trucked through to the Internal Marketing Department’s depot at Pukekohe. ' • Potatoes: The early crop, planted out in June and July, is usually harvested during November and December. A portion of this crop is harvested in November at a more immature stage than normal and the tubers are used for planting in December for production of the “autumn” crop, which is usually harvested in April. Most of the produce of this crop is used for seed, being commonly known as “autumn” seed, and is planted out in the following June and July for production of the following season’s early crop. In this way the supply of seed is assured for each season’s early potato crop. A practice sometimes adopted in this district is to retain the sound discarded seed left over from the

June-July planting for setting out on a portion of the ground from which the early crop was harvested in November. The seed used for this crop is popularly known as “kept-over” or "carry-over” seed, and, as it is well sprouted, it usually comes away quickly. The crop is harvested during February and March and is regarded merely as a catch crop. Seed saved from this crop, however, is not suitable for further plantings. “Keptover” seed has the advantage of being well sprouted and is usually more certain than the “autumn” crop. It is also in the ground for a relatively short period. With the exception of the “keptover” crop, it is a common practice throughout the Pukekohe district to cut the larger seed potatoes prior to planting, and in the case of small seed a small portion is usually chipped from the tuber. Growers maintain

that this operation hastens the germination of the seed and makes the growth of the crop more uniform.

The Northern Star or Gamekeeper variety is preferred for the early crop, as; it gives a high yield, and, although the sample frequently contains a relatively high proportion of small tubers, it is an early potato and most of the crop .is usually marketable. Arran Chief is the popular "autumn” crop variety. It produces a more even sample with fewer small tubers than Gamekeeper, and at this time of the season the market requirement is for an evenly-graded line.

The potato crop is sown with the potato planter in 30in. rows at the rate of 1 ton per acre for small seed. The following manurial mixture is applied at the rate of 1 ton per acre: Bcwt. bonedust, 2cwt. muriate of potash, , lewt. sulphate of ammonia, scwt. superphosphate, and 4cwt. blood and bone. After-cultivation consists of hand hoeing and horse scarifying and a good moulding up when the leaves have practically met across the rows. ' '

The crop is harvested with the potato digger, and is usually sold immediately.

Carrots:

Carrots can be sown from August to March, and, if necessary, the main

crop can normally be held through and harvested in September. Carrots are sown in 12in. rows at 31b. per acre on ground that has previously been topdressed with 15cwt. to 1 ton of finely-ground bonedust. Carrots are thinned from 2in. to 3in. apart and usually hand weeded twice. Wheel hoes are _ used for inter-row cultivation from the time the seed is through the ground until there is sufficient leaf growth to smother any further weed growth. The Early Crop and Chantenay varieties are preferred for the spring crop and Chantenay for the main crop' The spring-sown crop is harvested from November to January, and the summer-planted crop can be harvested in the autumn and winter, or, if required, may be held through for September harvesting. The crop is pulled or dug by hand, tops trimmed to jin., and the carrots bagged for delivery to Pukekohe. Most of the crop is delivered as first grade, there being only about 5 per cent, of seconds. This, of course, is dependent on the thoroughness with which the thinning has been done and on the season. Tomatoes: Australian Dwarf and Tatura Dwarf are the varieties of tomato grown for canning purposes. Tomatoes are grown in 36in. rows, with plants 30in. apart. They are planted in line across the rows, so that inter-row cultivation can be carried out both ways. The following manurial mixture at 30cwt. per acre is applied through the potato planter: —lOcwt. blood and bone, scwt. dried blood, scwt. superphosphate, 2cwt. potash, and 4cwt. limonite. •

Plants are set out from October to December, and are usually watered in. Subsequent cultivation with the horsedrawn scarifier is carried out across, as well as down, the rows. The fruit commences to ripen in late January, and under favourable conditions the harvesting season may extend through to April. The crop is hand picked and packed into “Wattie” boxes, for disposal to canning and sauce factories. Peas and Beans: Peas and beans have been grown in the past for local Army supply. Peas of the Greenfeast variety are grown in 14in. rows and seeded with the mechanical seeder at 2 bushels per acre. The Black Valentine variety of beans is grown when available, and is seeded mechanically in 18in. rows at 1 bushel per acre. If runner beans are grown, they are sown in double rows 18in. apart . with 36in. between the pairs. Beans are thinned to 3in. apart. Where peas and beans are grown after potatoes no manure is used, as it is considered that there is sufficient already in the soil. Otherwise about half a ton of potato manure per acre is broadcast prior to seeding. Peas are sown from September to December and harvested from December to February. Beans are usually sown from December to January and harvested in February, March, and April. Beetroot: < Beetroot is sown in 14in. rows at 51b. per acre in November. The crop is usually ready to harvest in March and April. The owner maintains that this crop requires potash in the manurial mixture, which is much the

‘ same as is used for potatoes. The crop is harvested by hand, the tops trimmed, and the produce bagged for disposal. Labour Requirements Permanent labour consists of a foreman. and two other male workers. For about 6 months of the year Maori casual labour is employed for thinning, weeding, and harvesting, an average of four female workers usually being sufficient. Disease Control A rigorous programme of spraying is necessary for the control of insect damage and crop diseases. The warm, humid climate of this district encourages fungous diseases. The most important diseases, with their various methods of control, are as follows: (a) Late Blight of Potatoes and Tomatoes: Late blight is very marked in this district, and crops can become badly infected almost overnight. It has been necessary for growers to harvest their potato crops at an earlier stage than usual in some seasons in an effort to harvest the crop before the tubers become infected. Blight of potatoes is controlled by spraying the crop with a mixture of 41b. bluestone, 51b. washing soda, and 40 gallons water every 9 or 10 days, with at . least five consecutive sprays. Tomatoes are sprayed every 7 or 8 days with Bordeaux mixture (41b. bluestone, 41b. hydrated lime, 40 gallons of water); As the fruit begins to form 51b. arsenate, of lead paste per 100 gals, water is added to the spray, mixture for the control of the tomato caterpillar. ' (b) White Butterfly and Diamondbacked MothCabbage must be sprayed regularly: from January to May for the control of white butterfly and diamond-backed moth. Lead arsenate and : nicotine sulphate are. used in the following proportions : 41b. lead arsenate (powder) per 100 gals, water plus 1 pint nicotine : sulphate per 40 gals, water. Soft soap is used as a spreader. Crops after planting out are sprayed every 9 or 10 days. Seedlings in the nursery beds are sprayed every 2 to 3 days with nicotine, sulphate until planted out. (c) Carrot Aphis: During seasons when aphids are troublesome spring crops of carrots are sprayed with nicotine sulphate at a . concentration of one teaspoonful per gallon pf water.

(d) Downy Mildew: Downy mildew is controlled on nursery cabbage plants by spraying regularly with lime sulphur. The disease is most noticeable during warm, humid weather. Crop Yields The following is a conservative estimate of crop yields on this farm during' the last three or four seasons: Crop. Tons per acre Potatoes (early crop) .. . • 7-8 Potatoes (autumn crop) .. 4-5 Carrots (main crop) .. 12-18 Carrots (spring crop) .. .. 6-10 Onions •• 10-15 Cabbage .. •• •• •• 6-10. Tomatoes .. 12-15 Farm Budget As may be expected, the changeover of farm policy has not resulted in an immediate increase of returns. When the owner first considered a change to market gardening he was prepared to suffer a loss on the .first year’s work, realising that increased returns could not be expected until the second or third year of cropping/The following table shows income and expenditure over the three years 1941-42, 1942-43, 1943-44: TABLE 11. 1941-42. £ Income ... .. .. . ... 1,151 Expenditure .. .. .. 607 Surplus • • £544

1942- £ Income .. .. .. 1,302 Expenditure .. ; .. 1,035 Surplus .. .. .. .. 267 Onions on hand and containers on hand .. .. ' 294 . z £561 1943- £ Income .. .. .. .. 1,805 \ Expenditure .. 1,550 • Surplus 255 -f-Onions on hand and containers on hand .. 517 £772 The figures for 1944-45 are riot yet available, but returns already to hand indicate that the surplus from .this year’s cropping is likely to show a material increase. It is the intention of the owner to invest as much of this surplus as is practicable in such items as a farm tractor, and additional cultivation equipment necessitated by the increased area now in crop. If the figures are further analysed (Tables 111 and IV), the income items will give an idea of the increase in gross returns from cropping, together with the decrease of butterfat returns occasioned by the necessary reduction in herd numbers. The expenditure columns, on the other hand, indicate a substantial increase in labour costs, sprays, seeds and manures, vegetable containers, etc. Tables 111 and IV analyse income and expenditure over the three years: —

On the income side of the balance sheet the column “Returns from previous year’s cropping” includes money that has come to hand during the current year but belonging to crops grown during the ‘previous year. For example, onions are . harvested normally during February and March, but only a small portion of the crop is sold off the paddock during the current year, the bulk being held through to August and September. Most of the onion returns, therefore, will not come to hand until the fol-

lowing financial year. This is understandable when it is realised that the financial year does not necessarily correspond with the cropping year. Autumn-planted cabbage, main crop carrots, and beetroot also come into this category. An additional column in the 1943-44 income includes the returns for the 1943-44 cropping which have not come to hand until the following year. There is a very noticeable increase in expenditure on wages, sprays, seeds and manures, and containers. The freight and cartage bill also shows an increase each year, as more produce is being delivered from the farm. The apparently high figure of £lO9 for livestock purchases in 1942-43, especially in view of a reduction in dairy herd numbers, is due to the purchase of additional horses for cultivation work. In the above budget no account has been taken of such items as “interest on live and dead stock,” “wages 4 of management,” “depreciation of plant and buildings,” all of which should be included to complete the picture. The figures given are cash book entries. Table V shows gross returns per acre of the various crops:—

TABLE V. GROSS RETURNS FROM CROPS GROWN FROM 1941 TO 1944. 1941-42. 1942-43. 1943-44. Returns. Returns Returns Total per ■ Total per Total per , Returns. Acre. Returns. Acre. Returns. Acre. .£££ £ £ £ 4 ac. potatoes .. 450 112 5 ac. potatoes .318 64 7 ac. potatoes 627 90 3 ac. onions .. 272 272 I ac. onions .. 122 122 4 ac. onions . 398 100 , 3 ac. cabbage . 146 49 5 ac. cabbage 506 101 '/ 2 ac. tomatoes 36 72 2 ac. tomatoes 166 83 3 ac. beans ..73 24 2 ac. beans .. 102 51 2 ac. peas .. 52 26 l ac. carrots 223 223 1 ac. beetroot . 138 138

Over the three years the returns per acre of potatoes have varied from £64 to £ll2. Onions have shown a larger variation, the first year’s returns being by far the best. The second year’s crop was badly infected with mildew, which lowered the yield, and the third year’s returns were also small, due to the dry season and consequent lower yield. The figures for beans in the 1942-43 season do not present a true picture, as the crop was not harvested for consumption and the returns are made up from seed harvested from 1 acre of the crop together with compensation received for the other 2 acres. Cabbage returns show a variation, due to higher prices being secured for cabbage grown under contract to the Internal Marketing Department in the 1943-44 season. Market Gardening Future When asked his opinion about the future of market gardening in New Zealand the owner said that an increased market seemed assured for potatoes, onions, and produce suitable for canning, such as peas, beans, and tomatoes, but he did not consider that the present demand for cabbage and carrots would continue beyond that

of local city markets. He appreciates the fact that it has been a wartime demand. It is hoped that “quick freeze,” on the other hand, will open up a market for vegetables suitable for this new process. The owner is definitely in favour of a controlled system of market gardening under which contract areas of vegetables are allocated on a pro rata basis. He maintains that the ideal set-up would be a controlling body of growers and processors working together on a co-operative basis. Acknowledgments Thanks are expressed to the Soil Survey Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial , Research for data in the soil map and to the Lands and Survey Department for the drawing of maps. '

COMMERCIAL TOBACCO CULTURE Those contemplating the growing of tobacco should secure Bulletin No. 137, “Commercial Tobacco Culture,” by N. J. Adamson, obtainable free from offices of the Department of Agriculture.

Cropping. Cows in Milk. 1938-39 .. 5 acres acres potatoes, 1 acre onions. potatoes, 1 acre onions. 28 28 1939-40 .. 5 tf —— >J • , »J »l JJ . »J >J JJ 23 23 1940-41 .. 5 ” — ” JJ IJ JJ 28 28 1941-42 .. 5 JI I! , II ,1 26 1942-43 .. 151 ” —5 acres potatoes, 3 acres cabbage, 3 acres beans, potatoes, 3 acres cabbage, 3 acres beans, 2 acres peas, 1 acre beetroot, 1 acre onions, peas, 1 acre beetroot, 1 acre onions, <» , 20 ' ■' 2 acre acre tomatoes. 20 1943-44 .. 21 ” —7 acres potatoes, 5 acres cabbage, 4 acres onions, potatoes, 5 acres cabbage, 4 acres onions, 2 acres tomatoes, 1 acre carrots, 2 acres beans. tomatoes, 1 acre carrots, 2 acres beans. 14 14 1944-45 .. 32 ” —3 acres cabbage (spring-planted, 1944), 5 acres cabbage (spring-planted, 1944), acres cabbage (to be planted autumn, 1945), cabbage (to be planted autumn, 1945), 5, acres potatoes (harvested in spring, 1944), 1 acres potatoes (harvested in spring, 1944), 4 acres potatoes (growing crops), potatoes (growing crops), 2 acre carrots (spring-harvested, 1944), carrots (spring-harvested, 1944), 2 acres carrots (sown January), carrots (sown January), 1 acre beans (sown December), beans (sown December), 4 acres onions (sown July, 1944), onions (sown July, 1944), 3 acres tomatoes (planted November, 1944), tomatoes (planted November, 1944), 10 10 4 acres in green manure for ploughing under. in green manure for ploughing under.

TABLE 1.

1941-42. 942-43. 1943-44. Butterfat £ Butterfat .. £ Butterfat £ (26 cows) 526 (20 cows) 404 (14 cows) 278 Pigs ... 91 Pigs .. 75 Pigs 58 Cull dairy cows 17 Cull dairy cows 16 Cull dairy cows 17 £634 Returns from | £495 Returns from £353 Returns from 1941prev. year’s 942prev. year’s 1943prev. year’s 42 942-43 Plantings cropping. 43 1943-44 Plantings cropping. 44 1941-42 Plantings cropping. reand Sowings. reand Sowings. reand Sowings. turns. £ turns. £ turns. £ 7 ac. potatoes . £ turns. £ £ £ 5 ac. potatoes . 5 ac. potatoes . 3I8 318 7 ac. potatoes . 627 4 ac. potatoes .. 450 Seed potatoes . 37 Seed- potatoes . 32 i ac. onions .. 36 24 I ac. onions .. 248 48 4 ac. onions . . 74 . 81 Seed potatoes .. 7 3 ac. cabbage . 5I 5 ac. cabbage . 95 81 £43 V2 ac. tomatoes 51 5 ac. cabbage ., £474 2 ac. tomatoes 95 81 £517 166 £43 /z ac. tomatoes £474 36 £517 2 ac. tomatoes 36 166 3 ac. beans .. 17 2 ac. beans .. 56 102 2 ac. peas 52 1 ac. carrots .. Total income £1151 2 ac. peas .. 52 1 ac. carrots .. ■ 1 Total income £1151 1 ac. beetroot . . —• : Beetroot 138 Assets on hand Nil ■■ ; : £285 £285 £522 £522 £807 £807 £395 £395 £1057 | £1452 £1057 | £1452 Total income £1302 Total income £1805 Assets on handonions 74 Assets on hand— onions 317 Bags and containers 220 Bags and containers 200 . ■ .■■■■■« £1596 £2322 ■ ■ ■ 1944-45 returns were as follows: 4 ac. onions, £317; 5 ac. cabbage, £425; 1 ac. carrots, £223. follows: 4 ac. onions, £317; 5 ac. cabbage, £425; 1 ac. carrots, £223.

TABLE III—INCOME.

1941-42. £ 1942-43. £ 1943-44. £ Wages .. ... ■ 97 262 656 Rent, insurance, rates 108 115 139 Stock food .. 34 45 39 Sprays, seeds, and manures 78 251 413 Repairs and maintenance .. 108 90 128 Cases, bags, and twine 24 88 58 Sundry expenses .. .. —• II 13 Livestock purchases 117 109 MM Freight and cartage .. II 34 • 74 Car expenses .. 30 30 30 Total £607 £1,035 £1,550 Surplus £544 £561 £772

TABLE IV—EXPENDITURE.