FARM SHELTER

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 68, Issue 2, 15 February 1944, Page 89

FARM SHELTER

Good farm shelter is a necessity rather than a luxury, as shown by the fact that close attention has been paid to this point on practically every farm in New Zealand which shows an outstanding herd average. Best results are obtained if the provision of shelter is planned ahead, and useful suggestions are contained in this article. . AS a dairying country New Zealand has undoubtedly been favoured by climate beyond all of her competitors. Even here, however, the sun does not always shine, and although the climate: might fairly be described as mild and equable throughout the year, a small country set as a speck in the surrounding ocean . must frequently experience stormy winds. These, particularly in exposed districts, are apt to be persistent, and can at times be very, cold and wet. Even in the most favoured districts, good shelter may rightly be regarded as a necessity rather than a luxury, and any money or labour wisely invested in the provision of shelter can confidently be expected to pay very handsome dividends. While it is admittedly difficult to assess the value of 'shelter in actual figures, experience and common-sense alike suggest that the value must certainly be high, and the fact that close attention has been paid to farm shelter on practically every farm in New Zealand which shows an outstanding herd average is not without significance. As an animal normally maintains its body temperature by the consumption of food, it is evident that exposure to severe cold must necessitate extra feeding, or the animal must consume its own fat. Proper shelter is cheaper than either of these alternatives. Work Should Be Planned Ahead The provision of adequate shelter frequently demands much careful thought, and the best results cannot be expected from spasmodic and haphazard plantings. To achieve complete success, the work should be planned well ahead, considering the layout of the farm as a whole as well as the needs of individual fields. By working to a programme and spreading the plantings over several years,' the work can be methodically performed, the most suitable species can be selected, and costly mistakes can be avoided. The fool buys his experience. The wise man gets the fool’s experience for nothing and profits accordingly. Considerable loss and disappointment are the inevitable results of planting unsuitable species, and every possible care should be taken in advance to ascertain, both by personal observation and inquiry, whether or not any species selected is likely to thrive under local conditions. If a programme is carefully designed in advance the various operations of preparing the ground and planting can be carried out systematically, each, at the proper time, while considerable economies can also be effected, as the farmer is enabled to raise his own plants in succession ready for planting out as required. [ Types of Shelter In designing the plan to be followed, consideration is usually given to two distinct types of shelter—high break- . winds to protect the farm against the worst . prevailing winds, and. a series of low, dense hedges to provide shelter

By

P. S. SYME,

Instructor in Agriculture, Warkworth

for individual fields. In addition, the possibility of utilising any waste ground to provide for future needs of home-grown timber should be taken into account. Whether or not high windbreaks are necessary depends largely on local conditions, the degree of exposure, and the severity "of the prevailing winds. If properly designed, such a windbreak will ' provide shelter for considerable distances. . Experiments have shown that a shelter belt 66 ft. high will afford protection for about five chains and partial protection for about 15 chains. The direction of ‘ such shelter belts should generally be from north to south, as this gives protection from the most prevalent winds, and at the same time does not result in excessive shading during the winter. With a 60 ft. shelter belt running north and south, the eastern paddocks are in full sun from sunrise until 12.58 p.m., and western paddocks from 11.20 a.m. until sunset. With an 80 ft. shelter ' belt running east and west, a shadow .136 ft. long will be cast even at midday in North Auckland, and , in Southland the corresponding shadow will extend ■as far as 200 ft. into the field. .This aspect is sometimes unfortunately overlooked, particularly when providing tall shelter around the -dwelling house, and is apt. to be realised only too late, v■' . Important Factors In providing for high windbreaks, the severity of the winds and the proximity to the sea .will to some extent determine the size and thickness of , the ' shelter belts 'as well as the species which can be safely planted. The size of the farm, the value of the land, and the labour. available for planting operations and the subsequent upkeep are . also important consideraLtIonsIwHSBHHHHMHHHKttKBM

Although trees for tall shelter are sometimes planted in single lines, in practice this method does not usually prove very successful. If the timber

itself is to. have any real value the trees must be planted close.' When planted in single lines, blanks occur through trees dying, and in any event the trees themselves tend to open out at the base, with the result that the draught of . wind is colder under the trees than in the open , pad dock. If high shelter is essential, and if circumstances permit, ■ such ' shelter belts should preferably be not less than about half a chain wide, and may with advantage be' one chain wide or more. ' The following are suggested as likely to be suitable for varying conditions. (1) FOR COASTAL DISTRICTS: Where the locality is exposed to very severe and constant winds, as on parts of the West Coast, some difficulty may be experienced in establishing shelter breaks, and it may be : necessary to provide first an artificial windbreak of tea tree' scrub and to plant natives, such as Veronica elliptica, Pittosporum crassifolium, and flax, on the lee of this. Once these have established, a belt of ground may be prepared on the lee side and planted somewhat .as follows: " , ' ' One or two rows of Pinus pinaster fronting the seaward side spaced 6 ft. each way. One or two rows of Pinus pinaster or P. muricata spaced 6 ft. each way. " A few rows of P. radiata spaced 6 ft. each way. ’ ' . x One row of Cupressus . macrocarpa 5 ft. apart and about 20 ft. from the pines. . . • ’ . If the. soil is sandy and if there is a possible danger of serious wind erosion the young trees are best planted direct without preparatory cultivation,’ but if no such danger exists , preparatory cultivation may be highly advantageous in assisting growth. Pinus pinaster and P. muricata succeed on very poor sandy soils, and are well adapted— P. pinaster in. particular— withstand saline winds.

Pinus radiata and Cup. macrocarpa do not withstand saline winds quite so well, but they will succeed on poor, sandy soils; and will provide more valuable timber. (2) FOR INLAND DISTRICTS: Where winds are not laden with salt and, are less severe, a narrower belt may be quite effective.. The-wide variety of trees available allows of considerable scope, particularly if the shelter belt is to be fairly broad. Generally, the aim should be to plant good wind-resisting species on . the windward side to provide quick shelter and to, act as nurse trees for other less hardy or slower growing species. .Since most of the taller growing species tend to open up at the base, it is desirable "to include some species which will provide good permanent ground shelter or to make provision for ; a good shelter . hedge such as Lawsoniana, Eleagnus, boxthorn, etc. If the hedge is not a good shade enduring species, it is important to see that it is .placed far enough from the belt to prevent shading when the trees are full grown. It will usually be found that as . a nurse tree, P. insignis grows too quickly, and is apt to overcrowd and kill slower growing permanent trees. For this , reason, P. muricata is frequently to be preferred, as it allows other trees to grow close to it and is itself very free from disease and pests. The following makes an excellent shelter belt: One or two rows of Corsican pine, 6 ft. apart, on windward side;- one or two rows of P. muricata, 6 ft. apart; one row of Cup. lawsoniana or Cup. benthamii, spaced 4 ft. apart, and about 20. ft. from the pines. : If preferred, the shelter may comprise P. insignis on the windward side followed by black wattle, macrocarpa, eucalypts and some good hedge species. This arrangement has the advantage' of providing a supply of useful farm' timber and still maintaining good shelter after the quick growing species have been cut out.

Lombardy Poplars Where wide shelter belts are impracticable because of the high cost or for any other reason, effective shelter may be provided by planting a double row of lombardy poplars, allowing about ' 6 ft. between the rows, with the- trees spaced about 6 ft. apart. A row of Eleagnus japonica is then planted between -the rows of poplars, allowing about 2J ft. between plants. Given proper support, the Eleagnus will climb to a considerable height, and will require little attention. An alternative to this method is to plant the lombardy poplars in three rows, these being alternately cut back as required to provide bottom shelter. When planting under favourable conditions, cuttings up to 7 ft., long may be used. They should not be driven into the ground, as the bottom bark is then torn off and a poor strike may result. The best method is to use a crowbar to make the hole, and to place the cutting in this with the butt resting firmly on the bottom, taking , care to tramp ' the soil so as to provide a good contact and a firm support. On grounds of economy this poplar has much .to recommend it, ’as it is easily started from cuttings taken in the dormant stage, particularly if the

soil is fairly moist but not waterlogged. The trees will grow to a height of 80 ft. where conditions are favourable, and being very erect in its habit of growth it occupies relatively little ground space.. The fact that it is found growing, successfully throughout, the length of New Zealand .. indicates its adaptability to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. This variety should not be confused with the common silver poplar, which is seldom recommended on account of its suckering habit. Eucalypts Eucalypts are sometimes planted alone for shelter. belts, but they tend to become bare below and allow light to enter freely, so that weed growth is encouraged. Good shelter belts may be formed by planting one or more rows of eucalypts suited to local conditions with a row of Cup. lawsoniana or Cup. benthamii or any other suitable hedge plant placed about 8 ft. from 'the eucalypts.'JHKMa| Apart from actual shelter belts, excellent results can be obtained by planting blocks of trees in selected corners so that each block will provide shelter for a number of fields. For. this purpose Pinus muricata and Cup. lawsoniana are probably the most suit-

able trees, but if . the object, is to provide useful timber as well, suitable eucalypts may also be included. ", If it is intended to plant eucalypts, particular attention should be paid to see that the varieties selected are such as will suit the district and will ultimately provide some useful timber. It , should be remembered that in this respect climate . is. of prime importance, whereas soil, provided it will supply plenty of moisture, need not be of very high fertility. Many species of eucalypts are susceptible to salt winds and do ’ not . readily succeed on exposed positions in coastal districts. Planting for Farm Timber Where the main object is to utilise waste ground for useful farm timber, Pinus radiata and Cup. macrocarpa can be safely recommended over a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. It is very important to remember, however, that these, particularly the macrocarpa, will eventually grow to a considerable size, and on this account require a good, deep soil to provide adequate root hold. If planted on lowlying ground where the water table is not far from the surface, . macrocarpa will grow well as a young tree, but as the roots will not penetrate below the

water level, the ' trees are very liable to blow over when they get ’ larger.' On wet soils, eucalypts are probably to be preferred, and such species as E robusta will succeed even on relatively wet ground. Black wattle was at one time widely grown in mixed shelter, but its use cannot now be recommended, as it is very liable to attack by the gall fungus. - ' Farm Hedges Although tall windbreaks are frequently very desirable, particularly on flat and exposed country, they are not always practicable where the land is valuable or the farm" small; but whether they are provided. or not,-the importance and value of a series of well-designed, low shelter hedges to protect individual fields can scarcely be over-estimated. These hedges need not necessarily be very extensive, and should be so planned and situated as to afford the maximum of protection for a minimum of cost. The ideal hedge should; establish easily and quickly to form a dense, impenetrable windbreak non-poisonous to'stock. -It should also occupy little space, . require a minimum of attention, and should have a long, useful life. Such a hedge should itself be immune to disease, and should not harbour diseases or pests. If, in addition to possessing all of these good qualities,, the hedge would require ’no fencing, then it would indeed be perfect. -• C ; Unfortunately, in an imperfect world we can scarcely hope to find a perfect hedge, and must simply endeavour to select the species of hedge plant which most nearly conforms to the varying local requirements and conditions. Main Species I Although the list of possible hedge plants is a long one, practical requirements on the average farm can generally be met by a selection , from the following species:— Cupressus lawsoniana, Cupressus benthamii, Cupressus macrocarpa, Hakea saligna,- seedless barberry, Acacia verticillata, boxthorn, Eleagnus japonica, bamboo, and under certain conditions New Zealand flax and pampas grass may well be worthy of inclusion. .'WMbMBHH Cupressus lawsoniana: Of the species mentioned, Cup. lawsoniana most.nearly conforms to the ideal. It maintains close, dense growth from the ground upwards right into its old' age, and has a useful life of 50 years or more. It-will grow about 2 ft. each year, and while it forms excellent low shelter ,in its. early years, it is capable of ultimately forming a perfect unbroken windbreak 40 ft. high, or more. Unlike many shelter trees, it does not develop a wide spreading habit, and even at maturity occupies comparatively little ground space. Moreover, though it can, if desired, be con-

trolled by light trimming as a garden hedge, it does not require trimming when- grown as a field shelter. ’ Unfortunately, with all these virtues, Cup. lawsoniana has a number of inherent weaknesses. It is not very tolerant of wet soils or of saline winds, and does not thrive where the climate is very dry. On the well drained pumice and alluvial soils of the Rotorua and Waikato districts, it is . almost the perfect shelter hedge. : On heavy clay soils which tend to, lie wet through the winter months, lawsoniana has not generally proved, very successful, and on this account it is seldom seen growing well as a farm hedge on the gumland soils. When intended for low shelter, the plants should be spaced at about .three to four feet apart. For taller breakwinds where the hedge is to be untrimmed, the distance between the plants may with advantage be extended to about six or seven feet. Cupressus benthamii —On soils which are rather too wet for lawsoniana or macrocarpa, - Cup. benthamii may sometimes be planted with success. Apart from its better

toleration of moist conditions, the essential requirements of this species are ; 'somewhat similar to those of lawsoniana. It is, however, a faster grower than lawsoniana but is more spreading and does not usually provide so dense a hedge. Like lawsoniana, it will not tolerate . salt winds. Plants may be spaced at about the same distances as for lawsoniana according to the object in view:9MHß9Bfl| Cupressus macrocarpa . Although it is by no means ideal for single line shelter, its ability to thrive on soils where better hedge plants often fail, together with its adaptability to a wide range of climatic conditions have led to the very common use.of macrocarpa throughout both islands. Because of its tall growing and wide spreading habit, it is difficult to control, particularly as, like all conifers, it does not readily withstand severe cutting back. With regular light trimming and an occasional careful topping, however, macrocarpa can provide useful low shelter for quite a number of years, and if the trees should open up at the base at a later stage, it may, if desirable, be possible to improve

the bottom shelter by underplanting with a row of eleagnus or boxthorn. Provided they are protected from stock, the trees will preserve their lower branches indefinitely, but this entails wide double fencing and is too wasteful of ground to be generally practised unless where used to suppress weeds.. along a stream, roadside or waste ground. Despite its obvious drawbacks, it. must be admitted-that the practice of planting macrocarpa . along fence lines as adopted by many of the pioneer settlers has paid dividends in ' both shade and shelter, and is now providing a much appreciated supply of durable fencing timber suitable for a wide variety of farm pur- . poses. When grown for low shelter, plants .may be spaced, from about 4 ft. to 6 ft. apart. Plantings are sometimes made at 9 ft. intervals, . but for low shelter this is too wide, as the plants take longer to close the , gaps and the hedge tends more readily to open at the base. Hakea saligna Hakea saligna (plain-leaved hakea) is particularly well adapted to the heavy gumland clays of North, Auckland, where it is a rapid and vigorous grower and succeeds well on. soils which are naturally very poor ■ and which tend to be wet and cold throughout the winter. Hakea saligna also has the distinction of being practically the only hedge which can'be easily grown on certain of the semibarren ironstone soils. Protection must be afforded against stock 7 in the ..early stages, but, once well grown, the hedge is fairly resistent to stock, and one or two barbed wires will usually prove sufficient provided the fence is not placed too close to the hedge. If well wrenched, Hakea saligna transplants easily, and quickly provides effective shelter. The plants are usually spaced at about 1| to 3 ft. apart, according to the type of hedge required. Hakea acicular is Hakea acicularis: (Prickly hakea): This . species- is very similar to H. saligna in its soil and climatic requirements and is 'found growing naturally on many areas of poor gumland /soil throughout North Auckland. Its main virtues are -that it is easy to grow and is practically stock-proof. The hedge can be most conveniently established by using 2-year-old plants, each. lifted in a triangular block by three cuts* of a spade, and planting them under a fence line about 18 ins. apart. Frequent light trimming is important in the early years. Prickly hakea grows to a height of from 9-10 ft. and can be used to best advantage in some of the warm north-

ern districts on soils where. better species of hedge do not succeed. * •. Acacia verticillata A hedge of Acacia verticillata also succeeds well on the heavier clay soils. As it does' not, as a rule, transplant well, hedges are usually grown from seed. The ground should be clean and well cultivated', to assist growth and establishment in the early stages. The seed is generally sown 'about September at the rate of about 1 ’ oz. per chain. • ■ If good, .well-wrenched plants are available they may be successfully planted out on well-prepared ground in late August or September, and should be spaced at about 18 inches apart in the row. The hedge will grow to a height of about 10 feet, and it should be well trimmed after the first year to provide thick, bushy growth. Because of its prickly nature, fencing is almost unnecessary once the hedge is properly established. As the prickles are . apt to lodge in the wool, this hedge is not very suitable for sheep. ‘ . Seedless Barberry Seedless barberry succeeds best on free, well-drained soils, and commonly fails on heavy clay soils or where drainage is poor. Provided conditions are suitable, however, barberry forms an . excellent stock-resist-ing . hedge which does not require fencing, and which can be very easily established from cuttings. Although the cuttings' may be planted direct, in practice it will usually be found that many will fail to strike, so, that the establishment >is rather patchy and somewhat slow. The best results are to be expected if the cuttings are started in a . nursery bed where the ground .has been well worked and where weeds can be easily controlled. If planted in this way from June to August the cuttings will have rooted freely and will be ready for planting out by the following autumn. The plants may be put in a single row, spaced at about 15 to 18 inches apart under the fence, where they will be safe from stock. If the ground can be worked over before planting the . young plants establish /better and make more rapid growth. Thorough firming in position is a great help, and it is .important that each plant should be well heeled in. Eleagnus japonica Owing to its ability to thrive under a wide range of soil and climatic conditions quite unsuitable for other hedge plants, this species has much to recommend it as a farm hedge. It is very hardy and will succeed even on quite wet land or on poor, heavy clay soils. It is not affected by salt winds and can tolerate dense shade. In addi-

tion, once established, it is. practically stockproof and will stand a considerable amount of neglect. When grown by itself, a hedge of Eleagnus japonica is apt to become straggly and untidy, but when grown in conjunction with barberry on suitable soil it will provide dense shelter, although it requires frequent trimming. If it is interplanted with tallgrowing trees, such as Lombardy poplar, Eleagnus is capable of growing 1 to a considerable height ■ and forming a dense, draught-proof hedge which requires no trimming. . Although Eleagnus establishes easily from . cuttings, the best results are obtained if the cuttings- are first rooted in a nursery and transplanted to their permanent position in the second year. Eleagnus has proved highly successful throughout the northern gumlands in situations where other common hedge plants will not grow, and there can be no doubt that there are many districts where its use could with advantage be considerably extended. African Boxthorn

African boxthorn is well-known as a rapid grower which quickly forms a very thorny stock-proof hedge, and is particularly well suited for coastal districts because of its ability to with-

stand salt-laden winds. It succeeds quite well.even on poor, light,-sandy soils, but almost invariably fails on heavy land ,or where drainage is bad. Although it makes an effective barrier to stock, it is rather objectionable because of its, sharp spines, which may be dangerous to stock, and which make trimming a somewhat difficult job. Plants are easily raised from, seed, and are also cheap to buy. When planting a hedge, they are usually spaced at about 18 inches apart. On account of its shade enduring qualities this species is sometimes employed to prevent ground draughts under pine or macrocarpa trees which have opened out at the bottoms. . Bamboo Hedges Bamboo hedges have proved highly successful in flat, alluvial wind-swept areas in certain districts- where other hedges are not easily established. The young plants are usually planted in the autumn in a single row about 1 ft. apart, and quickly, establish to form a dense wind-proof- barrier. As the young shoots are readily eaten by stock, the plants must be protected by fencing.' - Pampas Grass Pampas grass is well adapted to provide low, dense shelter, and has the added advantage of requiring no trimming. Where winter or spring feed is scarce, stock may be allowed access to the hedge, which will again make sufficient growth to provide shelter dur-

ing the -coming winter., Well-rooted cuttings or one-year-old seedlings may be used, and can be planted out about 6 ft. apart in late July or August. Unless some care is taken in preparing the ground, establishment is often poor, and this particularly applies where root cuttings which have been transported from a distance are used. Where time permits, the best results are obtained by planting one-year-old seedlings 1 ft. apart in a nursery, and transplanting them to well-prepared ground in the hedgerow the following year. ’ - New Zealand Flax New Zealand flax provides fairly effective low shelter for stock on soils where it grows well and where . plants can be easily obtained. The plants may .be set in continuous double rows spaced about 5 ft. each way, or simply planted in clumps in the corners of the fields. Only good, well-rooted fans from strong-growing plants should be used, and planting is best done in the spring, when the risk of heavy frost is over. Stopping Ground Draughts On many farms where single, rows of macrocarpa or pines have been planted in the past, it is commonly found that increasing age combined . with damage by stock causes the branches to die back near the base, resulting in severe ground draughts. Where the trees are still vigorous and appear capable of providing effective tall shelter for

many years to come, the shelter may sometimes be .greatly improved by planting a shade'enduring species such as boxthorn, Eleagnus or Pittosporum crasstfolium, according to local conditions, about 6 ft. out from the trunks. In the past, many farmers have attempted to use lawsoniana and barberry for this purpose, but as these do not so well endure shade, the results have usually proved disappointing. If necessary, any overhanging branches likely to ' have a smothering effect should be removed before planting. Eleagnus, because of its ability to climb and also produce dense shelter., is probably the most suitable species for this purpose, particularly as it will grow well on either moist or fairly dry soil. Home-growing of Seedlings Nurserymen . throughout the country carry excellent stocks of young trees, and can readily supply every variety suitable for the farmer’s requirements. Where the numbers needed are small, it is usually most convenient to purchase supplies as they are required. If, however, a fairly extensive programme is contemplated and if time permits,-it may well pay the farmer to'grow his own trees. Pines, cypresses, and eucalypts can be raised from seed in the open, and species such as poplars. Eleagnus, seedless barberry, bamboo, pampas, and flax can readily be propagated from branch or root cuttings according to the species.

Whether , collecting seed or purchasing plants of any of the different species of pines or cypresses, it is important to pay close attention to the parent strains because of the wide diversity of good and bad types of these species. This is of special importance where the shelter is being planted round the homestead and is desired to have an ornamental value as well as to provide dense shelter. When sowing in the open the seed may be sown from October to December, selecting'light, clean, well-drained garden soil, and . sowing in shallow trenches, covering each row with not more than | in. to J in. of light, free soil. In dry weather some watering may be necessary. When the seed has been sown it should be protected from the sun and from birds by a covering of scrim or sufficient light'branches to give adequate shade and ' to prevent the ground from drying out. Soaking or scalding is undesirable except for wattle, and if conditions are favourable the seeds will germinate within three to four weeks. The percentage z of germination is somewhat erratic, but under average conditions the following numbers of plants should be obtained from 1 lb. of seed of each species: Cup. lawsoniana: About 20,000 plants per 1 lb. of seed. ' Cup. macrocarpa: About 5,000 plants, per 1 lb. of seed. Pinus radiata: About 10,000 plants per 1 lb. of seed. Eucalypts vary from about 3,000 plants per lb. for E. coriacea and E. pilularis up to 15,000 for E. eugenioides and 30,000 for E. viminalis and E. macarthurii. The • young 1 trees are usually transferred to nursery rows when about 6 in. high, where they are kept free from weed competition by hand-hoeing until the autumn-of • the second year after planting. In order to develop the growth of fibrous roots which will promote speedy establishment, the young plants, should be “wrenched” with a sharp spade about six weeks before they are to be transferred to their permanent positions. v

Striking Cuttings Where plants are being raised from cuttings it will be found that they strike best in light, well-drained soil. If cuttings are simply pushed into the ground from the surface the bark is apt to be skinned off, resulting in a poor strike. For this reason the ground should first be nicked open / with a spade, the , cuttings inserted against one side, and the other side pressed back firmly in position. If ■ the soil is at all heavy a narrow trench should be prepared and the bottom covered with a layer of sand. The'cuttings are then placed '.with their butts resting in this, and the soil is then returned and firmed back in position. Planting Young Trees The best time for planting operations depends very largely on the locality. Where the winters are mild, excellent results may be expected in . late April or May. If severe frosts are likely, planting is best deferred to the spring. Only deciduous or very hardy species should be planted in the coldest winter months. If possible, the ground should be prepared some months in advance either by cultivation or preparing the holes. A handful of equal parts of superphosphate and blood and bone : applied to each tree greatly assists the establishment and early growth. When planting, take care that the roots are oh. no account permitted to dry out,’ and set each plant at its original-depth. The ground should be well firmed around*, each plant, and the rows should be inspected from time to time so that any plants which may have been loosened by wind can be re-set. Trimming of Hedges ■ The amount of trimming required for farm hedges depends very largely on the species and on the purpose for which it is grown. Generally, a certain amount of trimming is desirable to encourage density and maintain an attractive shape or to curb excessive growth. Some species, such as gums, poplars, eleagnus, boxthorn, barberry, etc., can be drastically cut back without the slightest risk. Others, such as pines, macrocarpa, lawsoniana, benthamii, etc., are unable to refurnish new shoots from old wood and are also very liable to bleeding from cut surfaces, so that trimming or cutting back is liable to cause serious injury and must be . performed with special care. Lawsoniana, benthamii and macrocarpa are frequently used as garden hedges. They must, however, be permitted to increase . slightly in size each year and so are: apt event-, ually to become very tall and rather wasteful ®f space. If well looked after, they do however provide very dense shelter. The trimming of these

species is best performed in the dormant period, and preferably should be regular and • comparatively light. When grown.for field shelter, lawsoniana and benthamii are commonly left untrimmed. Eleagnus, boxthorn and barberry benefit from light trimming until fully established. After this period they can be safely left without much attention for several years before being severely cut back, when , new growth . again sprouts from the old wood Acacia verticillata,Hakea saligna and Hakea acicularis are apt to become thin and bare unless kept well trimmed in the early years, and this no doubt largely' explains why many hedges of these species eventually provide relatively poor shelter. If given a light trimming two or three times a year , for the first few years after planting, however, more numerous branches are formed and this ultimately produces a much denser and far more satisfactory shelter. Protection From Stock 1 ‘ ; The provision of good shelter makes fairly heavy demands on labour, and money, and unless the work is carefully and methodically performed the results may prove disappointing.. It is unfortunate that the most effective species of shelter plants require fencing; but this fact must be faced. The advent of the electric fence offers excellent prospects of greatlyreducing the cost of this item, and its economic use of wire is a particularly strong recommendation at the present time. The importance of allowing sufficient room between the plants and the wire is very frequently overlooked, and ' often explains . ; why so many, promising hedges quickly become bare at the bottom. For low hedges (not stock-proof) deciduous species and lawsoniana, the distance from the fence should not be less than from 5 to 6 ft., while for the pines and the larger cypresses as much as 10 ft. ‘is required for safety. If planted closer than these distances to save ground in the’ early stages of growth, the fence should be moved back later to provide room for full development. In conclusion, the most serious mis—and that which can most easily be avoided—-lies in the' selection of species unsuited for local conditions or for the purpose in view. In . practice, the safest policy is to plant those species which are seen to succeed best under conditions similar to one’s own, and if in doubt, to consult an experienced nurseryman who knows the district. Acknowledgment Acknowledgment is made to Massey Agricultural College for the following illustrations used in this article: Nos. 4,5, 6,7, 8.

Tainui is recommended as the principal spring wheat for the West Coast counties, with Cross 7 for autumn sowing generally and for spring sowing on. the heaviest land. /.

NELSON. : A very marked change-over from Major to Cross 7 has occurred with the 1942/43 crop, the latter variety now occupying over half the total

acreage. Altogether, .1,400 acres of wheat were grown, with a i yield of about 27 bushels per acre. .Cross' 7 is considered more suitable for the earlier : sowings in this district, with Major and Tainui for later sowings. . MARLBOROUGH. Though the Marlborough acreage increased from' 8,000 in the 1942 harvest to 13,000 in .the 1943 harvest, the number of varieties fell from thirteen to eight. Cross - 7 shows a marked increase to comprise almost 80% .of the acreage, but all other varieties, except Fife Tuscan,' have receded in favour. Jumbuck and Tuscan are the only other varieties of any moment. A general yield of 30 bushels per acre was experienced, there being very little difference in this respect between the main • varieties. Cross 7 is doubtless the most useful wheat for Marlborough, especially as Jumbuck is, unsuitable for heading. On the light plains in the Marlborough county where Tuscan is largely grown, its replacement by Fife Tuscan should be considered . as further seed supplies become available. . CANTERBURY AND NORTH OTAGO This large wheat-growing district (the ‘“granary” of - .New Zealand) wherein was grown last year 244,000 acres of wheat, may be divided into three main areas (a) Eastern portions of Rangiora and Eyre counties, , Halswell and . Ellesmere counties and the eastern portion of. Geraldine county (known as “Hunters” counties). (b) Waimate (south of Studholme) ' and Waitaki counties (known as “Dreadnought” counties) . (c) The balance of the > area (known as “Tuscan” counties). Hunters Counties In these counties, where the Hunters variety comprises at least 30% of the crops, the total acreage grown last year amounted to 21,000 acres. The average yield in these counties was approximately 37 bushels per acre. Cross 7 represented over 50%, Tuscan, and Fife Tuscan together 23%, Hunters 22% and Dreadnought 2% of the total acreage. ' ■ Dreadnought has out-yielded '■ all other varieties, but has shown no tendency to increase in area. Dreadnought Counties * In these counties, Dreadnought has in past: years been the most important variety, but the 1943 harvest reveals a strong swing to Cross 7 at the expense of both Dreadnought and Hunters, despite the heavier yield of both these varieties, particularly Dreadnought, compared with Cross 7. It would seem that many growers have been pre-

pared to accept the lower yields associated with : Cross 7 in order to gain the advantage of a variety which may be direct-headed. Eighteen thousand acres, averaging 40 bushels . per acre, were grown in this district, Dreadnought and Cross. 7 being equally represented in 82% of the acreage, and Hunters the next in importance with 12%. Tuscan Counties In these counties, the three varieties, Tuscan, Cross 7 and Fife Tuscan, together comprise more than 70% of the crops of wheat. ' . In the 1942/43 season, 197,000 acres were grown, with an average yield of 33 bushels per acre. Fifty-nine per cent, of the area was sown to Cross 7, with Tuscan supplying 32%, Fife Tuscan .4%, Hunters 3%, Dreadnought 1-2%, “ and -other varieties negligible acreages. . Cross 7. on the average yielded 5.8 bushels per acre better than Tuscan, the' first-named variety being grown largely on the better class of land formerly devoted to the growing of Tuscan. For , the first time, a sufficient acreage of Fife Tuscan, has been grown for some opinion of its yielding ability to be formed. In this season, it has averaged about the same as Cross 7 —34 bushels per acre, .though presumably it has been grown on lighter land than has much of the Cross 7 area. The recommendations for Canterbury. and North Otago are: For the lightest wheat-land Tuscan is the best standard variety,, though Fife Tuscan, with a promise of ( a five to ten per cent, increase in yield, should be tried as soon as seed is available. For what is regarded as medium to good Tuscan country and for the

lighter , type of Hunters country; Cross 7 should be grown. For the heaviest wheat-land Hunters is recommended, with Dreadnought as an alternative variety. In the Dreadnought counties and in other odd localities where this “variety is known to do well, Dreadnought is to be recommended, and in considering the .desirability of changing over to the direct-heading variety, Cross 7, growers must keep in mind the reduced yield which can be expected from this variety. CENTRAL AND SOUTH OTAGO AND SOUTHLAND. This district, which contributed 14,000 acres to the Dominion’s area of wheat, is, with over 90% of its area in Cross 7, more predominantly of this variety than is any other district. Yields have averaged over 40 bushels, per acre, and in view of the very satisfactory nature of Cross 7 for the area, there seems no reason why any other variety should be grown there. GENERAL. Three matters of moment stand out in the report summarised above. There is ' the dominance shown" by Cross 7 over.; all other varieties of wheat. This variety, originally produced at Lincoln College; and later carried on by the Wheat Research Institute until its release in 1935, was considered to be a rather higher-quality wheat than Tuscan and to have greater, resistance to

lodging on the better Tuscan soils. Its phenomenal spread may largely be accounted for, however, by the fact that in addition to possessing the foregoing qualities, it has proven itself to be an ideal heading wheat, and has thus played a very prominent part in the introduction of header-harvesting to New Zealand. Of minor note is the promise shown’ by Fife Tuscan in its initial season on anything like a commercial basis. This variety was raised by the Wheat Research Institute, and on account of its superior yield in trials, released to replace Tuscan on land at present being sown to that variety. ; Then there is the trend being shown by growers to favour Cross 7 in those districts where non-heading wheats give greater yields. This trend may only be of a temporary nature, due to present labour difficulties, or it may be a real measure of the importance the farmer places on the advantages of the header-harvester. in handling the wheat crop.

Don't allow any part of the garden to .be without a crop. If not planted with a vegetable crop, dig over and sow to a cover crop. When dug, the humuscontent of the soil will be increased and depleted fertility restored. \ '