Pioneer engineering : a treatise on the engineering operations connected with the settlement of waste land in new countries

Dobson, Edward, Crosby Lockwood and Co, London, 1877

PIONEER ENGINEERING

PIONEER ENGINEERING

LONDON:PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET

PIONEER ENGINEERING

A TREATISE ON

THE ENGINEERING OPERATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE SETTLEMENT OF WASTE LANDS IN NEW COUNTRIES

WITH PLATES AND NUMEROUS WOODCUTS

BY EDWARD DOBSON, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

AUTHOR OF 'THE RAILWAYS OF BELGIUM' 'THE ART OF BUILDING 'MASONRY AND STONE-CUTTING' ETC. ETC.

LONDON CROSBY LOCK WOOD AND CO.

7 STATIONERS'-HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 1877

PREFACE.

This book is not written for engineering students so much as for those who have already attained proficiency in one or more branches of engineering, and who, on accepting colonial employment, find themselves engaged on work outside the range of their professional training or of their personal experience.

For this reason it does not deal with technical details so much as with general principles, pointingout rather what has to be done in commencing the settlement of a new country than the manner in which the work when determined on is to be executed.

Much stress has been laid on the necessity for making the determination of the leading routes of internal communication precede the division of the country into blocks for settlement; and on the advantage resulting from using the connected traverses

vi

PREFACE.

of the read-lines as a geodetic skeleton on which to base the topographical survey and the setting out of the purchased lands: —leaving the latitude and longitude of the leading points of the traverses to be checked by triangulation when time and funds are available for the purpose.

The author has endeavoured to impress on the minds of those engaged in pioneer work that their aim should not be the construction of great works which will bring them credit and reputation, but rather the careful study of the features and capabilities of the districts of which they are placed in charge, so that, by the judicious selection of town-sites, of routes of traffic, and of drainage outfalls, and by the avoidance of all unnecessary works, they may be instrumental in facilitating settlement, and in opening iip the country, out of current land revenue, instead of by means of borrowed capital, the use of which should be confined to the execution of reproductive works.

There is nothing very attractive in the life of a pioneer engineer. The duty is generally very hard, the pay scanty, and the work quite unappreciated by the public. But there are few ways in which a man can spend his life more nobly, more usefully, and more

vii

PREFACE.

happily, than in devoting his practical skill and scientific knowledge to the preparation of a new country for the healthy and prosperous settlement of thousands of liis fellow-creatures.

To those so engaged the author dedicates these pages, which embody the experience of a quarter of a century, with a hearty prayer for God's blessing on their work.

E. DOBSON.

Melbourne, 1876,

NOTE BY THE PUBLISHERS.

In order to prevent the considerable loss of time which would have arisen from transmitting the proofsheets from London to Melbourne and bach, the conduct of this work through the press has, with the approval of the author, been entrusted to Mr. D. K. Clark, C.E.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. On Survey Work....... 1

11. On Levelling......... 41

III. On Setting out Circular Curves....54

IV. On the Selection of Road Lines..... 61

V. On the Selection and Construction of Railway Lines.........105

VI. On the Storage of Water .....116

VII. On Drainage.........123

VIII. On the Disposal of Town Sewage....126

IX. On the Selection and Location of Town Sites..129

X. On Carpentry........138

XI. On Pile-driving........148

XII. On Masonry.........151

XIII. On Tunnelling........158

XIV. On Specifications and Contracts....165

XV. On the Management of Office-work....169

Index .......... 177

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

[N.B. The Figures refer to the Paragraphs.']

CHAPTER I.

ON SURVEY WORK.

GENERAL DEFINITIONS.

Form of the earth, 1. Great circle, definition of, 2. Geographical divisions of the earth's surface, 3. Latitude, definition of, 4. Longitude, definition of, 5. Geographical degrees, definition of, 6. Smallest near the poles, 6. Astronomical degrees of latitude increase from the equator to the poles, 7- Difference between the astronomical and geographical divisions of the meridian circles, 8. Degrees of longitude diminish from the equator to the poles, 9. Azimuth circle, definition of, 10. Table No. I., Geographical degrees. Table No. II., Astronomical degrees. Table No. III., for reducing astronomical to geographical degrees.

FIELD WORK.

Straight Lines. —Arcs of great circles appear as straight lines, 11. Parallels of latitude appear as curves, 12; cannot be rangod as straight lines, 13. Lines seen by compass, 14.

Measurement of Distances. —Measurements made by chain or by reading telescope, 15. Precautions to ho takon in measuring with the chain, 16. Directions for reading distances with the telescope and levelstaff, 17. Distances may be measured by sextant angles, 18. Table No. IV., Distances corresponding to angles from 1 to 5 degrees, 19. Measurement of long linos should be checked by triangulation, 20.

xii

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

Measurement of Angles. —Measurement of angles with the chain, 21, Angles measured instrumentally in three ways, 22. Compass bearings, 23. Sextant angles, 24. Speciality of theodolite angles, 25 Reduction of spherical triangles, 26.

To set out a Meridian Line, 27.

Traversing. —Directions for traversing with the theodolite, 28. Bearings should be referred to the magnetic, not the true, meridian, 29. Bearings should be read from zero to 360°, 30. In taking sextant angles, measure the supplement of the included angle, 31. Traverse lines to be plotted from their azimuths, 32. Total bearing and distance to be calculated as a check on the plotting, 33.

SURVEY OF WASTE LANDS.

Sketch Map —Description of, 34; should record heights of principal stations, 35. First step in the survey of a new country, 36.

Topographical Survey. —Description of, 37.

Geodetic Survey. —Description of, 38. May be done in three ways, 38.

Triangulation. —How conducted, 39. Difficulties attending triangulation in timbered districts, 40. In open country, triangulation should precede the topographical survey, 41.

Surveying by Meridians and Parallels. —Triangulation impossible in densely timbered country, 42. Division into squares impracticable except over a limited area, 46. American system of survey, 47. Necessary to ascertain latitude on commencing survey, 48. Determination of longitude not essential, ibid. Parallels of latitude to be set out as chords to the true latitude circles, 49. Size of blocks in American surveys, 49.

Traverses. —Selection before survey, 50. Involves geodetic survey and determination of road lines, 51. Road lines should be set out and traversed before throwing land open for solection, 52. Latitude and longitude of principal stations should be calculated, 53.

Mapping. —Stations to be plotted from their calculated latitudes and longitudes, 54. Latitude and longitude to be marked on each sheet, 55. Conventional system of projection necessary for representing spherical, or plane, surfaces, 56. Conical projection best suited for general use, 57.

Selection of Road Lines. —Selection of road lines the work of the engineer, not of the land surveyor, 58.

xiii

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER II.

ON LEVELLING.

Uniform datum, 59. General considerations, 60. Use of the spiritlevel requires continuous observations, 61. Each barometer observation complete in itself, 62.

Use of the Barometer. —Calculation of altitudes from barometer observations depends on the determination of the height of the mercurial column, 63. Barometer observations liable to disturbing causes, 64. Extent of disturbances how determined, 65. Explanation of Table No. V., 66-67. Barometer levels not to be depended upon unless corrected for moisture and temperature, 68, Table No. V. Barometer altitudes. Method of taking levels with the barometer, 69.

Use of the Spirit-level. —Levelling with the spirit-level described, 70. Spirit-level requires two adjustments only, 71. Adjustment of bubble-tube, 72. Adjustment for collination, 73. Construction of level recommended, 74. Telescope should be fitted with distancehairs, 75. Tripod legs should be stiff, 76. Graduation of level-staff, 77. Telescopic staves objectionable, 78. Form of level book, 79. Compass not required, 80.

CHAPTER III.

ON SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES.

Data required, 81. Simplest to set out from the tangent, 82. Series of equivalents, 83. Table No. VI., universal table for setting out circular curves, 84. To find the radius and position of the curve, 85. To set out the curve, the radius being given, 86. Setting out from the chord, 87.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

xiv

CHAPTER IV.

ON THE SELECTION OF ROAD LINES.

Leading Considerations, 88.

Gradients, 89.

Cart Roads, 90.

Stock Roads, 91.

Bridle Roads, 92.

Items of Cost, 93.

Distance, saving of, 94. Difference between main and district roads, 95. Unmetalled roads, 96. Public accommodation roads, 97.

SURVEY.

Determination of Route, 98.

River Crossings, often rigidly fixed by physical features, 99. In rockbound valleys approaches more difficult than actual bridge sites, 100. Selection of bridge sites overlooked in the usual system of setting out Crown lands, 101. Examples of errors to be avoided, 102, 103, 104, 105. Centre line should be first set out, 106.

Fords should be reserved, 107. A good ford better than a bad bridge, 108. Approaches to fords should not be destroyed, 109.

Ferries, 110.

River Frontages, 111.

Watersheds. —Two distinct cases, 112. Gradients may be obtained either by cutting and embankment, or by contouring, 113. Side-lying ground should be contoured, 114. Advantages of contouring side cuttings, 115. Rolling country requires a combination of through and side cutting, 116. Not worth while to deviate from a direct line to avoid cuttings not exceeding ten feet in depth, 117. Ex-0 ample of a good road spoiled by exchanging a river crossing with contoured approaches for one in a direct line, 118. Mode of proceeding different where the road follows the line of a principal valley, 119. Lowest point of the range to be first ascertained, 120. Gradient of ascent to be calculated approximately, 121. One side of a main range steeper than the other, 122. Examples of roads across watersheds, 123, 124.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

xv

CHAPTER V.

ON THE SELECTION AND CONSTRUCTION OF BAIL WAY LINES.

General Considerations. —Difference in the nature of road and railway lines, 161. Sharp curves and steep gradients always objectionable, 162. Gradients to fall each way from station sites, 163. Roads to be laid out to cross railways without bridges, 164. Cattle traps to be used instead of gates in thinly peopled districts, 164.

xv

Mountain Passes. —Three classes of mountain passes, 125. First and second cases simple in treatment, 126. Third case requires careful study, 127. Character of valleys of approach determines the system of gradients, 128, Points to be considered in selecting the line of descent, 129. Natural stratification to be taken advantage of, 130. Treatment of canons: difficulties of three classes, 131. Crossings of the main streams, 132. Crossings of the lateral streams, 133. Retaining walls, 134.

R oads through, Level Country.- -Roads to be made as direct as possible between the fixed points first established, 135. Drainage, 136. Natural watersheds to be followed where practicable, 137. Ex amples of roads as watersheds, 138, 139. Natural watersheds not to be cut through, 140. Example of the ill effect of departing from this rule, 141.

Clearing, 142.

Roads to give access to Crown Lands. —Road-lines to be set out to avoid monopoly of natural advantages, 143. Treatment of timbered valleys, example of, 144.

Road Map. —Road-lines, when set out, to be traversed and mapped, 145. Permanent marks, 146.

Formation of Road Surfaces. —No specific rules can be laid down, 147. On level ground: Drainage, 148. Sods to be saved when stripping the cuttings, 149. Treatment of sandy soils, 150. Side-walks to be cleared, 151. Water-tables not to be formed unless metalled, 152. High crowns to be avoided, 153. Metal, how blinded, 154. .Treatment of ruts, 155. Hand-broken metal, 156. Pitched foundations, 157. In side cutting: Catch-water drains to be kept at a distance from the slopes, 158. In severe gradients, water not to be allowed to ran down the road, 159. Open drains to be avoided, 160.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS,

xvi

Constructive Cost, 165.

Goods Trucks, 166.

Passenger Carriages. —Advantages of the American system, 167. Width of tunnels with carriages of the usual construction must not be less than 14 feet, 168.

Tank Engines, 169.

Comparison of Gauges. —Advantage of American carriages on 5 feet 3 inches gauge, 170. Difficulties connected with narrow gauges, 171. Comparative cost of wide and narrow gauge engines, 172.

Setting out Curves. —Curves to be eased off at each end, 173. Inner rail to be depressed as much as the outer rail is raised, 174.

Bridges. —Close floors to be provided for bridges over public roads, 175. Bridges over creeks may consist of skeleton framing, 176.

Embankments. —Width of embankments depends on weight of engine and speed of train, 177.

Cuttings. —Width of cuttings how regulated, 178.

Ballast.—-Use of ballast threefold, 179.

Sleepers.— Use of, 180.

Bails. —Two forms only in general use, 181. Advantages and disadvantage of the flanged rail, 182. Advantage of the double-headed rail, 183. Minimum weight of the flanged rail, 184.

Chairs should be broad in the seat, 185. Keys should be on the outside of the rail, 186.

Limit of Curvature. —Curves of less than ten chains radius not to be used, 187. No advantage to be gained from using curves of more than a mile radius, ibid. Curves of less than half a mile radius involve diminution of speed, ibid. Curves of less than twenty chains radius to be avoided except in difficult ground, ibid. In difficult country lines should be continued with sharp curves, which may be afterwards flattened as the traffic increases, 188.

Gradients. —Should not be steeper than lin 80, 189. Lines must be constructed from the first on the permanent gradients, 190. No advantage to be gained from making gradients fatter than 1 in 264, 191. Ascending and descending gadients to be connected by a piece of level, 192.

xvii

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.

ON TEE STORAGE OF WATER.

Winter rainfall may generally be stored for summer use, 193. New country often becomes -water-bearing by stocking and burning, 194. Best sites for dams, 195. Not to be put On the line of a creek, 196. Bywashes essential with earthen dams, 197. Best form of crest, 198. Puddle, how used, 199. Face of dam to be covered with broken metal, 200. Earthen dams unsuited to deep valleys, 201. Stone dams require no byewash, 202. Concrete superior to masonry, 203. Provision for silt, 204. Valve tower may be dispensed with, 205. Cages required to protect valves, 206.

Town Supply. —Service reservoir required in addition to storage reservoir, 207. Use of small service reservoirs at highest points, of reticulation, 208. Gradient of main from reservoir should be steepest at the upper end, 209. Screw-cocks and air cocks, 210.

Reticulation. —Street mains should be laid with wider pipes, 211.

Constant, better than intermittent, supply, 212.

Artesian Wells. —Water may be laid on from artesian wells, 213.

Street tanks for supplying fire-engines, 214.

CHAPTER VII.

ON DRAINAGE.

Important to make early provision for drainage outfalls, 215. Wate from the upper levels to be carried to the sea in independent channels, 216. Draining on the ebb-tide, 217. Street gutters to he laid below the general level to ensure surface-drainage, 218. Levels of streets should be defined before selling town lots, 219. Advantage of forming streets before the sale of town lands, 220.

xviii

SYNOPSIS Or CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII.

ON THE DISPOSAL OF TOWN SEWAGE.

Sewage should not be thrown into watercourses, 221. Application of sewage to suburban lands not a financial success, 222. Sewage irrigation injurious to health, 223. Removal of night-soil in soilpans, 224. Regulation of cesspools, 225. Underground sewerage an evil to be carefully avoided, 226. Brief statement of requirements, 227.

CHAPTER IX.

ON THE SELECTION AND LOCATION OF TOWN SITES.

Reasons for Selection. —Centres of traffic, 228. Engineers may modify the evils arising from injudicious selection, 229.

Flooded Sites. —Difficult to explain the eagerness with which sites are rushed by gold-digging communities, 230. Hokitika built on a sand-spit, 231. Greymouth built below ordinary flood-level, 232. Settlement in both cases spontaneous, 233. Gundagai built on a site subject to inundation, 234.

Hillsides. —Hillsides objectionable for business purposes, 235. Streets should be laid out with reference to the features of the site, 236. Lyttelton, New Zealand, badly laid out, 237. Streets should have been contoured, 238. Evils arising from laying out the town in rectangular blocks, 239.

Drainage Outlets. —Christchurch, New Zealand, laid out without provision for drainage outlets, 240.

Width of Streets. —Must be decided by local circumstances, 241. Chainwide streets too narrow where there is much traffic, 242. Two chains an excessive width, 243.

Width of Footpaths. —Twelve feet a convenient width, 244. May be made twenty feet wide and planted with trees, ibid. Footpaths should be narrow in front of warehouses, ibid.

Arrangement of Blocks. —Double blocks should have rights-of-way through them, 245. Sewers, if any, should be laid along the rights-of-way, ibid.

xix

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

Gas and, Water Mains should be laid with wider pipes at the edge of the footpaths, 246.

Parks and Recreation Grounds. —Liberal reserves should be made for recreation grounds, 247. Timber belts should not be less than three chains wide, ibid. Townships best laid out on a small scale, but with large reserves for future extensions, 248. Advantages of this system, 249.

Gulleys and Water-holes should be left for ornamental planting, 250.

Bailway Stations. —Positions of railway stations should be fixed before laying out the streets, 251. Rectangular blocks to be provided not less than thirty chains in length, ibid. Sites to bo left for warehouses, ibid.

Gas-works. —Sites to be reserved at a low level, 252.

Cemeteries. —Positions for, 253.

CHAPTER X.

ON CARPENTRY.

Hard and Soft Woods. —These two classes of timber require different kinds of treatment, 254. Hard wood breaks without notice when overloaded, 255. Soft wood deflects long before breaking, 256.

Strength of Tenons, 257.

Bolts, use of, 258.

Straps inferior to bolts, 259.

Angle-bands objectionable, 260.

Struts, how fixed, 261.

Bridge Beams, best mode of connecting, 262.

Bridge Trusses, use of cast iron in, 263. Feet of struts to bo cut square, 264. Use of wrought iron in large trusses, 265. Bolts to have large plates, 266. Trussed beams, 267. Tension rods must be adjusted to the catenarian curve, 268. Objections to laminated arches, 269. Log bridges in small spans, 270. Thirty-feet spans advisable where large timber is procurable, 270. If trusses are used, sixtyfeet spans may be adopted with advantage, 271. Wrought-iron girders to be used where timber is not available, 272. Ordinary lattice girder the best up to spans of forty feet, 273.

Culverts. —Log culverts, 274. Culverts of sawn timber, 275,

Corduroy Roads, how made, 276.

Cribbing, how constructed, 277.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

xx

CHAPTER XI.

ON PILE-DRIVING.

Scientific calculations of no practical value, 278. Three special cases in pile-driving, 280. Pile-driving through soft ground to a hard stratum, 280. Piles supported by lateral pressure, 281. Piles driven to a portion only of their length, 282. Shoeing and hooping, 28S. "Weight of ram, 284. Steam-power preferable to handlabour, 284. Piles should be trimmed true before driving, 285.

CHAPTER XII.

ON MASONRYc.

Preliminary Observations, 286.

Masonry of three Classes, 287. Ashlar, definition of, 288.

Block in Course, 289.

Rubble consists of undressed stones, 290; rubble-work of three classes, 291. Stones of uniform size, 291. Large and small stones, 292. Flat-bedded stones, 293. Eubble worthless if not built under the above conditions, 294.

Block in Course Facing, 295.

Ashlar, how worked, 296. Labour on ashlar face, 297.

Specifications for Masonry.—What should be specified, 298.

Footings, 299.

Abutments, 300.

Piers, 301.

Arches, 302.

String Courses, 303.

Cornices, 304.

Parapets, 305.

Copings, 306.

Concrete, directions for using, 307. How used in arches, 308. Concrete culverts, 309.

Mortar. —Lime and cement mortars require different treatment, 310. Lime-mortar, 311. Cement-mortar, 312. Quick-setting cements not to lie used in arches, ibid.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

xxi

CHAPTER XIII.

ON TUNNELLING.

Setting out Centre-line. —Centre-line must be ranged out and fixed, 313.

Two cases, 314. Tunnels driven from the ends, 315. Tunnels driven from shafts, 316.

Levels, 317.

Size of Shafts, 318.

Headings, 319.

Rock Tunnels. —May be worked from either a top or a bottom-heading, 320. Mode adopted must be adapted to the nature of the ground, 321.

Timbering, 322.

Invert, 323. Dispensed with in Lyttelton tunnel, 324.

Centering, 325.

Concrete Packing, 326.

Use of Cement, 327.

CHAPTER XIV.

ON SPECIFICATIONS AND CONTRACTS.

Specifications definitions not descriptions, 328.

General Outline, 329.

Bills of Quantities, 330.

Contracts, 331.

CHAPTER XV.

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF OFFICE-WORK.

General Hints, 332. Principal looks required, 333.

Office Diary, 334.

Letter-book, 335.

Letters Received, 336.

Contract Book, 337.

Voucher Book, 338.

Ledgers, 339. Subordinate books, 340.

LIST OF TABLES.

No. Page

1. Geographical Degrees.....5

2. Astronomical Degrees.......10

3. For Reducing Astronomical to Geographical Degrees 15

4. Measurement of Distance : —Distance in links, for intervals of five minutes, taken by pocket sextant 22

5. Barometer Altitudes...... 44

6. Universal Table for Setting Out Circular Curves. 56

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS.

SURVEY WORK.

Fig. Paragraph.

1. 8. Diagrams illustrating the difference between the astronomical and geographical divisions of the Meridian Circles.

2. 17. Measurement of distances with the spirit-level and level-staff.

3. 20. Angular check on the measurement of distances.

4. 21. Measurement of chain-angles.

5. 49. Setting out of parallels of latitude.

6. 53. Reduction of traverses for latitude and longitude.

7. 57. Conical projection of Maps.

LEVELLING.

8. 69. Form of scale for measuring index errors in barometer readings.

9.} 10.} 73 {Adjustment of spirit-level by the tangent. " " " " chord

11. 74. Form of spirit-level recommended for use.

12. 77. Graduation of level-staff.

13. 80. Section to accompany example of level-book.

SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES.

14. 83. Diagram to accompany rules for setting out curves by offsets from the tangent.

15. 86. Method of finding the tangent by construction.

16. 86. Diagrams to accompany rules for setting out curves by chords.

xxiv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

SELECTION OF ROAD LINES.

Fig. Paragraph. 17. 99. Diagram showing the character of some New Zealand rivers.

17. 99. Diagram showing the character of some New Zealand rivers.

18. 100. Bridge over the Moorabool, Steiglitz Road.

19. 102.} 20. 103.} Examples of errors to be avoided in laying out 21. 104.} bridge sites. 22. 105.}

23. 108. Treatment of a ford.

24. 114. Treatment of side-lying ground.

25.} 26.} PI. I. 116. Treatment of rolling country. 27.}

28. 118. Bridge over the Wekn Creek with contoured approaches.

29. 123. Contoured ascent with turning places.

30.} 31.} 124. Ascent of Porter's Pass, New Zealand.

32. PI. 11. 129. Sketch-plan of the road over Arthur's Pass, New Zealand.

33 .} 34.} 129. Treatment of inclined stratification.

35. 129. Adjustment of gradients in side-cutting.

36. 129. Contouring gradients.

37. 138. Judicious treatment of a shingle ridge.

38. 139. Example of the evil of abandoning a natural watershed.

39. 141. Example of an injudicious attempt at drainage.

40. PI. III. 146. Plan of a timbered valley with the sections so laid out as to render the timber inaccessible.

41. PI. IV. 146. Plan of the same valley with the roads laid out to facilitate settlement.

STORAGE OF WATER

42. 198. Form of crest for an earthen dam.

43. 211. Plan of street-main with rider-pipes.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

xxv

CARPENTRY.

Fig. Paragraph.

44.} 45.} 259. Bolts and straps. 46.}

47.} 48.} 260. Angle bands.

49. 261. Sketch of foot block for street.

50. 262. Connection of bridge-beams.

51. 264. Sketch of butment block.

52. 273. Section of iron girders for spans from 20 feet to 50 feet.

53. 275. Sawn-timber culvert.

TUNNELLING

54-59. PI. V. 323. Rock tunnelling, Belgian system.

60-63. PI. VI. 323. „ „ English system.

64. PI. VII.} 355. Timbering of Tunnels. Lyttelton Tunnel, 65-69. PI. VIII.} New Zealand.

PIONEER ENGINEERING.

CHAPTER I.

ON SURVEY WORK.

GENERAL DEFINITIONS.

1. The earth is a flattened sphere, whose shortest diameter is its axis of rotation; the extremities of which are called its poles.

2. A great circle is one whose plane passes through the earth's centre.

3. For the purpose of mapping out the surface of the earth, it is divided by geographers as follows:—

1. Into two hemispheres by a great circle perpendicular to its axis of rotation, called the equator, the circumference of which is divided into 360 equal parts called degrees.

2. Each hemisphere is divided into 89 zones and a polar circle by 89 latitude circles parallel to the equator.

3. Each zone is divided into 360 respectively equal trapezoids, and each polar circle into 360 equal triangles, by 180 meridian circles per-

B

2

ON SURVEY WORK.

pendicular to the equator, having the polar axis as a common diameter, each meridian circle being divided by the latitude circles into 360 degrees, which, however, are not of equal lengths, being least at the equator and greatest at the poles.

Further subdivision is effected as required by dividing , each degree into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds.

Note.—The meridian, circles are slightly elliptical, the polar diameter being about twenty-six miles shorter than the mean of their equatorial diameters. Note also, that although the equator is spoken of as a circle, it is irregular in shape, the difference between its maximum and minimum radius being about one mile, so far as is at present ascertained.

4. Latitude is the meridional distance of any point from the equator, and may be expressed either in angular or in lineal measurement.

The difference in latitude between any two points, is the meridional distance between two latitude circles passing through them.

5. Longitude is the angular distance between any two meridian circles, measured on the plane of the equator or of a latitude circle.

Longitude is reckoned east and west from an initial meridian, the zero adopted by English geographers being the meridian of Greenwich.

The difference of longitude between any two points,

GENERAL DEFINITIONS.

3

7. A degree of latitude is the meridional distance between two points at which lines respectively perpendicular to the plane of the horizon would include an angle of one degree, if produced to the point of intersection.

On account of the earth's polar depression, the length of a degree of latitude depends on its position, being least at the equator, where the curvature of the earth's surface is sharpest, and increasing towards the poles as the meridional curve flattens.

Table No. 11. gives the maximum value, in links, of a degree of latitude and of longitude for each degree of latitude, with a column of differences, as in Table No. I. for the calculation of degrees of longitude at intermediate parallels.

B2

is the angular distance between two meridian circles passing through these points.

6. A geographical degree is an arc of a great circle subtending an angle of one degree at the earth's centre.

In consequence of the polar diameter being shorter than the equatorial, the length of a geographical degree varies according to its mean latitude, being greatest at the equator, and least at the poles.

Table No. I. gives the maximum value, in links, of a geographical degree, for each degree of mean latitude, with the length of the corresponding degrees of longitude, and a table of differences by which to calculate the length of a degree of longitude at any intermediate parallel.

4

ON SURVEY WORK.

8. The nature of the difference between what may be called the astronomical and the geographical division of the meridian circles, will be readily understood if it is borne in mind, that the determination of latitude depends on the observation of the angular meridional distance of the sun or of a circumpolar star, from the plane of the horizon: a plumb-line from the centre of which can only pass through the earth's centre, when the point of observation is either at one of the poles or on the equator. See Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Diagram illustrating the difference between the astronomical and geographical division of the meridian circles.

Note. —In the calculation of spherical triangles, the length of any given side is the aggregate length of the geographical degrees corresponding to the angle which it subtends at the earth's centre. Degrees of latitude may be readily reduced into geographical degrees, and vice versâ, by means of Table No. 111.

TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DEGREES.

5

Table No. I. —Geographical Degrees.

Miles Chains Note.—Maximum equatorial radius = 3,963 27.95 Polar semi-axis = 3,949 46.18

Arcs of Great Circles Arcs of Longitude Chords Mean Latitude Length of degree Mean length of 1' Latitude Length of each degree Difference Length of 1' Anglr of ridian with chord of 1' Offset at centre chord of 1' º' Miles Chains Chains º Miles Chains Chains Chains 90° Difference to be addedor deducted Links 030 69-13·89 92·23 0 69-13·89 0·85 92·23 130 69-13·88 92·23 1 69-13·04 2·55 92·22 230 69-13·86 92·23 2 69-10·49 4·24 92·17 330 69-13·83 92·23 3 69-6·25 5·93 92·10 430 69-13·78 92·23 4 69-0·82 7·62 92·00 530 69-13·72 92·23 5 68-72·70 9·31 91·88 630 69-13·65 92·23 6 68-63·39 11·01 91·72 730 69-13·57 92·23 7 68-52·38 12·70 91·54 830 69-13·48 92·22 8 68-39·68 14·38 91·33 930 69-13·38 92·22 9 68-25·30 16·05 91·09 1030 69-13·27 92·22 10 68-9·25 17·71 90·82 6" .09 1130 69-13·15 92·22 11 67-71·54 19·37 90·53 1230 69-13·01 92·22 12 67-52·17 21·04 90·20 1330 69-12·87 92·21 13 67-31·13 22·69 89·85 1430 69-12·71 92·21 14 67-8·44 24·35 89·47 1530 69-12·54 92·21 15 66-64·09 25·97 89·07 16 66-38.12 88.64

6

ON SURVEY WORK.

Table No. I.—Geographical Degrees (continued).

Arcs of Great Circles Arcs of Longitude Chords Mean Latitude Length of degree Mean length of 1' Latitude Length of each degree Difference Length of 1' Anglr of ridian with chord of 1' Offset at centre chord of 1' º' Miles Chains Chains º Miles Chains Chains Chains 90° Difference to be addedor deducted Links 66—38.12 88.64 1630 69—12.36 92.21 66—38.12 27.60 88.04 1730 69—12.17 92.20 17 66-10.52 29.22 88.17 1830 69—11.97 92.20 18 65-61.30 30.85 87.69 1930 69—11.75 92.20 19 65-30.47 32.44 87.17 2030 69—11.52 92.19 20 64-78.03 34.04 86.63 10" .22 2130 69—11.27 92.19 21 64-43.99 35.61 85.47 2230 69—11.01 92.18 22 64-8.38 37.18 84.85 2330 69—10.76 92.18 23 63-51.20 38.72 84.21 2430 69—10.50 92.17 24 63-12.48 40.26 83.53 2530 69—10.25 92.18 25 62-52.22 41.48 82.84 2630 69—10.00 92.17 26 61-10.44 43.29 82.12 2730 69—9.74 92.16 27 61—47.15 44.79 81.37 2830 69—9.49 92.16 28 60—2.36 46.28 80.60 2930 69—9.23 92.15 29 59—36.08 47.75 79.80 15" .29 3030 69—8.97 92.15 30 59—68.33 49.20 78.98 3130 69—8.70 92.14 31 58—19.13 50.65 78.14 3230 69—8.42 92.14 32 57—48.48 52.09 77.27 3330 69—8.12 92.13 33 57—76.39 53.51 76.38 3430 69—7.80 92.13 34 56—22.88 54.91 75.46 35 56-47.97

TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DEGREES.

7

Table No. I.—Geographical Degrees (continued).

Arcs of Great Circles Arcs of Longitude Chords Mean Latitude Length of degree Mean length of 1' Latitude Length of each degree Difference Length of 1' Anglr of ridian with chord of 1' Offset at centre chord of 1' º' Miles Chains Chains º Miles Chains Chains Chains 90° Links 3530 69-7·46 92·12 56-47·97 56·30 75·46 3630 69-7·12 92·12 36 55-71·67 56·30 74·46 3730 69-6·78 92·11 37 55-14·01 57·66 73·56 3830 69-6·44 92·11 38 54-35·02 58·99 72·58 3930 69-6·10 92·10 39 53-54·71 60·31 71·58 4030 69-5·77 92·10 40 52-73·10 61·61 70·55 19" ·33 4130 69-5·43 92·09 41 52-10·21 62·89 69·50 4230 69-5·10 92·08 42 51-26·06 64·15 68·43 4330 69-4·77 92·08 43 50-40·67 65·39 67·34 4430 69-4·43 92·07 44 49-54·06 66·61 66·23 4530 69-4·10 92·07 45 48-66·24 67·82 65·10 21" ·33 4630 69-3·76 92·06 46 47-77·24 69·00 63·95 4730 69-3·43 92·06 47 47-7·08 70·16 62·78 4830 69-3·10 92·05 48 46-15·78 71·30 61·59 4930 69-2·77 92·05 49 45-23·36 72·42 60·38 23" ·33 5030 69-2·44 92·04 50 44-29·85 73·51 59·16 5130 69-2·11 92·03 51 43-35·27 74·58 57·92 5230 69-1·77 92·03 52 42-39·64 75·63 56·66 5330 69-1·44 92·02 53 41-42·98 76·66 55·38 54 40-45.32 54.08

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ON SURVEY WORK.

Table No. I. —Geographical Degrees (continued).

Arcs of Great Circles Arcs of Longitude Chords Mean Latitude Length of degree Mean length of 1' Latitude Length of each degree Difference Length of 1' Anglr of ridian with chord of 1' Offset at centre chord of 1' º' Miles Chains Chains º Miles Chains Chains Chains 90° Links 5430 69-1.10 92.02 40-45.32 54.80 5530 69-0.77 92.01 55 39-46.18 78.64 52.77 5630 69-0.45 92.01 56 38-47.08 79.60 51.45 5730 69-0.14 92.00 57 37-46.56 80.52 50.45 5830 68-79.85 92.00 58 36-45.15 81.41 48.15 5930 68-79.59 91.99 59 35-42.87 82.28 47.38 6030 68-79.33 91.99 60 34-39.73 83.14 45.99 26" ·33 6130 68-79.07 91.98 61 33-35.76 84.78 44.59 6230 68-78.81 91.98 62 32-30.98 85.56 43.18 6330 68-78.56 91.98 63 31-25.42 86.31 41.75 6430 68-78.31 91.97 64 30-19.11 87.03 40.31 6530 68-78.06 91.97 65 29-12.08 87.74 38.86 6630 68-77.81 91.96 66 28-4.34 88.41 37.40 6730 68-77.56 91.96 67 26-75.93 89.06 35.93 6830 68-77.31 91.95 68 25-66.87 89.69 34.44 6930 68-77.06 91.95 69 24-57.18 90.28 32.95 7030 68-76.82 91.95 70 23-46.90 90.84 31.44 7130 68-76.58 91.94 71 22-36.06 91.38 29.93 28" ·22 7230 68-76.35 91.94 73 20-12.79 91.89 28.87 73 20-12.79 26.87

9

TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DEGREES.

Table No. I.—Geographical Degrees (continued).

Arcs of Great Circles Arcs of Longitude Chords Mean Latitude Length of degree Mean length of 1' Latitude Length of each degree Difference Length of 1' Anglr of ridian with chord of 1' Offset at centre chord of 1' º' Miles Chains Chains º Miles Chains Chains Chains 90° Links 7330 68-76.14 91.93 20 1279 92.37 26.87 7430 68-75.96 91.93 74 19-0.42 92.82 25.34 7530 68-75.80 91.93 75 17-67.60 93.24 23.79 7630 68-75.66 91.93 76 16-54.36 93.63 22.23 7730 68-75.53 91.92 77 15-40.73 94.00 20.67 7830 68-75.41 91.92 78 14-26.73 94.35 19.11 7930 68-75.30 91.92 79 13-12.38 94.67 17.53 8030 68-75.20 91.92 80 11-77.71 94.95 15.96 29" .09 8130 68-71.11 91.92 81 10-62.76 95.21 14.37 8230 68-75.02 91.92 82 9-47.55 95.44 12.79 8330 68-74.94 91.91 83 8-32.11 95.65 11.20 8430 68-74.87 91.91 84 7-16.46 95.82 9.60 8530 68-74.81 91.91 85 6-0.34 95.96 8.01 8630 68-74.75 91.91 86 4-64.68 96.07 6.41 8730 68-74.71 91.91 87 3-48.61 96.15 4.81 8830 68-74.68 91.91 88 2-32.46 96.21 3.20 8930 68-74.66 91.91 89 1-16.25 96.25 1.60 90 Nil. Nil

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ON SURVEY WORK.

Table No. II. —Astronomical Degrees.

Latitude Longitude Length of each degree Mean length of 1 Latitude Length of each degree Difference Length of 1 Miles Chains Chains 0° Miles Chains Chains Chains 68–56·74 91.61 1 69–13.89 ·84 92.23 68—56·76 91.61 2 69–13.05 2.52 92.21 68—56·80 91.61 3 69–10.53 4·19 92.17 68—56·87 91.61 4 69–6.34 5·86 92.10 68—56·97 91.62 5 69–0.48 7·53 92.00 68—57·10 91.62 6 68–72.95 9·19 91.88 68—57·26 91.62 7 68–63.76 10·87 91.72 68—57·45 91·62 8 68–52·89 12·54 91·54 68—57·67 91.63 9 68–40·35 14·19 91.33 68—57·92 91·63 10 68–26·16 15·85 91.10 68—58·20 91.64 11 68–10.31 17·49 90.83 68—58·51 91·64 12 67–72·82 19·13 90.54 68—58·84 91·65 13 67–53·69 20·78 90.22 68—59.21 91·65 14 67–32·91 22·41 89.88 68—59·63 91·66 15 67–10·50 24·04 89.50 68—60·08 91·67 16 66–40·78 25·68 89.10 68—60·58 91·68 17 66–13·51 27·27 88.67

11

TABLE OF ASTRONOMICAL DEGREES.

Table No. II.–Astronomical Degrees (continued).

Latitude Latitude Longitude Length of each degree monn length of l' Length of each degree Difference Length of l' Miles Chains Chains ° Miles Chains Chains Chains 66-13 88.22 68—61.12 91.68 18 65-64·63 28.88 87.74 68-61.70 91.69 19 65-34.16 30.47 87.23 68-62.31 91.70 20 65-2.08 32.08 86.70 68-62.95 91.72 21 64-48.42 33.66 86.14 68-63.62 91.73 22 64-13.19 35.23 85.55 68-64.32 91.74 23 63-56.40 36.79 84.94 68-65.05 91.75 24 63-18.08 38.32 84.30 68-65.81 91.76 25 62.58.22 39.86 83.63 68-66.60 91.78 26 62-16.84 41.38 82.94 68-67.42 91.79 27 61-53.96 42.88 82.23 68-68.27 91.80 28 61-9.59 44.37 81.49 68-69.15 91.82 29 60-43.72 45.87 80.72 68-70.05 91.83 30 59-76.37 47.35 79.93 68-70.96 91.85 31 59-27.58 48.79 79.12 68-71.87 91.86 32 58-57.33 50.25 78.28 68-72.78 91.88 33 58-5.64 51.69 77.42 68-73.70 91.89 34 57-32.53 53.11 76.54 68-74.62 91.91 35 56-58.00 54.53 75.63 68-75.54 91.92 36 56-2.08 55.92 74.70 68-76.46 91.94 37 55-24.78 57.30 73.74

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ON SURVEY WORK.

Table No. II.—Astronomical Degrees (continued).

Latitude Longitude Length of each degree Mean Length of each 1' Latitude Length of each degree Differemce Length of 1' Miles Chains Chains º Miles Chains Chains Chains 55-24.78 73.74 68-77.38 91.96 38 54-46.14 58.64 72.76 68-78.30 91.97 39 53-66.17 59.97 71.76 68-79.22 91.99 40 53-4.88 61.29 70.74 69-0.14 92.00 41 52.22.30 62.58 69.70 69-1.06 92.02 42 51-38.45 63.85 68.64 69-1.98 92.03 43 50-53.34 65.11 67.55 69-2.90 92.05 44 49-66.98 66.36 66.44 69-3.82 92.06 45 48-79.40 67.58 65.32 69-4.74 92.08 46 48-10.62 68.78 64.17 69-5.66 92.09 47 47-20.67 69.95 63.01 69-6.58 92.11 48 46-29.55 71.12 61.82 69-7.50 92.12 49 45-37.29 72.26 60.62 69-8.42 92.14 50 44-43.91 73.38 59.39 69-9.33 92.15 51 43-49.44 74.47 58.15 69-10.23 92.17 52 42-53.90 75.54 56.89 69-11.12 92.18 53 41-57.31 76.59 55.62 69-12.00 92.20 54 40-59.69 77.62 54.32 69-12.87 92.21 55 39-61.06 78.63 53.01 69-13.73 92.23 56 38-61.45 79.61 51.69 69-14.58 92.24 57 37-60.89 80.57 50.34

TABLE OF ASTRONOMICAL DEGREES.

13

Table No. II.—Astronomical Degrees (continued).

Latitude Latitude Longitude Length of each degree Mean length of 1' Length of each degree Difference Length of 1' Miles Chains Chains º Miles Chains Chains Chains 37-60.89 50.34 69-15.42 92.26 58 36-57.05 81.47 48.99 69-16.25 92.27 59 35-57.05 82.37 47.61 69-17.07 92.28 60 34-53.79 83.26 46.22 69-17.88 92.30 61 33-49.67 84.12 44.82 69-18.68 92.31 62 32-44.73 84.94 43.41 69-19.47 92.32 63 31-38.98 85.75 41.98 69-20.25 92.34 64 30-32.45 86.53 40.54 69-21.02 92.35 65 29-25.17 87.28 39.08 69-21.78 92.36 66 28-17.17 88.00 37.61 69-22.53 92.37 67 27-8.46 88.71 36.14 69-23.27 92.39 68 25-79.07 89.39 34.65 69-24.00 92.40 69 24-69.04 90.03 33.15 69-24.72 92.41 70 23-58.39 90.65 31.63 69-25.43 92.42 71 22-47.15 91.24 30.11 69-26.13 92.43 72 21-35.34 91.81 28.58 69-26.82 92.45 73 20-23.00 92.34 27.05 69-27.50 92.46 74 19-10.16 92.84 25.50 69-28.16 92.47 75 17-76.85 93.31 23.94 69-28.80 92.48 76 16-63.09 93.76 22.38 69-29.41 92.49 77 15-48.92 20.81 20.81

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ON SURVEY WORK.

Table No. II.—Astronomical Degrees (continued).

Lattude Latitude Longitude Length of each degree Mean length of 1' Length of each degree Differnce Length of 1' Miles Chains Chains º Miles Chains Chains Chains 15-48.92 20.81 69-29.99 92.50 78 14-34.37 94.55 19.23 69-30.53 92.51 79 13-19.45 95.26 17.65 69-31.02 92.52 80 12-4.19 95.26 16.06 69-31.02 92.52 81 10-68.63 95.56 14.47 69-31.83 92.53 82 9-52.81 95.82 12.88 69-32.16 92.54 83 8-36.75 96.06 11.27 69-32.45 92.54 84 7-20.46 96.29 9.67 69-32.70 92.54 85 6-3.98 96.48 8.06 69.32.91 92.55 86 4-67.36 96.62 6.45 69-33.08 92.55 87 3-50.63 96.73 4.84 69-33.21 92.55 88 2-33.81 96.82 3.23 69-33.70 92.55 89 1-16.93 96.82 1.61 69-33.35 92.55 90 Nil 96.93 Nil

TABLE OF ASTRONOMICAL- AND GEOGRAPHICAL DEGREES.

15

Table No. III. For Reducing Astronomical to Geographical Degrees.

Astronomical Degrees Geographical Degrees Latitude Mean length of 1' at each parallel Distance of each parallel from the equator Difference Distance of each parallel from the equator Mean length of 1' at each papall Latitude º Chains Miles Chains Miles Chains Chains 0 91·612 Nil. Nil. Nil. 92.231 0 1 91·612 68-56·74 0-37·15 69-13.89 92.231 1 2 91·612 137-33·50 0-74·27 138-27.77 92.231 2 3 91·613 206-10·30 1-31·207-41.63 92.229 3 4 91·615 274-67·17 1-68·29 276-55.46 92.230 4 5 91·617 343-44·16 2-25·10 345-69.24 92.229 5 6 91·619 412-21·24 2-61·72 415-2.96 92.227 6 7 91·622 480-78·50 3-18·11 484-16.61 92.226 7 8 91·626 549-55·95 3-51·23 553-30.18 92.225 8 9 91·630 618-33·62 4-10·04 622-43.66 92.223 9 10 91·634 687-11·54 4-45·50 691-57.04 92.222 10 11 91·638 755-69·74 5-0·57 760-70·31 92.220 11 12 91·644 821-48·25 5-35·21 830-3·46 92·217 12 13 91·658 893-27·09 5-69·38 899-16·47 92·215 13 14 91·656 962-6·30 6-23·04 968-29·34 92·212 14 15 91·664 1030-65·93 6-56·12 1037-42·05 92·210 15 16 91·672 1099-46·01 7-8·58 1106-54·59 92·207 16 17 91·680 1168 26·59 7-40·36 1175-66·95 92·204 17 18 91·690 1237-7·71 7-71·41 1244-79·12 92·200 18 19 91·700 1305-69·41 8-21·68 1314-11·09 92·197 19 20 91·710 1374-51·72 8-51·12 1383-22·84 92·194 20 21 91·721 1443-34·67 8-79·69 1452-34·36 92·190 21 22 91·732 1512-18·29 9-27·34 1521-45·63 92·185 22 23 91·744 1581-2·61 9-54·03 1590-56·64 92·180 23 24 91·756 1649-67·66 9.79·74 1659-67·40 92·177 24 25 91·769 1708-53·47 10-24·43 1728-77·90 92·172 25 26 91·783 1787-40·07 10-48·08 1798-8·15 92·168 26 27 91·797 1856-27·49 10-70·66 1867-18·15 92·164 27 28 91·811 1925-15·76 11-12·13 1936-27·89 92·160 28 29 91·826 1994-4·91 11-32·17 2005-37·38 92·156 29 30 91·841 2062-74·96 11-51·65 2074-46·61 92·151 30 31 91·856 2131-65·92 11-69.66 2143-55·92·147 31

16

ON SURVEY WORK.

Table No. III. For Reducing Astronomical to Geographical Degrees (continued)

Astronomical Degrees Difference Geographical Degrees Latitude Mean Length of 1' at each Parallel Distance of each parallel from the equator Distance of each parallel from the equator Mean length of 1' at each parallel Latitiude º Chains Miles Chains Miles Chains Miles Chains Chains º 32 91·871 2200—57·79 12—6·49 2212—64·28 92·142 32 33 91.887 2269—50·57 12—22·13 2281—72·70 92·137 33 34 91·902 2338—44·27 12—36·55 2351—0·82 92·133 34 35 91·917 2407—38·89 12—49·73 2420—8·62 92.127 35 36 91·913 2476—34·43 12—61·65 2489—16·08 92·121 36 37 91·948 2545—30·89 12—72·31 2558—23·20 92·116 37 38 91·963 2614—28·27 13—1·71 2627—29·98 92·110 38 39 91·979 2863—26·57 13-9·85 2696—36·42 92·104 39 40 91·994 2752—25·59 13—16·73 2765—42·52 92·098 40 41 92·009 2821—25·93 13—22·36 2834—48·29 92·093 41 42 92·025 2890—26·99 13—26·73 2903-53·72 92·088 42 43 92·040 2959-28·97 13—29·85 2972—58·82 92·082 43 44 92·055 3028—31·87 13—31·72 3041 —63·59 92·077 44 45 92·071 3097—35·69 13—32·33 3110—68·02 92·071 45 46 92·086 3166—40·43 13—31·69 3179—72·12 92·065 46 47 92·101 3235—46·09 13—29·79 3248—75·88 92·059 47 48 92·117 3304—52·67 13—26·64 3317 —79.31 92·054 48 49 92·132 3373—60·17 13—22·24 3387— 2.41 92·049 49 50 92·147 3442—68·59 13—16·59 3456— 5·18 92·043 50 51 92·162 3511—77·92 13— 9·70 3525— 7·62 92·038 51 52 92·177 3581— 8·15 13— 1·58 3594— 9·73 92·032 52 53 92·193 3650—19·27 12—72·22 3663—11·50 92·027 53 54 92·207 3719—31.27 12—61·67 3732—12·94 92·021 54 55 92·221 3788—44·14 12—49·90 3801—14·04 92·016 55 56 92·235 3857—57·87 12—36·94 3870—14·81 92·010 56 57 92·250 3926—72·45 12—22·81 3939—15·26 92·005 57 58 92·263 3995— 7·87 12— 7·53 4008—15·40 92·000 58 59 92·277 4065—24·12 11—71·13 4077—15·25 91·995 59 60 92·291 4136—41·19 11—53·65 4146—14·84 91·991 60 61 92·304 4203—59·07 11—35·10 4215—14·17 91·987 61 62 92·317 4272—77·5 11—15.49 4284—13·24 91·982 62 63 92·330 4342—17·2 10—74·83 4353—12·05 91·978 63 64 92·343 4411—37·47 10—53·14 4422—10·61 91·974 61 65 92·356 4480—58·49 10—30·43 4891— 8·92 91·969 65 66 92·369 4550— 0·27 10— 6·71 4560— 6·98 91·965 66 67 92·381 4619—22·80 9-61·99 4629— 4·79 91·961 67 68 92·393 4688—46·07 9—36·28 4698— 2·35 91·957 68 69 92·407 4757—70·07 9— 9·59 4766—79·66 91·953 69

Table No. 111. —Foe Reducing Astronomical to Geographical Degrees (continued).

9. The length of a degree of longitude, is 1/360 of the circumference of the latitude circle on which it is measured, being greatest at the equator and nothing at the poles.

10. A great circle is said to be in azimuth, when its plane is inclined to that of the equator.

The azimuth of any arc of a great circle, is the angle which its plane makes with that of a meridian circle

17

Astronomical Degrees Geographical Degrees Latitude Mean Length of 1' at each Parallel Distance of each parallel from the equator Distance of each parallel from the equator Mean length Latitiude º Chains Miles Chains Miles Chains Miles Chains Chains º 70 92·418 4827—14·79 8—61·93 4833—76·72 91·949 70 71 92·429 4896—40·22 8-33·32 4904-73·54 91·945 71 72 92·441 4965—66·35 8—3·77 4973—70·12 91·941 72 73 92·452 5033—13·17 7—53·30 5042—66·47 91·937 73 74 92·463 5104—40·67 7—21·94 5111—62·61 91·933 74 75 92·474 5173—68·83 6—69·74 5180—58·57 91·931 75 76 92·485 5243—17·63 6—36·74 5249—54·37 91·928 76 77 92·494 5312—47·04 6—2·99 5318—50·03 91·926 77 78 92·504 5381—77·03 5—48·53 5387—45·56 91·924 78 79 92·513 5451—27·56 5—13·41 5456—40·97 91·922 79 80 92·520 5520—58·58 4—57·69 5525—36·27 91·920 80 81 92·527 5590—10·03 4—21·44 5594—31·47 91·919 81 82 92·533 5659—41·86 3—64·72 5663—26·58 91·917 82 83 92·538 5728-74·02 3—27·58 5732—21·60 91·916 83 84 92·542 5798—26·47 2-70·07 5801—16·54 91·914 84 85 92· 546 5867—59·17 2—32·24 5870—11·41 91·913 85 86 92·549 5937—12·08 1—74·14 5939— 6·22 91·912 86 87 92·552 6006-45·16 1—35· 81 6008— 0·97 91·911 87 88 92·554 6075 —78·37 0—77·31 6076—75·68 91·911 88 89 92·555 6145—31·67 0—38·69 6145—70·36 91·911 89 90 92·556 6214—65·02 Nil. 6214-65·02 91·911 90

17

GENERAL DEFINITIONS.

18

ON SURVEY WORK.

measured on the plane of the horizon at the point of intersection.

Note. —In the execution of ordinary surveys not extending over more than three degrees of latitude, the ellipticity of the meridians may be entirely disregarded ; and the tabular length of the geographical degree, at the centre of the survey, may be taken as its uniform value throughout the work, the probable error from this source being less than the errors arising from the actual irregularities of the earth's form. In the following remarks on the measurement of lines and angles, the earth is treated as a true sphere, the theoretical correction due to polar depression being inappreciable within the above-named limits.

FIELDWORK. —STRAIGHT LINES.

11. Every line ranged out on the earth's surface, either by upright ranging rods or by the telescope of a theodolite moving in a vertical plane, is an arc of a great circle; and it will appear to the eye as a straight line.

12. Parallels of latitude are not great circles ; and a series of upright ranging rods placed along a latitude circle, would appear to the eye to be on a slight curve, because they would point to the centre of the earth, and not to that of the latitude-circle.

13. Hence, parallels of latitude cannot be ranged as straight lines; but they must be set out either as a series of chords, or by offsets from a tangent line, unless run by compass, which method, however, is not susceptible of minute accuracy.

FIELDWOEK. —STRAIGHT LINES.

19

Every line run to a north or a south bearing, is a portion of a meridian, and it can be ranged out as a straight line.

Every line north or south of the equator, set out to an east bearing, is an arc of a latitude- circle, and it will appear to the eye as slightly curved.

The equator is the only circle that can be set out with an east bearing, as a straight line.

All lines run by compass, making an acute angle with the meridian, are portions of spirals which, if infinitely produced, would be always approaching— but never reaching—one of the poles.

In ranging lines through timbered country, a clear sight must be obtained throughout; or else the trees which intercept the view, must be passed by triangulation, or by a system of parallel lines, as may be found

19

14. In measuring lines by compass, the followinghints may be useful:—

As the magnetic poles do not coincide with the extremities of the earth's axis of rotation, there is a difference between the magnetic meridian and the true meridian, the amount of which depends on the latitude and longitude of the place of observation. There are also local variations, especially in districts of volcanic formation, for which no rule can be given, and which can only be determined by actual observation. It is, therefore, necessary to ascertain and to allow for the magnetic variation, in every case, before laying down any survey which depends on compass bearings.

20

ON SURVEY WORK.

most convenient. In setting out lines by compass, however, this is not requisite ; and the large trees are not cut down, but are simply blazed on each side, and left standing, as permanent marks.

Note. —A ship's course at sea, except on a north or east bearing, is a spiral one, hence the special value of Mercator's projection, on which every course may be laid down on a chart as a straight line. In great circle sailing, the direction of the course is changed at short intervals, so that the total result differs little from an arc of a great circle.

MEASUREMENT Or DISTANCES.

15. Measurements may be taken either by the chain or by a reading telescope.

16. In measuring with the chain, care must be taken to keep it truly level; and, in passing over rising ground, the handle which is raised from the ground, must be carefully plumbed from the arrow below it. Neglect of this precaution is fatal to that precision which is the first requisite in every engineering survey.

17. The simplest method of using the telescope for reading distances, is to fix two parallel threads in the diaphragm, which, at a given number of links, shall subtend a corresponding number of divisions on a levels staff.

Thus, if we fix in the diaphragm of a theodolite, two horizontal threads which shall exactly subtend a chord of ten feet on a level-staff placed ten chains distant, any intermediate distance can be read off

21

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES.

without calculation, each hundredth of a foot on the staff corresponding to a link, or the hundredth part of a chain.

Note. —The horizontal distance will not be exactly proportional to the readings on the staff, on account of the alterations in the focal length of the telescope; but the differences are too slight to be worth correction.

If the measurements are taken on sloping ground, the staff must be inclined, so that- it shall be square to the line of sight. This is done by making the staffholder look along a pair of sights attached to the staff, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Measurement of distances on sloping ground.

The angle of elevation or depression must also be carefully measured, and the reading of the staff reduced to the corresponding horizontal measurement, which will be as the cosine of the angle of elevation or of depression. This mode of measurement will be found very expeditious, and much more accurate than any direct measurement, with the chain, over fallen trees or broken ground; whilst it requires no more clearing than is 'equisite to obtain a clear view of the level-staff.

22

ON SURVEY WORK.

Table No. Iv. Distance for Intervals of Five Minutes, taken by Pocket-sextant

Length of Offset-Staff=10 links Angle Distance in links Diff. per 1' in links Angle Distance in links Angle Distance in links Diff. per 1' in links º' º' º' 50 114·6 ·4 330 163·7 ·7 20 286·5 2·3 455 116·5 ·4 325 167·7 ·8 155 298·9 2·5 450 118·5 ·4 320 171·9 ·8 150 312·5 2·7 445 120·6 ·4 315 176·3 ·8 145 327·4 2·9 440 122·8 ·4 310 180·9 ·9 140 343·8 3·2 435 125·0 ·4 35 185·8 ·9 135 361·9 3·6 430 127·3 ·4 30 191·0 1· 130 382·0 4·0 425 129·7 ·5 255 196·4 1· 125 404·4 4·5 420 132·2 ·5 250 202·2 1·1 120 429·7 5·0 415 134·8 ·5 245 208·3 1·2 115 458·4 5·7 410 137·5 ·5 240 214·8 1·4 110 491·1 6·5 45 140·2 ·5 235 221·8 1·5 15 528·9 7·5 40 143·2 ·6 230 229·2 1·6 10 573·0 8·8 355 146·3 ·6 225 237·1 1·6 350 149·5 ·6 220 245·5 1·7 345 152·8 ·7 215 254·6 1·8 340 156·2 ·7 210 264·4 1·9 335 159·9 25 275·0 2·1

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES.

23

18. Short distances, not exceeding five chains, may also be measured with a pocket sextant, by taking the angle subtended by an offset-staff held in a vertical position a few feet above the ground. This is a very simple and valuable method of obtaining distances, where there are obstacles to direct measurement with the chain, or where this would involve the clearing of a track for the purpose.

19. The preceding table, No. IV., gives the distance in links for every fifth minute, from five degrees to one degree. The intervening distances may readily be interpolated by means of the column of differences.

Fig. 3. Checking the measurement of long lines by triangulation.

20. It is always well, in the measurement of long lines, to check the accuracy of the measurements, both as regards distance and direction, by triangulation.

Thus, in the line a b c, Fig. 3, if the bearing of a point d is taken at a, b, and c, the calculation of the distance b d, will show at once whether any error has been made in either the length or the direction of a b c, as, in either case, two different values will be found for

24

ON SURVEY WORK.

bd, which is common to the two triangles a b d, c b d. This will be found a more expeditious and more satisfactory check than simple measurement.

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES.

21. Angles may be measured with great accuracy, with the chain, by means of their chords, the chord of any angle being double the sine of half the given angle.

Thus, to find the angle d a c, Fig. 4, which is the supplement of the angle dab, produce b a any convenient distance as a c, making a c = a d, and measure

Fig. 4. Measurement of angles with the chain.

the chord dc in links and decimal parts. Divide dc by the sum of a c and a d, and the quotient will be the natural sine of half the angle d a c.

Example.—Let a c = 434 links, and d c = 156.4

links; then

which is the na-

tural sine of 10° 22', or the half of 20° 44', the angle required.

This method is recommended for adoption in cases where, from the nature of the ground, neither the sextant nor the theodolite can be used with advantage.

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES.

25

22. Angles are usually measured instrumentally, in one of three different ways, viz.:—

By compass bearings

By sextant angles

By the theodolite.

23. A compass bearing is the angle made by the plane of the magnetic meridian, with a vertical plane passing through the point observed, measured on the plane of the horizon ; the angle contained between any two such vertical planes being the difference of their azimuths.

The compass is only applicable for taking horizontal angles, and is altogether too imperfect an instrument to be relied on in surveys of precision.

24. In taking angles with the sextant, the recorded angle is the plane angle included between two straight lines drawn from the point of observation to the points observed, irrespective of their relative heights above the horizon.

The sextant can, therefore, only be used with advantage in ordinary survey work, where the ground is sufficiently level to prevent the existence of sensible differences between the recorded and the corresponding horizontal angles.

25. The theodolite records vertical and horizontal angles, and no others; both horizontal and vertical angles being referred to the plane of the horizon of the point of observation, by the construction of the instrument.

26

ON SURVEY WORK.

Hence, the sum of the angles of a large triangle, measured with the theodolite, will slightly exceed the sum of the same angles measured as the angles of a plane triangle with the sextant; the difference being called the spherical excess.

26. The reduction of spherical triangles is most readily effected by treating the arcs forming their sides as straight lines. Under this assumption, the angles of the resulting plane triangles will be smaller than the corresponding spherical angles by one-third of the total spherical excess in each triangle.

TO SET OUT A MERIDIAN LINE.

27. The following approximate method of setting out a meridian line, will be found very simple, and may be carried with care to a great degree of accuracy.

On a perfectly level floor, mark the path of the extremity of the shadow of a pointed vertical rod, for a couple of hours before and after noon.

From the base of the rod as a centre, strike an arc intersecting the path of the shadow, at two points. A straight line joining the points of intersection will lie east and west. Bisect this line by a perpendicular passing through the base of the rod, and the result will be a meridian.

Note. —This method is not rigidly exact, but the astronomical correction required is too trifling to be worth notice in ordinary survey work.

TRAVERSING.

27

TRAVEKSING.

28. The following hints may be useful:—

Before commencing work, see that the collimation of the telescope is in correct adjustment.

The vertical adjustment is to be made as described for the spirit-level. The horizontal adjustment is made as follows: Clamp No. 1 vernier at 360°, and, having levelled and clamped the instrument, bring it by the lower tangent-screw upon a vertical line marked on a white ground, at a distance of not less than 300 feet. Eeverse the telescope, and turn the instrument half round, clamping No. 1 vernier at 180°. If the vertical line is not truly bisected, correct the error, half by the diaphragm-screws, and half by the lower tangent-screw; and repeat the operation until the adjustment is perfect.

Then, commence the traverse by clamping the telescope to the magnetic meridian, as shown by the com-pass-needle, the verniers having been first clamped at 360° and 180° respectively, and take the azimuth of the first line.

At each station in succession, reverse the telescope before setting the instrument on the previous station; after which, restore it to its previous position before reading the bearing of the next line. The vernier readings are thus magnetic azimuths, and they should agree with the compass bearings. If there is any sensible difference between them, it will arise either from local

28

ON SURVEY WORK.

variations, or from a want of straightness in the lines —a point which should be at once tested before further proceedings are taken.

29. It will be found simpler to make the correction for magnetic deviation in plotting the work, than to work from the true meridian in the field, as this process involves a subtraction sum for every reading in the fieldbook which it may be desirable to compare with the corresponding magnetic bearing. It is, therefore, recommended that all the bearings in the field-book should be referred to the initial magnetic meridian.

30. There are various ways of noting bearings, but the simplest plan is to read round the whole circle to 360°, the zero being always North.

31. If the angles of a traverse are measured by the sextant, or with the chain, it is best to measure, not the included angle, but its supplement, care being taken always to add or to subtract the angle, thus obtained, from the previous azimuth, as the case may require.

32. In plotting a traverse, meridians should be ruled on the paper at convenient intervals, and the bearings of the lines should be plotted from their azimuths and not from the included angles.

33. It is always useful to calculate and to plot the total bearing and distance, as a check upon the accuracy of the plotting, as well as for use in the subsequent calculations for latitude and longitude.

Note.—Angles can be plotted more accurately from their chords, by the help of a table of natural sines, than by

29

WASTE LANDS.

the use of a protractor ; although this instrument is valuable for reading off the magnitudes of angles when plotted.

SURVEY OF WASTE LANDS.

34. Sketch-Map. —A sketch-map is a map constructed, not from actual measurement, but from sketches based on compass bearings and estimated distances, checked, more or less, by observations for latitude and longitude at the principal stations.

A sketch-map should show approximately— 1. The direction of the principal watershed and watercourse lines.

2. The extent of such portions of country as are useless for settlement, either because they are covered with swamps and lagoons, or because they are too rocky and precipitous for occupation.

3. The limits of forest and open country.

35. The value of a sketch-map is greatly enhanced, when it also records the heights above the sea-level, of the principal stations. These may be obtained approximately, with great ease, by combining a series of barometric observations with the ordinary operations of the reconnaissance survey.

36. The construction of a sketch-map, as a guide for future operations, is the first step to be taken in the survey of a new country for the purpose of settlement.

37. Topographical Survey. —The work of a topo-

30

ON SURVEY WORK.

graphical survey has for its object the construction, from actual measurement, of a map showing the topography of a country, both natural and artificial; that is to say, not only its physical features, but also the boundaries of purchased lands, and the position of existing roads, buildings, and fences.

Topographical surveying is generally conducted without any reference to the spherical form of the earth, by systems of traveree-lines; eaeh group of lines commencing and closing on a station of which the latitude and longitude have been previously ascertained, by reference to which any error in the measurements, either linear or angular, is thoroughly checked.

38. Geodetic Survey .— The work of a geodetic survey consists in the determination of the latitude and longitude of a number of permanent stations; by reference to whieh, every portion of the topographical survey can be plotted correctly in position.

This may be done in three ways, viz.—

By triangulation:

By meridians and parallels of latitude;

By traverses.

The first method is mathematically correct; the two others are only approximately so, for their accuracy depends on the degree of correctness with which the linear measurements are taken.

39. Triangulation. — In the triangulation of a large district, the distance between two stations is first measured with rigid accuracy as a scale, and then reduced,

31

WASTE LANDS.

by calculation, to the corresponding measurement at the sea-level.

The distances between the other stations, are calculated in succession by treating them as the sides of, triangles, of which the angles are first measured as spherical angles, and then reduced to plane angles by deducting the spherical excess. The angles subtended by the arcs forming the sides of these triangles, are then found from their lengths, calculated as the sides of plane triangles.

The azimuth of the base, and the latitude and longitude of one station, having been determined by astronomical observation, the latitudes and longitudes of all the other stations are found by calculation; the linear measurement being confined to the determination of the exact length of the base-line, and of such other lines as it may be thought necessary to measure, at the extremities of the survey, as a check upon the accuracy of the work.

It will at once be seen that this method is free from all errors of linear measurement, provided that the base-line is accurately measured.

40. There are, however, two serious difficulties attending the adoption of this method in timbered districts. If the country be flat, it is almost impossible to obtain suitable sites for stations, and elevated observatories must be built at considerable cost. If the country is mountainous, and the stations are fixed on rocky peaks, as in Tasmania, there is a difficulty in con-

32

ON SURVEY WORK.

necting them by actual measurement with the topographical survey; whilst the establishment of a series of secondary triangles, to connect tbe principal stations with the lower levels, is prevented by the obstructions offered by the bush.

41. In open country, or even in timbered districts which afford easily accessible sites for the stations, it is always desirable that the topographical survey should be preceded by a triangulation of the district, not only because it affords a thorough check upon the lineal measurements, but also because detached portions of the topographical survey may, by its means, be plotted at once in their correct positions, avoiding the necessity of waiting for the completion of the intermediate portions.

42. Meridians and Parallels. —In a flat, densely timbered country, triangulation becomes impossible, and it is necessary to resort to some other means for defining the position of detached portions of a topographical survey, or of the boundaries of lands purchased or leased from the Crown, where no topographical survey may yet have been made.

43-46. At first sight, it might seem very easy to effect these objects, by running two systems of straight lines across the country, at right angles to each other, at regular intervals: thus dividing the surface into rectangular blocks.

A little consideration will, however, show that this plan of procedure is prevented, by the spherical form

WASTE LANDS.

33

33

of the earth, from being carried out with any approximation to accuracy, excepting over a very limited area. Over wide areas, the angles cease to be right angles, and the sides of the blocks become curved: the distortion increasing rapidly with the distance from the startingpoint.

47. These difficulties are, however, avoided if the. lines are run as meridians and parallels of latitude, since the resulting figures have respectively similar angles and differ but slightly from true rectangles.

This is the system adopted in Canada and in the United States, the direction of both meridians and parallels being fixed by compass; and although the work is made somewhat rough by the combined influences of local attraction and the imperfection of the instrument, it is free from gross error when the magnetic deviation is correctly ascertained and allowed for. It is obvious, however, that the correctness of the work is dependent on the accuracy of the linear measurements, which, if taken by the chain over an uncleared country, must always be open to doubt.

48. It is necessary for the calculation of the arcs both of latitude and longitude that the latitude of the first parallel should be correctly ascertained before commencing operations ; but the determination of the longitude of the initial meridian is not required for the purposes of the survey, and is best not attempted until it can be ascertained with exactness, when the

34

ON SURVEY WORK.

result can be added as a constant correction to the local longitude.

Note. —Whenever a line of electric telegraph has been established, it affords a ready means of ascertaining differences of longitude, by enabling two observers to note with precision the difference in the times of the transit of a star across the respective meridians of the points of observation.

49. In open country, or in cases where the timber is so light that a clear sight can be obtained along the survey-lines without too much expense for clearing, a much greater degree of precision may be obtained by setting out the parallels in short lengths, as a series of arcs of great circles, which can be ranged and plotted as straight lines forming chords to the true latitudes; the deviation from which, however, will be very trifling.

To do this, the angle included between the meridian and the chord must be calculated according to the latitude and the length of the chord, and set out very carefully from the meridian with a theodolite.

If the length of the chord and, in consequence, the complement of the included angle be inconsiderable, it will be easier to set out a tangent line at right angles to the meridian, and to set off the chord by offsets from this tangent.

The first chord having been ranged out to its calculated length, each succeeding chord may be set out from the preceding one without further reference to the meridian, either by setting off twice the first angle or by offsets from a fresh tangent line.

In Table I. the angle included between the meridian and the chord, is given for every tenth degree of latitude, the length of the chord being that of an arc of a great circle included between two meridians one minute apart.

In the column of offsets, is also given the offset to the chord, for a length of tangent equal to that of half the chord.

Fig. 5. Meridian and chord.

This will readily be understood by reference to the annexed diagram, Fig.5, in which a b is a meridian line, bc, c d, chords; β, the angle included between the meridian and a chord; bf, a tangent line at right angles to the meridian; and ef, the offset to the chord.

In the United States and Canadian surveys, above referred to, the meridians and parallels are run so as to form blocks as nearly as possible a mile square, which

35

35

WASTE LANDS.

36

ON SURVEY WORK.

are thus subdivided into allotments for sale by lines parallel to the main survey lines. In these cases, therefore, the geodetic and the topographical survey, as well as the setting out of the waste land, are all effected by one series of operations in a very economical manner.

50. Traverses. —ln the Australian Colonies, at the present time, the preference appears to be for what is called ' selection before survey.' Under this system of land-sales, an intending purchaser may select land in any part of the country declared open for sale, although not previously topographically surveyed or marked off into allotments, subject to such restrictions as are necessary to prevent a monopoly of natural advantages, and to secure to the Government the right of constructing any lines of communication that may thereafter be required.

51. The system of selection before survey involves, however, —1. The establishment of some system of geodetic survey, by means of which the positions of isolated blocks, often many miles apart, can be defined and registered; for without this no crown grant would be of any real value; and, 2. The determination of the main lines of communication, for the double purpose of securing their reservation against sale or occupation, and of setting out frontage lines for the better regulation of selections.

52. Both these objects may be secured by the setting out of the leading lines of road before the land is thrown open for selection in any given district.

37

WASTE LANDS.

The road-lines having been set out and traversed, the plot of these traverses will form a skeleton map, which affords the means of plotting every selected block of land correctly in position by reference to the mileage of the nearest road, whilst, as the topographical survey is carried on only in connection with each selection as it is set out, no expense is involved in preliminary surveys beyond that of the sketch-map and of the survey of the road-lines.

53. In plotting an extensive system of traverses, the latitude and longitude of the principal stations should be calculated from their bearings and distances, and their positions on the map regulated accordingly.

Note. —Let the full line a b, Fig. 6, represent the total bearing and distance of a traverse, and the dotted lines, a AC, b B c, quadrants of meridian circles passing through A and B. The sides, Ac,B 0, will be the complements of the latitudes of A and b in geographical degrees, and the angle, A c b, will be the difference of their longitudes measured at

38

ON SURVEY WORK.

ab. The angle, cab, is the azimuth of AB, and the angle, A D B is found from the calculated length of AB.

54. Mapping. —Whatever the system of geodetic survey which may be found best suited to the physical and financial condition of a new country, the plotting of the work should be preceded by ruling on the map the meridians and parallels of latitude; and the positions of the principal stations should be laid down from their calculated latitudes and longitudes. The details of the traverses can then be plotted correctly in position between these points, without fear of distortion.

55. In plotting detached surveys, a meridian line and a parallel of latitude should be drawn on every sheet in order to define its position with regard to other portions of the general survey.

56. By reason of the spherical form of the earth, no extensive survey can be laid down correctly on a plane surface, and it becomes necessary to use conventional systems of projection for this purpose.

57. The most convenient projection for general use is the conical, in which the plane surface of the map is treated as the development of a cone, the meridians being straight lines, and the parallels circular arcs.

In this projection, the degrees of longitude should be plotted of their full length at two parallels distant from the top and bottom of the map, one-fourth of its whole height.

The intermediate degrees will be slightly com-

39

SELECTION OF ROAD LINES.

pressed, whilst those above and below these lines will be slightly enlarged.

The degrees of latitude should be plotted throughout of their full length (see Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Conical projection of the earth.

SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

58. The selection of lines of road is properly the work of the engineer, and not of the land-surveyor; although the latter may be employed with advantage in surveying them, when their direction has been marked out.

It is, however, too common, in English colonies, for this, work to be left in the hands of the surveyors engaged in setting out waste lands for sale, who not infrequently subordinate the direction of the roads to the boundaries of the selections, without reference to the nature of the ground to be traversed, or the engineering difficulties to be encountered, in their construction.

40

ON SURVEY WORK.

It would be difficult to overestimate the expense, delay, and vexation arising, in the settlement of a new country, from the roads being laid out on difficult or impracticable routes; or from the necessity of purchasing rights of way through private property, in consequence of land having been sold without reservation of the main thoroughfares.

All these difficulties are avoided if, at the outset, the selection of the road-lines is entrusted to the department which is to be afterwards responsible for their construction, so that the position of the principal lines of communication in each district may be decided upon before the land is thrown open for selection.

CHAPTER 11.

ON LEVELLING.

59. Uniform Datum. — In connection with the operations of every geodetic survey, a series of observations should be made for the purpose of ascertaining the general levels of the country passed over, its capabilities of drainage, and the height of the principal watersheds.

This is best done by first determining the altitude above the sea-level, of the principal points of which the position has been fixed by the survey. Each of these points serves as a starting-point for subsequent operations; by reference to which the levels can be referred to a uniform sea-level datum, and thus form portions of a connected system.

60. General Considerations. —Altitudes may be taken either with the spirit-level or with the barometer: —the first method being precise, but relative; the second absolute, but only approximate.

61. In the use of the spirit-level, a continuous series of observations is required, with an uninterrupted view between the points of which the relative heights are to be determined.

42

ON LEVELLING.

Consequently, the use of the spirit-level is generally impracticable, on the first examination of a timbered country, because of the quantity of clearing required, as a track must be cut along the route to be levelled.

62. On the other hand, in levelling with the barometer, each observation is complete in itself, and gives the absolute height above the sea-level of the point of observation, with a greater or less degree of accuracy, according to the care bestowed on the corrections for moisture, temperature, and other disturbing causes.

It is, therefore, on the use of the barometer that the engineer chiefly depends, in obtaining the altitudes of isolated stations, or in running trial-levels through a timbered country.

USE OF THE BAROMETER.

63. The calculation of altitudes by means of the barometer, depends on the determination of the difference in the height of the mercurial column at the sea-level and at the point of observation, this difference corresponding to the difference of the heights of the atmosphere above the upper and lower stations, in a ratio which depends on the relative specific gravities of the two fluids.

64. Barometric observations are, however, liable to several disturbing causes, of which the principal are — heat, wind, and moisture.

43

USE OF THE BAROMETER.

The thermometer affords a ready means of correcting the barometer-readings for variations of temperature, with a tolerable degree of accuracy; but there are no known means of finding, by calculation, the amount of barometric disturbance due to the pressure of the wind, and to the excess of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere.

65. It therefore becomes necessary to ascertain the extent of this disturbance, by comparing the actual barometer-readings at a bench-mark of which the altitude is known, with the normal reading for the known altitude, and to write off the differences, as index-errors, from the field-observations, before calculating the corresponding altitudes.

66. The following table (No. V.) shows the height above the sea-level corresponding to every hundredth of an inch of the mercurial column, down to 26 inches, calculated for a mean temperature of 32° Fahrenheit, the height of the mercurial column at the sea-level beingassumed as 30 inches.

67. Any intermediate heights required, may be found by taking out the requisite number of decimal parts of the difference between any two tabular readings.

68. No dependence can be placed upon any baro-meter-levels which are not corrected for moisture and temperature, by observations taken at a bench-mark in the neighbourhood of the work, at intervals of not more than one hour.

69. In taking levels with the barometer, two observers are required. The first observer remains all day

44

ON LEVELLING.

Table of Barometer Altitudes (continued).

Table V. —Barometer Altitudes.

29·67 289·4 29·33 590·9 28·99 895·9 28·65 1204·5 .68 280·5 ·34 581·9 29.00 886· 9 .66 1195·4 ·69 271·7 ·35 573·0 ·01 877·8 ·67 1186·2 ·70 262·9 ·36 564·1 ·02 868·8 ·68 1177·1 ·71 254·1 ·37 555·2 ·03 859· 8 ·69 1168·0 ·72 245·3 ·38 546·3 ·04 850·8 ·70 1158·9 ·73 236·5 ·39 537·4 ·05 841· 8 ·71 1149·8 ·74 227·7 ·40 528·5 ·06 832·8 ·72 1140·7 ·75 218·9 ·41 519·6 ·07 823·8 ·73 1131·6 ·76 210·1 ·42 510·7 ·08 814·8 ·74 1122·5 ·77 201·3 ·43 501·8 ·09 805·8 ·75 1113·4 ·78 192·5 ·44 492·9 ·10 796·8 ·76 1104·3 ·79 183·7 ·45 484·0 ·11 787·8 ·77 1095·2 ·80 174·9 ·46 475·2 ·12 778·8 ·78 1086·1 ·81 166·2 ·47 466·3 ·13 769·9 ·79 1077·0 ·82 157·4 ·48 457·4 ·14 760·9 ·80 1067·9 ·83 148·7 ·49 448·5 ·15 751·9 ·81 1058·8 ·84 139·9 ·50 439·7 ·16 742·9 ·82 1049·7 ·85 131·1 ·51 430·8 ·17 734·0 ·83 1040·7 ·86 122·4 ·52 421·9 ·18 725·0 ·84 1031·6 ·87 113·6 ·53 413·1 ·19 716·0 ·85 1022·5 ·88 104·8 ·54 404·2 ·20 707·1 ·86 1013·5 ·89 96·1 ·55 395·4 ·21 698·1 ·87 1004·4 ·90 87·3 ·56 386·5 ·22 689·2 ·88 995·3 ·91 78·6 ·57 377·7 ·23 680·2 ·89 986·3 ·92 69·9 ·58 368·8 ·24 671·3 ·90 977·2 ·93 61·1 ·59 359·9 ·25 662·3 ·91 968·2 ·94 52·3 ·60 351·1 ·26 653·4 ·92 959·1 ·95 43·6 ·61 342·3 ·27 644·4 ·93 950·1 ·96 34·9 ·62 838·6 ·635·5 ·94 941.0 ·97 26·2 ·63 324·7 ·29 626·6 ·95 932.0 ·98 17·4 ·64 315·8 ·30 617·6 ·96 923.0 ·29·99 8·7 .65 307·0 ·31 608·7 .97 913.9 30·00 Sea level ·66 298·2 ·32 599·8 ·98 904·9 Inches Feet Inches Feet ! Inches Feet Inches Feet

45

BAROMETER ALTITUDES.

Table of Barometer Altitudes (continued).

Table V. —Barometer Altitudes.

28·31 1516·8 27·97 1832·9 27·63 2152·8 27· 29 2476·7 ·32 1507·6 ·98 1823·5 ·64 2143·4 ·30 2467·1 ·33 1498·3 27·99 1814·2 ·65 2133·9 ·31 2437·6 ·34 1489·1 28·00 1804·8 ·66 2124·4 ·32 2448·0 ·35 1479·9 ·01 1795·5 ·67 2115·0 ·33 2438·4 ·36 1470·6 ·02 1786·2 ·68 2105·5 ·34 2428·8 ·37 1461·4 ·03 1776·8 ·69 2096·1 ·35 2419·3 ·38 1452·2 ·04 1767·5 ·70 2086·6 ·36 2409·7 ·39 1443·0 ·05 1758·2 ·71 2077·2 ·37 2400·2 ·40 1433·8 ·06 1748·8 ·72 2067·8 ·38 2390·6 ·41 1424·6 ·07 1739·5 ·73 2058·3 ·39 2381·1 ·42 1415·4 ·08 1730·2 ·74 2048·9 .40 2371·5 ·43 1406·2 ·09 1720·9 ·75 2039·5 ·41 2362·0 ·44 1397·0 ·10 1711·6 ·76 2030·0 ·42 2352·4 ·45 1387·8 ·11 1702·3 ·77 2020·6 ·43 2342·9 ·46 1378·6 ·12 1693·0 ·78 2011·2 ·44 2333·3 ·47 1369·4 ·13 1683·7 ·79 2001·7 · 45 2323·8 ·48 1360·2 ·14 1674·4 ·80 1992·3 · 46 2314·3 ·49 1351·0 ·15 1665·1 ·81 1982·9 ·47 2304· 7 ·50 1341·8 ·16 1655·8 ·82 1973·5 ·48 2295·2 ·51 1332·6 ·17 1646·5 ·83 1964·1 ·49 2285·7 ·52 1323·5 ·18 1637·2 ·84 1954·7 ·50 2276·2 ·53 1314·3 ·19 1627·9 ·85 1945·4 ·51 2266·7 ·54 1305·1 ·20 1618·7 ·86 1936·0 ·52 2257·2 ·55 1296·0 ·21 1609·4 ·87 1923· 6 ·53 2247·7 ·56 1286·8 ·22 1600·1 ·88 1917·2 ·54 22?8·2 ·57 1277·7 ·23 1590·8 ·89 1907·8 ·55 2228·7 ·58 1268·5 ·24 1581·6 ·90 1898·4 ·56 2219·2 ·59 1259·3 ·25 1572·3 ·91 1889·1 ·57 2209·7 ·60 1250·2 ·26 1563·1 ·92 1879·7 ·58 2200· 2 ·61 1241·1 ·27 1553·8 ·93 1870·3 ·59 2190·7 ·62 1231·9 ·28 1544·5 ·94 1861·0 ·60 2181·2 ·63 1222·8 ·29 1535·3 ·95 1851· 6 ·61 2171·8 ·64 1213·6 ·30 1526·0 ·96 1842·2 ·62 2162· 3 Inches Feet Inches Feet Inches Feet j Inches Feet

46

ON LEVELLING

Table of Barometer Altitudes.

Table Y.—Barometer Altitudes.

26.96 2794.9 26.63 3117.2 26.30 3443. 4 .97 2785.3 .64 3107.4 .31 3433.4 .98 2775.6 .65 3097.5 .32 3423.5 26.99 2705.9 .66 3087.7 .33 3413.6 26.00 3743.5 27.00 2756.2 .67 3077.9 .34 3403.6 .01 3733.4 .01 2746.5 .68 3068.1 .35 3393.7 .02 3723.4 .02 2736.8 .69 3058.3 .36 3383.7 .03 3713.3 .03 2727.2 .70 3048.5 .37 3373.8 .04 3703.3 .04 2717.5 .71 3038.7 .38 3363.9 .05 3693.2 .05 2707.8 .72 3028. 9 .39 3354.0 .06 3683.2 .06 2698.1 .73 3019.1 .40 3344.1 .07 3673.2 .07 2688.5 .74 3009.3 .41 3334.2 .08 3663.1 .08 2678.8 .75 2999.6 .42 3324.3 .09 3653.1 .09 2669.2 .76 2989.8 .43 3314.4 .10 3643.1 .10 2659.5 .77 2980.0 .44 3304.5 .11 3633.0 .11 2649.9 .78 2970.2 .45 3294.6 .12 3623.0 .12 2640.2 .79 2960.5 .46 3284.7 .13 3613.0 .13 2630.6 .80 2950.7 ·47 3274.8 .14 3603.0 .14 2620.9 .81 2940.9 .48 3264.9 .15 3593.0 .15 2611.3 .82 2931.2 .49 3255.1 .16 3583.0 .16 2601.7 .83 2921.4 .50 3245.2 .17 3573.0 .17 2592.0 .84 2911.7 .51 3235.3 .18 3563.0 .18 2582.4 .85 2901.9 .52 3225.5 .19 3553.0 .19 2572.8 .86 2982.2 .53 3215.6 .20 3543.0 ·20 2563·1 .87 2882.5 .54 3205.7 .21 3533.0 ·21 2553·5 ·88 2872.7 .55 3195.9 .22 3523.1 ·22 2543.9 .89 2863.0 .56 3186.0 .23 3513.1 ·23 2534·3 .90 2853.3 .57 3176.2 .24 3503.1 ·24 2524·7 .91 2843.6 .58 3166.3 .25 3493.1 ·25 2515·1 .92 2833.8 .59 3156.5 .26 3483.2 ·26 2505·5 .93 2824.1 .60 3146.7 .27 3473.2 ·27 2495·9 .94 2814.4 .61 3136.8 .28 3463 .3 ·28 2486·3 .95 2804.7 .62 3127.0 .29 3453.3 Inches Feet Inches Feet Inches Feet Inches Feet

47

USE OF THE BAROMETER.

at the bench-mark to be made use of for correcting the field observations ; and he registers at short intervals the readings of the barometer, and the differences between the actual readings and the normal reading due to the ascertained altitude. These differences must be plotted to a large scale, as shown in the annexed figure (8), in which the horizontal line is a scale of time, and the vertical offsets represent the values, in inches, of the differences above or below the normal reading. A line drawn through the extremities of the offsets, represents the fluctuations of the atmospheric pressure throughout the time of observation ; and it enables the observer to scale off the variation from the normal pressure at any intermediate point required (see Fig. 8). The second

Fig. 8. Barometer readings, which are plotted from sea-level upwards as in the tables.

observer traverses the country to be levelled, noting the time of each observation; and, on his return at the close of the day's work, he corrects his field-readings by the scale prepared for him by the stationary observer.

The heights corresponding to the corrected readings are thus read off from the table.

48

ON LEVELLING.

USE OF THE SPIRIT-LEVEL.

70. The operation of levelling with the spirit-level, consists in determining, with a telescope, adjusted in a horizontal position, the difference of the readings of a graduated staff held in a vertical position at the points of which the relative heights are required. The correctness of the work depends mainly on the accuracy with which the instrument is constructed and adjusted.

71. The spirit-level requires two permanent adjustments only.

72. First: if the bubble-tube is not by construction truly parallel to the upper plate, it must be made so by raising or lowering the telescope to the required amount, by means of the screws provided for the purpose.

73. Secondly: the line of collimation must be adjusted at a slight vertical angle with the bubble-tube, corresponding with the amount of the earth's curvature at the limit of distinct vision.

This is done as follows:

Let ten chains be the limit at which the graduations of the staff can be distinctly read with the instrument to be adjusted. Drive down two stakes ten chains apart; set up the instrument midway between them, and level the tipper plate by means of the bubble-tube. Take a reading of the staff on each stake, and if one stake is higher than the other, drive it down till the readings coincide. Then, set up the instrument behind one of

the stakes, and, having levelled it by means of the platescrews, screw the diaphragm up or down as may be required until the staff reads the same on both stakes.

The collimation is then adjusted for curvature and refraction at ten chains' distance.

The correction for curvature within this limit, is inappreciable, the maximum error being only .002 ft., whilst the correction at twenty chains only amounts to .02 ft.

Figs. 9 and 10. Use of the spirit level. Correction for curvature.

Note. —If the line of collimation be set parallel to the bubble-tube, or, in other words, truly horizontal, the correction for curvature at ten chains would be -01 ft., and at twenty chains .045 ft. The difference between the two systems of adjustment will readily be understood by reference to the annexed Figs. 9 and 10.

49

49

USE Of THE SPIRIT-LEVEL.

50

ON LEVELLING.

74. The form of level best adapted for rough work, is that in which the bubble-tube is rigidly attached to the telescope-tube, and the latter is firmly fixed in its supports, but having a vertical movement for the adjustment of the bubble-tube. The vertical movement is effected by means of a capstan-headed screw under one of the Y's, with a locking-screw to secure the adjustment when made (see Fig. 11).

Fig. 11. Spirit-level for rough work.

With instruments of this construction, the two adjustments above described are readily performed, and they seldom require to be repeated.

75. It will be found advantageous to adapt the telescope for reading distances by inserting distance hairs in the diaphragm, as described in paragraph 17. This will render it, in many instances, unnecessary to chain the distances when trial sections are taken, or gradients are being put in ; and it will be found of great service in calculating the widths of cuttings and other

51

USE OP THE SPIRIT-LEVEL.

The following example will explain the form of level-book recommended, and the manner in which the levels should be reduced from the readings of the staff.

51

distances which it might be difficult to ascertain bydirect measurement.

76. The legs of the tripod should be long, and of sufficient section to prevent vibration. The mahogany legs generally sold are at once too heavy for convenience, and too slight to be used in rough weather.

77. Level-Staff. —The level-staff is best when made in one piece, the face being of the same width

from top to bottom, and the figures the same size throughout. It is unnecessary to make the graduations smaller than a tenth of a foot, as the intermediate heights can readily be estimated by the eye, and by the omission of the smaller divisions, the staff may be read at greater distances (see Fig. 12).

78. The telescopic staves commonly sold in shops are convenient for their portability, but they are easily broken, and they vibrate too much to be used at a distance, except in calm weather.

79. Level-Book. —Whatever form of levelbook is used, the back, fore, and intermediate sights should be entered in separate columns, and a separate line given to each separate position of the staff. The neglect of these rules often leads to great confusion.

Fig. 12.

52

ON LEVELLING.

The accompanying section (Fig. 13) shows the positions of the instrument and the staff in the field.

80. The compass usually attached to the spiritlevel may be advantageously dispensed with, for the following reasons:—

In setting out contour-lines, whether horizontal or inclined, it is best to put in the level stakes at one set of operations, and afterwards to run a traverse to fix their positions; whilst in taking a section on a defined

Readings Differences Reduced levels Distance Remarks Back Int. Fore Rise Fall Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Chains 800.00 Levels C- Road 17.9.63 BM top of FP cover, opposite Royal Hotel 2·10 800·00 7·14 6·03 1·11 5.04 794·96 6·15 1·62 8·25 2·22 796·07 8·20 2·18 0·56 793·85 9·70 3·15 0·97 793·29 14·18 4·60 1·45 792·32 19·30 5·20 0·60 790·87 22·00 7·15 1·95 790·27 25·00 803·72 15v40 15·40 788·32 29·16 Road centre, opposite Post office 788·32

53

USE OF THE SPIRIT-LEVEL.

route, the route should be previously surveyed, each position of the level-staff being afterwards defined on the plan, by reference to the chainage in the distance column of the level-book.

Fig. 13. Section to show positions of instrument and staff in the field (level-book).

In neither case is the measurement of horizontal angles required, during the operation of levelling; and the omission of the compass-box makes the instrument lighter to carry, more compact, and less expensive.

Note. —Where a trial section has to be taken on a given compass-bearing, without the route having been previously ranged out, a small pocket-compass is found sufficient for the purpose of keeping the required direction.

CHAPTER III.

ON SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES.

81. Before setting out a curve to connect two given straight lines, the following data must be known, viz.:—

1. The angle formed by the lines to be connected;

2. The radius of the connecting curve;

3. The distance from the point of intersection to the points of contact.

The first of these conditions is generally determined by the circumstances of the case. With regard to the second and third, one of the two must be assumed, and the other calculated from it.

82. The radius of the required curve, and the start-ing-points on the tangents, being settled, the curve can be set out. The simplest method of doing this is to set off perpendicular offsets in succession, at equal distances from each of the tangents (see Fig. 14). If the length of the curve be such that the offsets become of inconvenient length, or form very acute angles with the curve, a second tangent-line must be set out, from which to set off a second set of offsets; and this system

55

SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES.

of operations must be repeated as often as may be required.

83. The following diagram (see Fig. 14) and Table No. VI. together, contain all the information necessary for setting out any circular curve from the tangent: the only calculation necessary being the multiplication of the figures in the table by the actual radius of the curve in chains, yards, feet, &c., as the case may be.

Fig. 14. To set out a curve by offsets.

Let Radius E b=r=

=T tan θ ; also r=

Tangent BA=CA=T=

=r tan ø

BF=t=r sin ø =c

Offset FD=or=r vers ø=v=r—

BI=DA= Excess of secant over radius = s= r sec. ø—r

56

SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES

BH=t'=

FA=t"=

½ chord BG=c=r sin ø=t

versin GD=v=r versin ø=o.

84.

TABLE VI. Universal Table for setting out Circular Curves. Radius=1.

USE OF THE TABLE.

85. To find the radius and positions of the curve: —

(1) Two straight lines, bB, cc, being given, to find the angles, β, 6, and ø, and the distances of any two points, as B, c, from the point A, at which b B, cC, would meet if produced.

·01 ·0000501 ·00005018 ·005010 ·0000005 ·02 ·0002001 ·0002001 ·010005 ·0000040 ·03 ·0004501 ·0004503 ·015003 ·0000135 ·04 ·0008003 ·0008009 ·0200075 ·000032 ·05 ·0012508 ·00125236 ·025016 ·0000626 ·06 ·0018017 ·0018049 ·030028 ·0001082 ·07 ·0024531 ·0024591 ·035044 ·0001721 ·08 ·0032052 ·0032155 ·040065 ·0002572 ·09 ·0040583 ·0040748 ·045092 ·0003667 ·10 ·0050126 ·005C378 ·050126 ·0005038

BY OFFSETS.

57

If there be no difficulty in producing the given lines, produce them until they meet at A, and measure

β. Then θ=

and ø comp θ.

If the point a be inaccessible, between any two points in b B and cc, as B and c, measure the straight line, B C, and the supplements of the angles, b Bc, cc b, from which calculate the remaining sides and angle of the triangle, BAC.

If, as is often the case, it is impossible to find BC by direct measurement, this distance and the required angles must be found by triangulation.

(2) Given β and r, to find the points of contact.

These are found by the formula T=

=r tan ø.

N.B.—The distances of the points, B, C, from the points of contact, will be the differences between T and BA, CA, respectively.

(3) Given β and t, to find the radius.

=T tan θ .

This is obtained by formula r=

(4) Given the chord and versed sine, to find the radius.

The formula for this is r=

86. To set out the curve.

The radius being given, to find the offset to the tangent at any given distance, t, from the point of contact.

This is given by the equation o=r—

58

SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES

To set out a second tangent, touching the curve at D, the extremity of a given offset, FD=O.

On b BF, at B, the point of contact, erect the perpendicular BI=BA=S=

and set off towards F the

distance BH=t'=

The points I, H, D will be three points in a straight line, touching the curve at D; which produced beyond D, will be the tangent required.

In setting out the third, or any subsequent tangent, instead of setting up the offset S. we may produce BF to A, making

The above table is equally applicable to field, office, or platform work. The only point necessary to ob-

Fig. 15. To find the length of tangent by construction.

serve is, that the unit of measurement used in setting out the offsets, whether a chain, a yard, a foot, or an inch, must be divided decimally. It is unnecessary here to give the demonstrations of the above formulae, as they are exceedingly simple, and may be found in almost every book on surveying.

59

BY MEANS OF CHORDS.

Note.—lt is sometimes convenient to find the required length of tangent, by construction, as follows (see Fig. 15): — Let ab,b c, be two lines to be connected by a circular curve. Produce ab to any convenient length, bd, making bd an aliquot part of the intended radius, and set off bc=bd. Measure the chord, dc, and bisect it at e. Set off df at right angles to bd, intersecting be produced, at f. Then df will be the same fraction of the required tangent as bd is of the proposed radius.

Example.—Let the intended radius be 500 links, and bd= 100 links, or 1/5, and let df= 32·7 links. Then the required tangent will be 32·7x5=163½ links.

Fig. 16. To set out a curve by means of chords.

87. In some cases, from the nature of the ground, it is impossible to set out a curve from the tangent,

60

SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES.

and it is necessary to make use of chords for this purpose.

The following table of equivalents contains all the data required (see Fig. 16): —

Radius. ae=r

Chord. ab= c=bc=cd, &c. =2 r sin θ

β =ø = 2 θ

Tangent. af=hb=r sin θ

Offset. fd=ah=r versin θ

Chord. cg=2fb=2r versin ø.

Example.—Let r=500. links, and c=50 links.

=·05=nat sin θ; whence θ=2°52', and ø=

The natural sine of 5°44'=·0998986, Whence af=500x·0998986 =49·9.

The natural versed sine of 5°44'=·005, Whence fb —500x·005 =2.5, And gc=2fb=5 links.

CHAPTER IV.

ON THE SELECTION OF ROAD LINES.

88. In the selection of a line of road to connect two fixed points, the first consideration is that the gradients shall not exceed the limits fixed by the nature of the traffic; the second, that the cost of construction and maintenance does not exceed the means at command; and the third, that the distance shall he reduced to the minimum consistent with the two first considerations.

89. Gradients. —No arbitrary rule can be laid down as to the steepness of the limiting gradient, for this must be determined in general by local circumstances. In level districts it will sometimes be worth while to incur considerable cost for the sake of avoiding inclines steeper than lin 30; whilst in hilly country, 1 in 10 may often be considered a very fair working gradient.

90. Gart-Roads. —As a general principle, however, a gradient of 1 in 9, or 7·4 ft. per chain, may be considered as a limit which should not be exceeded in a road intended for wheeled traffic, except under very exceptional circumstances; and, on the other hand, it is seldom worth while to increase constructive cost for the sake

62

THE SELECTION OF ROAD LINES.

of obtaining gradients flatter than I in 22, or 3 ft. per chain.

91. Stock Roads. —In clearing a track across a wooded country for driving stock, the steepness of the gradients is of little consequence, and it will be found best to follow the watershed-lines where practicable, ascending and descending on the leading spurs, avoiding sidling ground and swampy creeks, and selecting shallow fords for the river crossings.

92. Bridle Roads. —On the other hand, in opening out tracks for pack-horse traffic, as in mining districts, it will be found worth while at some cost to avoid all steep ascents and descents by contouring round the hills in side-cutting. The gradient of these tracks should never be steeper than 1 in 5, but it will always be best to lay down as a rule that it should not exceed 1 in 9, so that at any future time, should the traffic warrant the outlay, the horse-track may be widened into a cart-road.

In the settlement of a new country, great economy will be found to result from thus opening lines of communication, from the outset, upon the permanent gradients.

The opening of a bridle-road upon gradients suitable for wheeled traffic, is soon followed by the settlement of the country through which it passes, if suitable either for grazing or cultivation; whilst few prudent men will care to invest money in the purchase of land to which they see no practicable means of access, or the

63

COST.

natural road to which is liable at any time to be stopped up by the procrustean regulations of a colonial land office.

93. Cost. —The items which make up the cost of road-construction, may be thus classed: —

1. Surveys and clearing of site.

2. Surface-drainage.

3. River-crossings.

4. Improvement of the natural gradients.

5. Formation of road-surface.

6. Incidental works, as fencing, &c.

Each of these items of expenditure forms the subject of subsequent remarks ; at present, it is sufficient to point out that the cost of road-construction depends, not so much on that of the works actually executed, as on the manner in which the line of route has been selected, with a view to the avoidance of all unnecessary culverts, bridges, and earthworks, and on the manner in which the design of the work has been adapted to the employment of the material in each case most readily to be obtained; and also, that, as a general principle, it is better to select a line of route which can be opened in the first instance at small cost, and gradually improved, from year to year, as funds accrue from land-sales or other local sources of revenue, than one which, although of no greater ultimate aggregate cost, requires, at the outset, the execution of heavy works, for which capital must be raised on loan.

94. Distance. —The question of how far it is de-

64

THE SELECTION OF ROAD LINES.

sirable to incur constructive cost for the sake of savingdistance, must depend mainly upon two points: first, the source and amount of the funds available for the work; and secondly, the character of the proposed road.

95. In the case of a main road, which is to form a connecting link between two centres of population, and is to be constructed out of general revenue, it is best to lay out the most direct road that the limiting gradient will allow; but a district road, the cost of which is to be defrayed out of local rates to be raised from a scattered agricultural population, must be laid out so as to obtain easy gradients at the least possible cost, the saving of distance, in this case, being of less importance than economy of cost, and reduction of the haulage-power requisite for working the local traffic.

96. Again, in the case of a road which is not to be metalled, cost will be saved by keeping as much as possible on the watershed-lines, thus avoiding all unnecessary culverts; whilst, on a metalled road, the cost of culverting the creeks on a direct line, may be balanced against that of the additional length of metalling on a more circuitous route.

No direct rules can be , laid down on this subject, but each case must be treated on its own merits.

97. Public, accommodation-roads, intended simply to give access to the sections which front upon them, should be laid out with special reference to this object,

DETERMINATION OF ROUTE.

65

All this work is simply preliminary to that of the actual survey; and upon the completeness with which it has been done, and the judgment brought to bear upon the examination of the ground, depend much of the success and the cost of subsequent operations.

A pocket-compass and an aneroid, with a measuringtape for checking distances, are all the instruments required; and with them a good deal of valuable in-

65

and should communicate, by surface-gradients, with the nearest district or main road, as cost is to be avoided, rather than distance, in the selection of the route.

98. Determination of Route. —The first step in the survey is to ascertain the position of the watercourse and watershed-lines of the district to be passed through. If there is no sketch-map from which these data can be obtained, a special reconnaissance-survey must be made for the purpose. The general direction having been selected by the help of the sketch-map, the river-crossings must be examined and decided upon, and the points determined at which the watersheds are to be crossed. The approaches to the bridges must be carefully set out, and the ascents to, and descents from, the watershed, contoured where they are to be in sidecutting, from the summits downwards so as to ascertain the points at which the hills are to be entered. This having been done, trial-lines should be run between the points thus fixed, and the country carefully examined on each side of these trial-lines before the route is finally decided on.

66

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

Fig. 17. River Crossings:—Shingle-bed rivers in the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand.

formation may be collected in a few days by an engineer who is used to the work.

99. River-Crossings. —The determination of the river-crossings is the first and most important point in the location of a main line of road, forming in fact the key to the rest of the work.

In the case of a nayigable river, it is an important question whether the road shall head the navigation or cross the navigable portion by a ferry or a moveable bridge.

In some cases, it will be found that, for many miles of its course, a river offers no facilities for crossing either by ford, bridge, or ferry, except at some particular spot. To this point, therefore, the main road of the country must be directed.

Such is the case with many of the shingle-bed rivers in the Canterbury plains, on the east coast of the Middle Island of New Zealand, the character of which is shown in the annexed diagram, Fig. 17.

It will readily be seen, that the only point for a permanent and economical crossing in a river of this description, must be as high up as b, whilst to cross at a higher point would involve the ascent and descent of the river terraces in side-cutting.

Below b, the river is above the level of the surrounding country, and by reason of the shifting nature of the bottom, any bridge erected there would probably either be undermined by the deepening of the stream, or outflanked by its partial diversion; whilst, near its mouth,

67

RIVER-CROSSINGS.

67

68

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

the precipitous and treacherous character of the banks, which are constantly being undermined by the current at their feet, would render the formation of a permanent crossing place a somewhat difficult and expensive matter.

100. In rock-bound valleys, the difficulty is generally not so much in the actual site of a bridge as in the approaches; and considerable judgment is often required to avoid dangerous inclines and sharp curves.

The following example (see Fig. 18) is an illustration of a good site spoiled by injudicious treatment:—

Fig. 18. River-crossing in a rock-bound valley.

In this case the position of the bridge is unexceptionable, and if the eastern approach had been formed by cutting through the reef instead of sidling round it, and that on the western side by winding up the valley instead of cutting clown the face of the spur, as

69

RIVER-CROSSINGS.

shown in each case by the dotted lines on the plan, the approaches would have left nothing to be desired with regard either to curves or to gradients.

As laid out, however, the approaches are exceedingly dangerous, especially on the west side, where the steep incline reaches to the bridge foot; and, in the event of horses jibbing or bolting, an accident would be inevitable.

101. It is scarcely to be credited that anyone en-

Fig. 19. Error in bridge-approach.

trusted with the responsibility of laying out public roads, would deliberately neglect the consideration of the river-crossings; but, under the usual system of setting out crown-lands in rectangular blocks, to which the lines of road are made subservient, it seldom happens that any thought is given to the proper selection of bridge-sites, and it would be difficult to overestimate the amount of expense and inconvenience which occasionally arise from this neglect.

70

THE SELECTION OP ROAD-LINES.

The following examples, from the author's own experience, illustrate the principal errors to be avoided in laying out bridge approaches.

102. In the first example, Fig. 19, the public road has been laid out in a straight line, without regard to the angle at which it crosses the stream, the length of the bridge being increased and its construction com-

Fig. 20. Error in bridge-approach.

plicated by its having to be built on the skew. By slightly shifting the line of road to a or b, all such awkwardness would have been avoided.

103. In the second case, Fig. 20, the direction of the road has been changed at the river bank, thus introducing a sharp turn at the bridge-foot at the bottom of a steep cutting. If the angle had been placed a few chains from the bank, as shown by the dotted lines, the cutting would have been in a straight

71

RIVER-CROSSINGS.

line with the bridge, and the present dangerous approach would have been avoided.

104. In the third instance, Fig. 21, by some blunder of the surveyors employed, the roads on the opposite sides of the river miss each other; thus rendering it necessary either to build the bridge on the skew, or to make one of the approaches on an S-curve, which was the plan adopted. It may be mentioned that the same blunder occurs in one of the principal streets of Mel-

Fig. 21. Error in bridge-approach.

bourne, which is carried across the river Yarra on a large wrought-iron bridge, the northern approach to which is on an S-curve.

105. In the fourth example, which is the site of a large iron swing-bridge over a navigable river, the admirable site indicated at a, Fig. 22, has been thrown away, the design of the work complicated, and its cost greatly increased, simply for want of ordinary forethought.

106. None of the foregoing cases called for the

72

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

exercise of any engineering skill. A very simple rule for the avoidance of similar blunders, is to set out the centre line of the site of each bridge, before fixing the direction of the roads which are intended to be connected by it.

Fie. 22. Error in bridge-approach.

107. Fords. —lt is always desirable to take advantage of any safe fords that occur in the neighbourhood of a projected line of road, thus saving in the first cost of construction. But care must be taken to lay out and reserve suitable sites for bridges that may be built at a future time, on the permanent line of route, when sufficient funds can be obtained for the purpose.

It is better to be contented with a safe ford for a few years, than to attempt bridging without sufficient

73

FORDS.

funds for the erection of a permanent structure, with ample waterway.

108. Fig. 23 gives a striking illustration of this. A tolerable ford had been made across a creek, with

Fig. 23. Fording versus bridging.

good approaches rising lin 9. The defect of the ford was that one side was much lower than the other, by the fall in the creek bed. The proper course to remedy this defect would have been to put in a rough timber weir at a, and to have brought the crossing to a level floor with large stones. Instead of doing this, however,

74

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

the road-board surveyor built a skew bridge at b, of which neither the design nor the execution were equal to the requirements of the case; it soon fell into a ruinous state, the result being that the traffic resumed its original channel, and that the amount spent upon the bridge was simply thrown away.

109. In building a bridge near a ford, care should be taken to leave the approaches to the latter undisturbed, so as to preserve an alternative route during bridge-repairs, or in the event of the bridge being destroyed by floods.

110. Ferries. —Except as a temporary expedient, pending the erection of a bridge, ferry-crossings should always be avoided as much as possible. They involve risk, delay, and expense to passengers; and they often lead to the establishment of vested rights which stand in the way of future improvements, and which cannot be got rid of without litigation and the payment of heavy compensation.

On the other hand, where a good bridge-site cannot be obtained, it is bad economy to spend money in forming an artificial ford, or in improving a bad one.

111. River Frontages. —ln the case of large rivers, the frontages on both banks should always be reserved as public highways, so that ferries and landing-places may be established at any suitable points.

112. Watersheds. —Next to the determination of the positions of the river-crossings, comes the settlement of the points at which the watersheds are to be crossed.

75

WATERSHEDS.

There are two distinct cases: the first is that in which the route lies across the valleys, as in the case of a road parallel to a coast-line passing over the spurs of a coast-range; the second, that of a route which follows the line of a principal valley crossing the main watershed at its head.

All other cases are modifications or combinations of these.

113. In the first case, two modes of treatment are open for adoption. Either the crests of the hills may be cut down and the valleys filled up to the extent required to obtain a suitable gradient on the most direct line, or the road may be contoured on the hillsides so as to obtain a surface-line of greater length with easier gradients.

The second course is, in many cases, preferable, especially where economy is a considerable object; and it may be laid down as a general rule, that the expense of deep through-cuttings should only be incurred where the total rise can be reduced by so doing.

114. Where sidling ground occurs, it is better to put in contour-lines with long stretches of easy gradients, and to flatten the curves, where necessary, by cutting off the spurs, than to set out straight roadlines. These involve, either a number of additional culverts, or the breaking up of the road into a succession of short alternating gradients, than which nothing can be more objectionable.

This system is shown in Fig. 24, in which a is the

76

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

Fig. 24. Contouring a road on surface-gradients.

77

WATERSHEDS.

contour line, b the back of the road, c the front of the road. The embanked portions are made up from the spurs, care being taken that the upper side of the road shall always be on the upper side of the contour line, that the surface water may not be penned back.

115. It may be observed here, that one of the advantages of contouring a road on surface-gradients is, that a track may be opened at once on the permanent levels at a very small cost, and can be straightened and widened from time to time, without either stopping the traffic or breaking up the surface already formed; whilst, in the case of a road laid out in straight lines, with a succession of cuttings and embankments, either a great expense must be incurred at the outset to bring the levels to the permanent gradients, or each successive improvement will involve the destruction of the road-surface, and the total or partial stoppage of the traffic.

116. In most cases of rolling country, it is best to employ a combination of through and side cutting, the comparative cost of the two kinds of cutting depending upon the gradients required, and on the inclination of the ground along which the side-cuttings are taken. An example of this is given in Figs. 25, 26, and 27, Plate I.

In this example, if the road were made from a to b in a straight line, it would shorten the ascent of 60 feet, by 9 chains; but the gradient would be lin 22 instead of 1 in 30, the culvert would be 110 feet as against 70 feet

78

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

long, and the two through cuttings would contain respectively 2,783 and 5,320 cubic yards, as against 1,303 and 2,810 cubic yards.

The saving of nine chains in distance, would involve a worse gradient and an additional cost of about 250l, in first outlay, besides a considerable addition to the yearly cost of maintenance, on account of the greater depth of the cuttings and the greater height of the embankment.

This excess cost is at the rate of 1,000l. per mile on the direct line, and it must be evident that, in similar cases, it is only by laying out roads as far as possible on surface gradients, that their cost can be brought within the limits ordinarily available for their construction.

117. On the other hand, when cuttings and embankments do not exceed 10 feet in maximum height or depth, it is not worth while to deviate from the direct line, for a slight saving in earthwork, especially when the saving would be counterbalanced by an extra length of metalling. Every case must stand on its own merits.

118. Fig. 28 gives an instructive example of a good road spoiled, by changing a river-crossing with contoured approaches, for one on a direct line with a deep cutting.

This road was opened with a bridge at a, and curved approaches in side cutting, with moderate curves and gradients on a rock bottom.

After some years, however, the road-board surveyor

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WATERSHEDS.

determined on straightening the road by placing a new bridge at b, the approach to which was in embankment on one side and by a long and deep through cutting on the other, as shown by the dotted lines.

Fig. 28. River-crossing with contoured approaches.

The result was a failure. The gradient was not improved, but the reverse, whilst the soft nature of the approaches proved a constant source of trouble, the floor of the cutting being little better than a quagmire on account of land springs.

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THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

This is a good illustration of the desirability of letting well alone. It is almost needless to say that the cost of the so-called improvement greatly exceeded that of the original work.

119. In the second class of cases, in which the ascent follows the line of a principal valley, the mode of proceeding is somewhat different.

120. The first thing to be done is to ascertain the lowest point of the range to be crossed.

This can be readily found by a comparison of a series of barometer-readings taken along the watershed (connected of course by reference to a stationary instrument), without calculating the actual altitude of each point of observation.

121. The lowest point of the watershed having been found tentatively, the next step is to ascertain its actual altitude and the distance from the foot of the ascent to the summit of the pass. From these data, the gradient can be calculated approximately; and it is to be borne in mind that the actual gradient must be steeper than the calculated gradient, in order to allow for passing through the most favourable ground.

122. It generally happens that the opposite sides of a main range present very different conditions, a gradual rise on one side often leading to a precipitous descent on the other; and when this is the case, it is necessary to determine the distance required for a practicable gradient by doubling the road upon the spurs, or by forming zigzags on the face of the hillside. The

81

MOUNTAIN RANGES.

Fig. 29. Crossing a main range.

cases, the plan to be adopted is, first, to select suitable spots for turning-places, and then to connect these binding points by the easiest gradients that the ground will allow.

123. The following, see Fig. 29, is a simple example of a case of this kind judiciously treated.

The turning-places at a and b, are on easy curves

G

second plan is, however, always to be avoided if a con-tour-line is available, as the expense of making suitable turning places is very great, and the additional length of road required is considerable, since all turning places should not only be level, but should be of sufficient length for a team to halt on before turning. In these

82

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

and are nearly level, whilst the distance obtained by taking advantage of both spurs enables the ascent to be nearly completed before entering on the rocky sidling at the summit, c, which is nearly on a level.

Fig. 30. Crossing a mountain range.

124. Figs. 30 and 31 illustrate a somewhat difficult example. In this case, the road was first opened according to the black line, the gradient from a to b being 1 in 5, and that from b to c, lin 7. A detour was

subsequently put in, as shown by the dotted line, by which the gradient of the road below b was reduced to 1 in 11. The gradient between b and c, in this case,

Fig. 31. Crossing a Mountain Range.

could not be improved, as the hillside was so steep that it was with difficulty that a 14-feet wide road could be obtained in side-cutting, and to have gained width for a turning-place would have been impossible.

MOUNTAIN PASSES.

125. A few remarks on the character of mountain passes may not be out of place here.

Passes generally come under one of three classes:—

1. A simple saddle connecting the heads of two valleys.

2. A saddle connecting the head of one valley with the side of another.

3. A valley between steep hills, leading from a point near the head of one valley to a corresponding point in another.

G2

83

MOUNTAIN PASSES.

84

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

126. The first two cases are generally very simple in treatment, the only question generally being, whether the summit should be cut down or passed over, by sur-face-gradients.

The second plan is to be adopted where practicable, as it is difficult to keep the slopes of cuttings in repair at high elevations, to say nothing of the risk of a road being, blocked by snow-drifts in the cuttings.

127. The third case, however, often requires a great deal of careful study.

Fig. 32, Plate II., shows the general character of a pass of this kind.

The ends of the upper valley forming the pass are generally blocked by moraines, or accumulations of sandstone and other debris, enclosing peat swamps and deep pools of water, sometimes of sufficient extent to be dignified by the name of lakes. It will be a matter for consideration whether the morasses should be drained or skirted, and whether the moraines should be cut down or passed over. As a general rule, it is desirable, at high elevations, to avoid as. far as possible both embankments and through cuttings, and to adopt surface gradients whenever practicable, although involving a somewhat circuitous route.

128. The character of the valleys of approach must determine the system of gradients to be adopted. If a river canons, it will be necessary to adopt some system of zigzag, as shown in Fig. 32, to get down from the

85

MOUNTAIN PASSES.

head of the pass to the bottom of the valley, which the road must then follow to the end of the cañon. If, on the other hand, the lateral slopes are only moderately

Fig. 33. Road cutting in mountain-pass.

Fig. 34. Road cutting in mountain-pass.

steep, or present shelves or terraces available for sidecutting, the descent may be made by long stretches of easy gradient, until the floor of the valley is reached in a tolerably direct line.

86

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

129. In selecting the line of descent, the following directions should be observed:—

1. Take the sunny side of the valley, if the ground will permit.

2. Carefully examine the stratification of the rocks to be cut through, and avoid if possible all strata overhanging the line of road. Thus in Figs. 33 and 34 the side cutting at a would not be safe without the protection of a retaining wall; whilst that at b would be perfectly secure without any artificial protection.

3.Run a trial gradient through the work, and find where it intersects difficult ground. Then lay out the line at these points so as to obtain the most advantageous levels for the execution of the work, and re-adjust the gradient as may be required.

For instance, in Fig. 35, if the level of the road is fixed at a, the floor of the cutting will be in the solid with tight side cutting ; if at c the available width would be considerably reduced and the amount of cuttingincreased; whilst if the level were at b, a retaining wall would be necessary.

4. Contour the gradients with the spirit-level setting one pair of screws in the general direction of the line to be contoured, and levelling the upper plate with the other pair.

87

MOUNTAIN PASSES.

Then set the telescope over the first pair, and screw it up to the intended gradient. The line thus contoured will not be on a uniform gradient, but will be the intersection of the hillside with the plane in which the telescope moves. The effect of this will

Fig. 35. Road-cutting in mountain-pass.

be that all deviations from the straight line caused by heading the gullies or passing round spurs, will have flatter gradients than the straight portions of the road; these can therefore be straightened by bridging the gullies and cutting away the spurs, without

88

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

Fig. 36. Road-making in mountain-passes.

89

MOUNTAIN PASSES.

introducing inclines steeper than the normal gradient.

Thus in Fig. 36 let the spirit-level be set up at a and levelled in the direction cd, whilst the telescope in the direction ab is set at 1 in 30; all the sharp turns will he nearly on a dead level, whilst if the road were straightened by bridging and tunnelling, as shown by the dotted line, it would simply be brought up throughout to the normal gradient of 1 in 30.

130. It sometimes happens that advantage can be taken of the natural stratification to economise work in a long side cutting. This was done by the author in the case of a road over Evan's Pass, at Port Lyttelton, New Zealand. The descent of the pass was on the side of a long volcanic spur, formed by a succession of lava streams, dipping at an angle of 1 in 12, the lower part of each lava stream being hard volcanic rock, whilst the upper portion was soft and easily worked.

The line was originally set out with a gradient of 1 in 17, which would have entailed a series of cuttings through the hard rock, and retaining walls in front of the softer portions.

By altering the gradient, however, to that of the lava-streams, a solid floor was obtained throughout, the retaining walls were dispensed with, and the excavation was made, chiefly in soft material. The alteration effected considerable saving in time and first cost, as well as in the cost of maintenance.

90

THE SELECTION OF RAD-LINES.

131. Where a river canons, that is, runs between perpendicular cliffs, the gradient must be governed by that of the stream itself. The difficulties are chiefly in the constructive details; and they may be ranged in three classes:—

1. The crossings of the main streams.

2. The crossings of the lateral streams.

3. The retaining walls required for obtaining the necessary width for the proposed work.

132. Crossings of the main stream should be avoided as much as possible, because of the interruption to the traffic which would be occasioned by the destruction of any of the bridges; though considerable expense may have to be incurred in following this rule. If bridges are required, it is best to avoid building structures of masonry, unless the abutments can be thoroughly secured against scour, and the springing of the arches placed above the flood-level; nor should it be attempted to place piers of masonry in a narrow channel subject to severe floods.

Iron girder-bridges would be suitable in many instances, were it not for the difficulty of bringing the requisite material to the spot.

Suspension-bridges made with wire-cables, might often be advantageously introduced where large spans are required.

On the whole, however, for general practice, especially in timbered districts, timber-bridges with trussed beams, in thirty feet spans, will be found most suitable

91

MOUNTAIN PASSES.

for mountain-gorges subject to heavy floods, as the piles or tressels offer but little obstruction to the waterway, and the framing of the roadway, if properly bolted together, will stand considerable straining without being destroyed.

133. The crossings of the lateral streams may often be advantageously effected by constructing fords at the junctions with the main streams, with weirs made of timber cribbing, filled with large stones, the crest of each weir being formed with a heavy log bolted to the cribbing. A ford protected in this manner proves very durable, and it will withstand heavy floods without any risk of being scoured. The roadway will often be blocked, after a fresh, with timber and rubbish, and these must be cleared away before traffic is resumed.

134. The third class of difficulties, viz., the construction of the structures required for the purpose of building out a roadway in the river bed, is that which, perhaps, requires the greatest judgment. Retaining walls of masonry are of little use in a mountain-torrent, unless they can be placed on a secure foundation, and built in a substantial manner—conditions which are not often attainable.

In some cases, the object may be attained by blowing down the hillside, so that the width required may be formed in embankment; but,unless the material is stone, and is in large blocks, a fir-freshet will generally destroy work of this kind. Where timber is plentiful, beams may be let into the cliff and supported on piles let into the creek-bed, and bolted to the reefs.

92

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

In cases where it becomes necessary to build up from the river-bed, without any means of laying dry the bottom, the best plan is to make use of timbercribbing filled with rubble.

The author applied this system with success in repairing a portion of the Hokitiko road in New Zealand, after it had been destroyed by a heavy flood in the river Teremakan, alongside which it was carried for some distance on a narrow terrace at the foot of a steep cliff. By the scouring action of the flood, the terrace was undermined up to the foot of the cliff, the road being carried away for a distance of several chains, and its place occupied by an unfordable torrent. In order to restore communication, trees were cut down on the hillside, and thrown down into the river, until the logs appeared above the surface of the water. Auger holes were then bored through the limbs where they crossed each other, and they were dowellecl together so as to form a compact network of timber; which was then filled up with masses of rock, detached from the cliff with picks and crowbars, until a firm roadway was established, which successfully resisted the action of subsequent floods.

ROADS THROUGH LEVEL COUNTRY.

135. The river-crossings being determined on, and the points at which the roads enter the hills having been defined, the portions of the roads which lie be-

93

ROADS THROUGH LEVEL COUNTRY.

tween these fixed points, should be laid out with as much directness as the nature of the ground will allow.

136. The first consideration is drainage, and on this point a few cautions may be desirable. If possible, avoid ground likely to be flooded. If a suitable drainage-outlet can be made for a swampy tract of country at a moderate outlay, cut it at once before the right of drainage is interfered with by purchase. Five pounds spent on preliminary draining will often save 1001. that would otherwise be required for metalling. Avoid, however, draining any district by the roadsideditches, but make the drainage-outfalls at right angles to the road-lines wherever practicable.

Where district-drains are taken along a roadside, there is ultimately great expense incurred in bridging them, to give access to the adjoining properties, and in repairing their sides as they become scoured by floods; to say nothing of the inconvenience, in a new district, of the inability to draw off an unmetalled road when it becomes cut up in bad weather.

137. It is, in general, well to run as much upon the natural watershed as possible, both for the sake of drainage, and for the avoidance of creek-crossings. In fen lands, however, the reverse rule applies, as it is there best to make the road and drainage-lines coincident. The excavation for the drains provides material for the road-embankments, whilst the branch-drains form so many lines of canal-communication with the main drains and the public roads. Numerous examples of

94

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

this practice may be seen in the fen country of England.

In illustration of the importance of taking advantage of the natural watershed, the two following instructive examples are given:—

138. In the first example, see Fig. 37, a squatter's

Fig. 37. Roads through level country.—Swamps.

dray-track passed through three swampy creeks, which carried the drainage of the adjacent plains into a deep swamp, which skirted the seacoast for several miles.

On laying out the main road through the district, however, a careful examination of the ground showed that there was a belt of dry shingle along the margin

ROADS THROUGH LEVEL COUNTRY.

95

of the swamp, by following which the creek-crossings were avoided, nothing but ordinary catch-water drains and small culverts to carry off the water in wet weather being required. The water brought down by the creeks lost itself in the shingle, and passed under the ridge, by filtration, into the swamp below.

Fig. 38. Roads through level country. —Creeks.

139. In the second example, Fig. 38, a good natural road had been opened temporarily on the dry ridge skirting the main creek, as shown by the dotted lines. The district surveyor, however, in setting out the permanent line of road, ignored the natural advantages before him, and set out a straight line at a lower level, which crossed the heads of the creeks. A very heavy outlay was thus incurred in drains, culverts, bridges, and

96

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

metalling, for the construction of a road which, after all, was in many respects inferior to the natural road. This road required no outlay beyond the cost of clearing the bushes and tall fern originally growing on the surface.

In this case, the additional cost incurred was inexcusable, as there was no appreciable saving of distance to be gained by constructing the road on a straight line, whilst, in addition to the squandering of the public

Fig. 39. Roads through level country. Draining a creek.

revenue for the erection of useless bridges, the district is taxed in perpetuity for their maintenance.

140. Lastly, never cut through the natural watershed with roadside ditches, without having carefully examined the levels of the district.

It will often be found that the watercourses of a plain lie several feet higher than the adjoining lands ; in these cases, the tapping of the banks leads to ruinous results.

CLEARING.

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CLEARING.

142. In laying out lines through timbered country, explore thoroughly on each side of the trial line, so as to obtain a route with the least amount of clearing.

97

Do not hastily be content with the assumption that water finds its own level, but test each case by careful levelling, and take nothing for granted.

]41. The following is an instructive example, see Fig. 39:—

In the first instance, a drain was cut from a to the creek at b, for the purpose of draining the swampy land; but, as the creek at b was higher than the ground at a, the operation had the effect of making the swamp wetter than before.

Next, an attempt was made to drain the creek by cutting a drain towards the river at c, and a deep cutting was made, which, together with the spoil thrown out from it, occupied more than half the chain reserved for the road.

This, however, proved a failure, as, from the sandy nature of the ground, the drain could not be kept open to the required depth. After some years, the deep cutting was filled up, the creek was stopped from discharging into the swamp, and an outlet was cut from a in the direction of the natural fall, which not only drained the road, but made a large district available for cultivation.

98

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

Occasionally, lines of deserted river-beds may be followed, covered with scrub and saplings, which may be cleared for a few shillings per chain; whilst, on each side, the forest is densely timbered with large trees, every one of which costs as many pounds to clear from the track.

ROADS TO GIVE ACCESS TO CROWN-LANDS.

143. In setting out crown-lands for sale, especially where the purchase of small allotments is allowed, special judgment is required in settling the position of the road-lines, in order to avoid giving a monopoly of natural advantages to the holders of the front sections.

144. An example of mismanagement will illustrate this better than a whole chapter of formal instructions.

In Figs. 40 and 41, Plates III. and IV., is shown the plan of a timbered valley, shut off from the rest of the district by a high range, terminating in two grassy promontories enclosing a bay. Given the problem, to divide the land into small allotments in such a way as to give to every holder frontage to an available road, for getting away his timber, and afterwards his produce, as well as free access to the grazing land on the beads, without trespassing on his neighbours' lots; the object being to bring all the timber gradually to market, and the cleared land into cultivation.

A main road should be laid along the bottom of the valley as a frontage line, and continued down to

ROADS TO CROWN LANDS.

99

Fig. 41 shows the manner in which this case ought to be treated. Fig. 40, on the other hand, shows how it is often treated in reality.

The first selector takes the pick of the place, monopolising all the available beach-frontage and blocking up the centre of the valley. The sections right and left are practically inaccessible. As it is

H2

deep water in the bay, where a jetty might be built for the shipment of timber and produce.

From the head of the valley-road a bridle-track should be laid out to the summit of the ridge.

A second road should be contoured along the hillside, at a cartroad-gradient, from the beach up to the ridge at the head of the valley, for the purpose of giving access to the neighbouring country.

Lastly, a stock road should be cut along the watershed, round the head and sides of the valley, communicating with the grass-land at the heads.

The space between this stock road and the road in the bottom of the valley, may then be divided into sections, each of which will have access to the main road in the valley and to the grazing land; whilst the timber from each section may be drawn down the slopes and taken by a tramway, laid on the main road, to a sawmill on the beach, without trespassing on the adjoining allotments or destroying crops or grasses. In this manner, road-making will be reduced to a minimum, whilst every acre of timber may be cleared and brought down to the place of shipment without difficulty.

100

THE SELECTION OF ROAD-LINES.

impossible to remove the logs any way but downhill, they cannot be taken to a mill; but, pits must be established for every half-dozen trees, and the sawn timber carried down steep hill-paths, by hand, to the beach. The lop-and-top is left to cumber the ground, and, consequently, cultivation is not attempted except in small patches round the pits.

Probably an attempt is made to open the impracticable roads laid out on the mountain's side; but the amount of labour required, baffles those engaged on the work; and it is sooner or later abandoned, after much time and money have been thrown away in the attempt; whilst the back sections remain for a time inaccessible.

At last, under much pressure, the Government steps in, and buys a right of way, from the first selectors, to the back land at the head of the valley, paying for it more than the original purchase-money of the sections. The bottom of the valley gradually becomes cleared and brought under cultivation; but the hillsides remain useless for years, until the increasing scarcity of wood makes it worth while to incur the expense of clearing the slopes.

It will be understood that the above is not a sketch of any actual bay, but that it is a typical representation of the manner in which the natural advantages of a district may be neutralised by the operations of an injudicious surveyor; and it will explain the necessity of denning road-lines before selection is allowed.

ROAD MAP.

101

ROAD MAP.

145. As soon as a line of road has been set out, the centre line should be lockspitted, and the side cuttings should be benched at formation-level. It should then be chained throughout, and the distances marked with stout pegs, not more than five chains apart.

A careful traverse should then be made of the lockspitted line and the benchings, showing all the creekcrossings and other features of the ground, accompanied by a section, with permanent bench-marks not more than a mile apart.

A scale of three chains to an inch is very convenient; and it has the advantage of corresponding, nearly, with the scale of 200 feet to the inch, to which the culverts and bridges may be drawn on the plan as required.

Scales of three chains horizontal and thirty feet vertical, to the inch, are good working scales for the section.

If these road-traverses are carefully made and properly connected, they form a skeleton survey of the country, which will be sufficient for fixing the position, and defining the frontages of selected lands. It can be filled in, by degrees, by the surveyors employed in setting the purchased lands.

146. In order to prevent the lines from being lost, it is well to put in permanent side-stakes at short intervals, at distances from the centre-line correspond-

102

FORMATION OF ROAD SURFACES

ing to the width of the intended road. These permanent stakes should be numbered, and their positions marked on the plan, as they will form the startingpoints for the descriptions of the crown grants.

FORMATION OF ROAD SURFACES.

147. In this, as in almost everything else, no specific rules can be laid down, although the general principles to be observed are everywhere the same.

148. In Level Ground. —Prevent all water from coming on the road from higher ground, by catch-water drains.

Drain the site of the road by roadside ditches with frequent outlets, taking advantage of undulations in the surface for this purpose.

Do not cut up the natural surface when this can be avoided, and fill up the hollows rather than cut down the hillocks.

149. If embankment is necessary, save the sods when stripping the cuttings, and put them over the made ground before putting on the metal.

150. Loose sand may be made into a good road, by putting a coat of clay or stiff loam on the formed sand. If the roadsides are levelled and sprinkled with loam and clover-seed, the clover will soon spread and effectually bind the loose sand.

151. Clear the side walks from stumps and pitfalls of every description, so that they may be available for

IN SIDE CUTTING.

103

horsemen, stock, and light traffic. This will greatly save the metalled road, and be a great convenience to the public.

152. Avoid cutting water-tables unless you can afford to metal them, and get what stuff you want for formation from side ditches at the extreme width of the road reserve.

153. Avoid high crowns to either formation or metal, and let the slope be sufficiently easy to allow of its being drawn off at any place, to the side walk.

154. Blind the metal with sand or fine gravel, not with mud, and roll it well with a heavy roller before throwing it open for traffic.

55. As ruts form in the road, fill them up with fresh metal, and rake down the ridges to the outside of the metalling. Do not disturb the metal which has set.

156. Metal should be broken by hand, not crushed in a machine; and there should be a gradation in its size from the foundation to the road-surface.

157. If a pitched foundation is required, set the pitching edgewise in courses across the road, and pack it tightly with spalls. Never allow a stone to lie flat on a road.

158. In Side Gutting. —Do not cut catch-water drains at the top of the slopes, but at a considerable distance in the rear, leading the surface-water to the gullies, where provision must be made for discharging it without passing over the road-surface or through made ground.

104

FORMATION OF ROAD SURFACES.

By this means the slopes have a much better chance of standing than if saturated with water from the catch-water drains.

Keep the road with a slight outward inclination, sufficient to throw off surface-water.

159. If the gradient is severe, so that the surfacewater naturally runs down the road instead of across it, provide broad shallow paved gutters at intervals to intercept and throw it off. These gutters should always be on the spurs and not on the made embankments.

160. Avoid open drains at the foot of the slopes; they take up room, and are choked with slips when most wanted. If drains are required in this position, they should be covered over.

CHAPTER V.

ON TIIE SELECTION AND CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAY LINES.

161. General Considerations. —Much that has been said respecting the selection of road lines applies to that of railway lines, but the difference in the nature of railways and roads involves some important differences.

These are as follows:—

(1) On account of the cost of the rails, it is of more consequence to shorten the length of the route than to make slight savings in earthwork.

(2) As an artificial bearing surface is provided in the shape of rails and sleepers, the state of the natural surface of the ground passed over is of less consequence than in laying out an ordinary road, which may perhaps remain for years without being metalled.

(3) In laying out an ordinary road it is always desirable to keep as much on the surface as possible for the purpose of giving access to the adjoining lands.

In the case of a railway, communication is only required at intervals chosen with reference to local

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RAILWAY LINES.

circumstances, and it is immaterial between these points whether the line is on the natural surface or otherwise.

162. It must be borne in mind that sharp curves and steep gradients are always evils, and that they involve extra cost both in maintenance and in locomotive expenses, although they may save cost in first construction.

163. Select sites for stations at the commencement, and lay out the line with reference to them, arranging if possible as light fall each way from the stationground.

164. If the construction of the railway precedes the laying out of the ordinary roads of the country, lay out the latter so as to avoid bridges as much as possible. In thinly-peopled districts, it is sufficient to put cattletraps at the level crossings to keep cattle from straying on the railway, without erecting gates or employing gatekeepers. If gates are used, they should not shut against the line.

165. Constructive Cost. —The constructive cost of a railway, all other things being equal, depends on the width of the rolling stock, the maximum weight on each pair of wheels, and the speed at which the load is to be carried.

166. Goods-Trucks.— The maximum size of packages sent by sea, depends mainly upon the size of a ship's hatches, and upon the conveniences for loading and unloading at the ports. It is common to send agricul-

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ROLLING STOCK.

tural machinery, carriages, and furniture, in large cases, which are often more than seven feet in breadth and in height. Trucks less than seven feet wide, therefore, would not suit the requirements of ordinary railway traffic; and for such a width, the gauge of the rails should not be less than the English standard of four feet eight inches and a half (4 ft. 8½ in.), in order to secure steadiness with a high load at the usual speed of goods-trains.

167. Passenger-Carriages. — Passenger-carriages may be built to various designs, but there is great economy in the American system of having the doors at the ends, and a passage through the centre of each carriage. This enables the conductor to issue and to collect tickets whilst the train is in motion, thus saving staff at stations; whilst the arrangement of the doors with steps down to rail-level, renders raised platforms at the stations unnecessary, and thus greatly simplifies the station-arrangements.

Carriages on this system may be made with advantage ten feet wide; and for this width, the gauge of the rails should not be less than five feet three inches (5 ft. 3 in.), to avoid excessive overhang.

When the doors are at the ends of the carriages, instead of at the sides, twelve inches of clearance will be sufficient on each side. The minimum width at bridges may be twelve feet; and the same width will suffice for tunnels, when recesses are provided as refuges for workmen during the passing of trains.

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RAILWAY LINES.

168. For carriages of the usual construction, nine feet wide, with doors at the sides, the minimum width of bridges and tunnels is fourteen feet.

169. Tank-Engines. —lf tank-engines are used, the increased width of gauge from 4 ft. 8½ in. to 5 ft. 3 in. gives a considerable addition of tank-room, a point of very great importance.

170. Comparison of Gauges. —On the whole, there are many reasons for adopting the wide carriage, with central passage and end doors, on a 5 ft. 3 in. gauge, with twelve feet bridge space, in preference to the narrower carriage with side doors, on a 4 ft. 8½ in. gauge, with fourteen feet bridge space.

171. A 3 ft. 6 in., or still narrower, gauge, does not admit of an economical form of passenger-carriage without a dangerous overhang; it is impossible to carry large packages safely except at low speeds, and the power of the engine is seriously crippled by the narrowness of the engine-frame.

In using coupled engines, or employing engines with two boilers and four cylinders, as on the system patented by Mr. Fairlie, the number of working parts and the cost of the rolling stock are increased.

172. It is scarcely necessary to point out that an engine built for a 5 ft. 3 in. gauge, with one pair of 15 in. cylinders, has fewer working parts, and is less expensive, both in first cost and in working expenses, than a composite engine of the same nominal power, built for a 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, with two boilers, four

CURVES AND BRIDGES.

109

11 in. cylinders, and the proportionate number of working parts.

173. Setting-out Curves. —ln setting-out a railway curve between two fixed points, make the radius somewhat less than that of such a circular curve as would exactly hit the two points, and gradually increase the radius at the two ends of the curve.

174. Do not throw the whole of the difference of level upon the outer rail, but drop the inner rail as much as the outer rail is raised. This will keep the drawlinks always at the same height, and will prevent the jerk which is felt when the carriages are tilted violently on the outer rail, on entering a curve.

175. Bridges. —ln building a bridge to carry a railway over a public road, it is necessary to provide a close floor to prevent injury to passers-by from fallingcinders.

176. In bridges over creeks and rivers, this is not necessary, and it is quite sufficient to provide a skeleton framing of sufficient strength to support the permanent way.

Neither are parapets of any use or protection to the passengers in such bridges, all that is required being a light handrail for the use of workmen. In the event of a collision or of a train leaving the track, the momentum of a train travelling at ordinary speed is quite sufficient to bring destruction on the passengers, which cannot be alleviated or prevented in any way by the use of either floors or parapets.

110

RAILWAY LINES.

177. Embankments. —The width of embankments must be governed rather by the weight and speed of the trains, than by the width between the rails.

The usual practice of making the formation-surface two feet below rail-level, and of piling upon it a mass of ballast which is always shifting or sliding down with the vibration of the train, is decidedly objectionable; and it would be much better to carry up the slope of the earthwork to the top of the sleeper, thus boxing up the ballast and keeping it in its place, care being taken, at the same time, to leave ample drainage at the bottom of the ballast-bed.

It will also be found a great saving to roll and turf the ballast-bed, to prevent the ballast from becoming bedded and lost in the soft earth of the embankment.

178. Cuttings. —The width of cuttings must be regulated by that of the rolling stock, and by the space required for drainage outside the permanent way. It is dangerous to allow an open side drain in a cutting, where there is much run of water; as, on the one hand, it is liable to be scoured, and the sleepers to be undermined; and, on the other hand, it is liable to be choked up when not wanted, with falls of earth from the slopes. It is better to make use of covered drains with cesspools at short intervals, and to leave a wide berm at the foot of each slope, on which slips may rest without blocking the rails.

179. Ballast. —The use of ballast is threefold:—

(1) To form a drainage under the permanent way.

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SLEEPERS AND RAILS.

(2) To distribute the weight of the rails and sleepers over the bearing surface.

(3) To provide a store of hard material for packing the sleepers when unduly depressed, which shall not be converted into mud, nor washed from under the sleepers by the action of the weather.

If reduction in first cost is indispensable, it will often be best to omit the ballast altogether, as is frequently done on American lines; taking care, however, to have substantial sleepers and strong rails, and to keep the road packed with the best material available.

180. Sleepers. —The object of the sleepers is twofold, viz.:—

(1) To connect the rails together, so as to keep them at the proper gauge.

(2) To provide a broad base, to resist the downward pressure of the train when passing over the rails.

If the sleeper be too narrow, there is not sufficient bearing surface ; if it be too broad, it is difficult to pack the ballast solidly under the centre of the sleeper, and the sleeper is in consequence liable to split.

181. Rails. —The forms of rail that have been tried or proposed are almost infinite in number, but those actually in use may be classed under two heads only:—

(1) The double-headed rail fixed in chairs, which is generally used on English lines.

(2) The single-headed flange-rail, bolted, screwed, or spiked down to the sleeper, which is in general use over the greater part of North America, and on most of the Continental lines.

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RAILWAY LINES.

182. The principal advantage of the flanged rail, is the facility with which it can be attached to the sleeper with fastenings of an inexpensive description.

Its disadvantages are, that it is not easily bent round sharp curves; that it cannot be turned when the head is worn; that the flanges are apt to oxidize and laminate; and that the rigid attachment of the rail to the sleeper causes greater disturbance of the permanent way, and involves greater labour in maintenance, than in the case of the double-headed rail.

183. The double-headed rail is necessarily somewhat heavier, for the same weight of train, than the flanged rail; but as both tables can be used in succession, it has practically double the life of the singleheaded rail.

The double-headed rail, also, is easily bent round curves, whilst the mode of attachment to the chairs admits of a longitudinal movement of the rail. Without such freedom the sleepers are being constantly dragged backwards and forwards in the ballast.

With regard to the dimensions of the doubleheaded rail, the width of the tables should not be less than 2 inches, nor need it exceed 2-J inches ; whilst the depth of the rail, from the nature of the fastening, cannot well be made less than 5 inches, and need never exceed 5¾ inches.

Practically, the minimum weight of the ordinary double-headed rail is about 70 lbs. to the lineal yard, whilst the maximum weight need never exceed 84 lbs.

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CURVATURE.

187. Limit of Curvature. —lt is impossible to lay down any strict rules for the radius of railway curves, but a few hints on the subject may be acceptable.

Curves of less than ten-chains radius should never be used, except in cases of unavoidable necessity.

On the other hand, nothing is gained by making curves of a greater radius than one mile; and curves of from one mile down to forty-chains radius, may be safely worked at very considerable speeds.

Curves of from forty chains down to twenty-chains radius, may be employed with safety; but it must be remembered that they involve a diminution of speed,

I

184. With regard to the flanged rail, the minimum weight to which it can safely be reduced is about 45 lbs. per yard.

If made lighter than this, the bearing surface of the rail is objectionably narrow, and dangerously close to the surface of the sleeper.

185. Chairs. —The chairs should be made broad in the seat, and cannot well be of less weight than 24 lbs. each. It is well to place a thin strip of soft wood between the rail and the chair, to prevent the former from being cut into by the latter.

186. The keys should always be on the outside of the rail, as by this arrangement the jar is lessened between the rail and the chair. In addition to this, when the rails are keyed on the inside, the keys are in danger of being crushed by the wheel-flanges when the tread of the tire becomes worn.

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RAILWAY LINES.

increased wear both of rails and rolling stock, and increased cost of maintenance.

Curves of less than twenty-chains radius should not be introduced except in stations and in specially difficult ground. They cannot be worked advantageously at high speed, except by engines specially adapted for traversing curves, either by the use of bogies or of radiating axleboxes.

188. It will often be found advantageous, in opening a line through difficult country, to contour the hillsides with sharp curves, which can be worked with engines having only one pair of drivers.

When the increasing traffic demands the subsequent employment of more powerful engines with coupled wheels, the curves can be flattened and the rails shifted as required, without any interruption to the traffic.

189. Gradients. —"With regard to gradients, a gradient of 1 in 80 is the steepest that can be advantageously worked with ordinary engines, and steeper gradients should not be used except in cases of unavoidable necessity.

The introduction of gradients steeper than 1 in 80, involves the use of engines of great power and great weight as well as heavy rails to carry them; and, therefore, before deciding on the maximum gradient to be employed in laying out a line of railway, the comparative expense of gradients and rolling stock should be carefully balanced.

190. Whatever gradients, however, are adopted, the line must be constructed to them from the first, as it is

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GRADIENTS.

192. Care must be taken to connect ascending and descending gradients by a piece of level line, equal in length to the length of the longest train at least; and all gradients should be eased off with vertical curves at their intersections.

i 2

impossible to make any material alteration in the levels of a line once opened, without seriously interfering with the traffic.

191. Nothing is gained by making the gradients flatter than lin 264, or 20 feet per mile; and, as a general rule, it is as well to undulate the gradients with the natural surface. A great deal of work is thus avoided, and interference with the natural drainage of the country is prevented.

CHAPTER VI.

ON THE STORAGE OF WATER.

193. There are few places where a considerable portion of the winter rainfall may not be collected and stored for summer use, by the erection of dams in suitable situations.

194. It often is found that a country which, in its natural state, absorbed the rainfall without forming creeks or defined runs of water, became water-bearing, after having been stocked for a few years, by the closer growth of the turf, and the consolidation of the soil by the trampling of sheep and cattle.

When this result has been obtained, little difficulty is found in obtaining sufficient water from the rainfall, if carefully impounded, to carry stock through the driest summer.

195. The best site for a dam is at the lower end of a large flat hollow, where a large area may be flooded by a dam of only a few feet in height. The cost of an earthen dam increases rapidly in proportion to its height, and it is a matter of great importance that this consideration should have its due weight.

DAMS

117

196. Avoid, if possible, putting an earthen dam on the line of a creek; although it may often be advisable to put a weir in a creek, for the purpose of throwing water into a reservoir established in a lateral hollow.

197. In the case of earthen dams, ample byewashes must be provided, to prevent the crest of the dam from, being scoured and breached in flood-time.

198. The best form of crest is that shown in Fig. 42, with a fall towards the back of the dam. It permits of material being taken from the rear, in cases of

Fib. 42. Section of an earthen dam.

emergency, to strengthen any portion of the crest that shows signs of weakness; whereas if the slope is toward the front of the dam, this resource is not available; and many a dam has been breached in sudden flood, from the failure of some weak point which could not be temporarily repaired, on account of the crest being submerged.

199. Great differences of opinion exist as to the use of puddle in earthen dams. Some engineers place a puddle wall in the centre of the thickness of the dam; others prefer to puddle the face of the inner slope. For dams of small size, it is as well to construct them wholly of earth, well rammed, and to puddle the face of the inner slope if the material is

118

ON THE STORAGE OF WATER.

not sufficiently good to admit of this source of security being dispensed with.

200. The face of every dam should be covered with, broken metal, to prevent scour from the wash, which always occurs in windy weather.

201. Where reservoirs are to be formed in deep valleys by dams of great height, earthen dams are unsuitable, and it is best to employ either masonry or concrete.

202. A stone dam requires no byewash, because the crest forms a weir over which the water may be allowed to flow without risk of injury to the masonry, if properly constructed.

203. Concrete is superior to masonry for the foundation of a dam, chiefly because of the facility with which it may be punned into the irregularities of a rocky foundation pit, so as to form a solid impermeable mass.

204. The outlet-pipe should be placed some feet above the bottom of the reservoir, so that the silt which is sure to accumulate, may not be disturbed. A scour-pipe of ample size should be provided for scouring away the mud at the commencement of the winter rains, when water can be spared for this purpose.

205. The valve-tower generally used may very well be dispensed with, and the valves placed at the outside of the dam.

206. A cage should, however, be placed over both the outlet and the scour-pipe, to prevent weeds and

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TOWN SUPPLY.

branches from choking the valves. These cages may be raised and lowered from timber stages.

TOWN SUPPLY.

207. If the storage reservoir is at a distance from the point of supply, a service reservoir should be provided near the latter sufficient to hold a week's supply.

Not only may the supply be thus continued during repairs or alterations of the main, but the mainway may be made of the minimum size requisite to supply the estimated maximum daily consumption during the twenty-four hours. On the other hand, the service main must be of sufficient size to meet all the demands of the daily consumption, which varies greatly during the twenty-four hours. Comparatively little water is used between midnight and daybreak.

208. It is advantageous also to have small servicereservoirs at the highest points of the reticulation, so as to admit of the mains being shut off for repairs, or of the concentration of the pressure on particular spots, in case of fire, without stopping the domestic supply.

209. In laying the main from the storage to the service reservoir, it is best to give a greater inclination at the upper than at the lower end, so that the section may form a parabolic curve, above which the pipe should never rise. It is of little consequence how far

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ON THE STORAGE OF WATER.

the pipe sinks below this curve, provided the increase of pressure thus caused is not too great for the strength of the pipe.

210. Where it is impossible to avoid undulations in the pipe-track, scour-cocks and air-cocks must be provided, to get rid of the air that accumulates at the summits, and to scour out silt from the hollows.

Air-cocks are in many respects better than self-

Fig. 43. Reticulation of water-mains and pipes in streets, a, main; b, b, &c, rider-pipes.

acting air-valves, for, with them, the pipe may act as a syphon.

211. Reticulation. —Lay the mains down the centres of the streets, with rider-pipes of smaller bore along the edge of the footpath, connected with the central main at the intersections of the streets. This arrangement not only renders it unnecessary to lay mains in the cross streets, but it also saves the breaking up of the roadway to lay the services ; and these are

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ARTESIAN WELLS.

so much reduced in length that the saving compensates for the cost of the rider-pipes. Further, each rider-pipe can be disconnected from the main for repairs, alterations, or laying on additional services, without shutting off the main. The main itself is thus protected from the injury to which it would otherwise be exposed, by being tapped for the services; and it may advantageously be laid so deep as to be secured from any injury from traffic or from street-repairs (see Fig. 43).

212. Economy also results from the use of a constant, instead of an intermittent, supply, for smaller mains and service-pipes are required where the delivery extends over the whole twenty-four hours than where it is limited to a few hours only ; whilst waste and leakage are more easily detected and guarded against than where cisterns are used. It is also a great check on the spread of fire, to keep the street-mains always charged and ready for immediate service.

213. Artesian Wells. —There are many situations where artesian water can be obtained by boring. Where this is the case, water-supply becomes very simple, as a tube-well can be sunk for every house at a small expense, and the water may be laid on precisely as if supplied from a street main, provided the upward pressure is sufficient to send the water a few feet above the surface of the ground.

216. It is, however, very seldom that the pressure from an artesian tube-well is sufficient to throw water

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ON THE STORAGE OF WATER.

to any considerable height; and therefore, where a town depends upon artesian supply, it is desirable to establish street-tanks at short intervals, from which, in case of fire, the water can be pumped by steam fireengines.

CHAPTER VII.

ON DRAINAGE.

215. It is important that proper provision for sur-face-drainage should be made, at an early period in the settlement of a new district, in order that proper drainage outfalls may be secured and reserved from sale. This course of procedure prevents a great deal of difficulty and litigation.

216. In laying out a system of drains, care must be taken that they do not flood the low lands whilst relieving the higher ones; and, in the case of lowlying districts, it will often be found necessary to carry the water from the upper levels, either in catch-water drains round the lower levels, or on raised embankments across them. Without the exercise of this precaution, many low-lying districts would be hopelessly swamped by the flood-water from the higher ground.

217. Districts lying at high-water level, adjoining the coast, may often be drained on the ebb tide by selfacting sluice-gates, which will be closed by the pressure of the tidal water when it is above the level of the water

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ON DRAINAGE.

in the drains; whilst they will always be opened by the discharge of the flood-water when the latter is above the sea-level.

218. The surface-drainage of towns is a matter to which, in general, far too little attention is paid.

In fixing the levels of the streets of a new township, they should be so arranged that the street-gutters should be nowhere less than twelve inches below the general level of the ground, so that the yards at the backs of the houses will naturally drain into the street, whence the surface-drainage should flow into the drainage outfalls. It is too often the case that the streets of a town are brought up to a regular gradient, not by cutting down the elevations, but by embanking across the depressions. The result of this is, that whole blocks of buildings are deprived of the natural surfacedrainage, and they become, in consequence, hotbeds of disease. The only remedy for this is the costly one of a system of underground drainage, at a level sufficiently low to take off not only the stagnant surface-water, but to thoroughly drain the saturated ground.

Where portions of town-lands are unavoidably below the level of the street-gutters, proper underground drainage must be provided.

219. It is not easy to see how these desirable objects are to be carried out, if town-lands are sold without any conditions respecting levels or drainage; and it would be much better, in all cases of new townships, that the levels of the streets and of the public drains

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ON DRAINAGE.

should be carefully defined, previous to the sale of town lots.

220. Very great advantage would, no doubt, arise, if the streets in all new townships could be brought to their proper levels, before the sale of the adjacent lots, the cost of these works being made the first charge upon the purchase-money. In most cases, the improved value given to the land, would be more than sufficient to recoup the outlay.

CHAPTEE VIII.

ON THE DISPOSAL OF TOWN SEWAGE.

221. Without wishing to express an opinion as to the desirability or necessity in the crowded cities of the Old World for disposing of night-soil by means of a network of underground drains, either into the natural water-courses of the country or into reservoirs specially prepared for the purpose, it may be unhesitatingly laid down that such a system is always more or less of an evil, and one which should be avoided in the laying-out of new townships.

222. Nor do the experiments recently made with regard to the disposal of town-sewage on suburban lands, afford either decisive or satisfactory results. It does not appear that, unless in very exceptional cases, the profit arising from this method of applying the sewage, will in any way give an adequate return for the cost incurred in conducting it from the houses to the spot where it is to be used; whilst it is certain that the passing of sewage-drains through and under dwelling-houses is a fertile source of disease, because of the exhalations which escape from the main sewers.

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TOWN SEWAGE.

223. It is also open to question whether the flooding of pasture-lands by sewage-irrigation does not vitiate the milk of the cattle grazed on such land, showing that pasture so treated is unfit for dairypurposes.

224. To avoid these evils, the best plan is to provide water-tight receptacles in the rear of the houses, which should be periodically emptied at short intervals; and that this may be done without annoyance to the inmates, care should be taken, in laying out towns, that every house should be provided with access from the rear, so that all noxious matter may be removed without being passed through the dwellings.

225. If cesspools are permitted, they should be under official inspection, and should be always constructed so as to be thoroughly water-tight. Much better than the cesspool, however, is the system of combining the ash-pit and the privy, keeping the whole above the level of the ground.

The cinders and ashes absorb the liquid portion of the manure, and to a certain extent deodorise the mass so as to permit its being removed without the stench which accompanies the emptying of an ordinary cesspool. This is, on the whole, the least objectionable form of the cesspool system.

When this plan is not adopted, earth-closets may be used in one form or another; or a metal pan may be placed under the privy-seat, to be removed periodically by the nightman.

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TOWN SEWAGE.

226. Under any circumstances, a practice which involves an elaborate and expensive system of underground drains, having, as an unavoidable result, the concentration of a nuisance, should be most carefully avoided.

227. What is required may be thus briefly stated:

First, a system of surface-drainage in the streets, by which the rainfall, the scullery-water, and the chamber-slops may be carried away, and the latter in such a diluted form as to produce no practical inconvenience. Secondly, that the night-soil should never be allowed to saturate the ground within the boundaries of town lands. Thirdly, that all buildings should be laid out with access to the rear, by which all night-soil and refuse may be removed without passing through the houses.

CHAPTER IX.

ON THE SELECTION AND LOCATION OF TOWN-SITES.

228. Reasons for Selection.-It is very seldom that the engineer has much to do with the choice of townsites. These are generally determined by special circumstances with which the engineer has nothing to do: —arising, for the most part, out of the necessities of traffic—a landing-place, a ford, a ferry, the confluence of two navigable rivers. Each and all of these circumstances have been repeatedly made the centres round which traffic has gathered, until a town became a necessity.

229. But, although the engineer has seldom anything to do with the choice of a site, he can do a great deal in so locating the streets on the site which has been chosen, as greatly to lessen the inconvenience and difficulty which arise from injudicious selection. Many a naturally good site has been utterly spoiled, for want of a little judicious engineering in laying out the streets.

230. Flooded Sites.- To anyone not accustomed to

129

130

TOWN SITES.

the vagaries of a gold-digging community, it would be difficult to explain the mad eagerness with which a large population will sometimes rush to an unsuitable site, and cover it with expensive buildings.

231. Thus, on the first establishment of the town of Hokitika, on the west coast of New Zealand, streets were laid out, and hotels and warehouses built, upon a wide sand-spit, through which, not many months after, was the principal entrance of the Hokitika River; whilst the permanent township was subsequently located in a peat-swamp, between the beach and the mainland, below the level of spring-tides, subject to be laid under "water at every fresh, and liable in a dry season to burn to a depth of many feet if but a spark be dropped in the unmetalled street.

232. So, again, Greymouth, at the mouth of the River Grey, is located below the ordinary flood-level, and is periodically under water.

233. In each of these cases, however, settlement was spontaneous; and no one but the settlers themselves, who rushed to the sites, are to be blamed for these mistakes.

234. In the case of Gundagai, in New South Wales, the township was laid out by the Government, in the face of the information given by the natives that the site chosen was subject to inundation; and the settlers had, therefore, just reason to complain when the township was utterly destroyed by a severe flood.

HILLSIDES.

131

237. The post-town of Lyttelton, in New Zealand, is a very striking example of a mistake of this kind. Lyttelton is placed on the shore of a small bay, from which the ground rises rapidly to the height of 1,600

K2

It seems hardly necessary to point out, that no site should be selected for a township which is periodically subject to inundation, although it may sometimes be requisite to make use of such sites for the landing or transhipment of goods.

235. Hillsides. —Again, a site occupying a hillside is most objectionable for business purposes, although it may be made, by judicious treatment, a most pleasant site for residences; whilst a level plain, although affording great facilities for the construction of a railway station, with its workshops and warehouses, is not to be recommended for the location of suburban villas.

236. Whatever the peculiar features of the site chosen, the location of the streets should be fixed with reference to them, so as to take the utmost advantage of the ground to obtain facilities of drainage, easy gradients, and cheapness of road-formation. Nothing can be worse than the practice which sometimes obtains, of laying out a pattern town, divided neatly into rectangular blocks, with the streets at right angles to each other, and of fitting this upon a hilly site, without the slightest regard, either to the irregularities of the ground, or to the direction of the watercourses.

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TOWN SITES.

feet above the sea. The semicircular hillside between the two headlands which bound the town site, is scored with deep ravines, the beds of which are dry during the greater part of the year, whilst in times or heavy rains they are filled by torrents which sweep everything before them.

238. If the steep hillside had been contoured in terraces, closely following the natural surface, and connected with each other by inclines laid out at cart-road gradients, the site would have been one of the prettiest that could be well conceived for the erection of private residences; and although no warehouses would ever have been built much above the general level of the wharves, there would have been no difficulty in carting either stores or fuel to the highest part of the town.

239. Instead of this, however, the town has been laid out in rectangular blocks, and the lines of the streets cross the spurs and gullies in such a manner that many of them are simply impracticable for wheeled traffic; whilst the frontages in those streets which, at great labour, have been brought to workable gradients, are of little value, for the streets thus formed present an alternation of deep cutting and high embankment, which is fatal to building operations.

240. Drainage-Outlets. —The town of Christchurch, in New Zealand, is an example of a mistake of another kind.

It is situated on a level plain, and a rectangular arrangement in this case is not only unobjectionable

STREETS.

133

but judicious. No arrangement, however, was made for the reservation of any drainage-outlets, or even for the protection of the natural watercourses. The result has, of course, been, that, when surface-drainage became a necessity from the settlement of the town and the flow of water from the artesian wells, the attempt to obtain drainage-outlets was attended with many difficulties and with considerable litigation. All of this might have been avoided had contour levels been taken, and drainage-outlets provided, previous to the sale of the town-lots.

241. Width of Streets.—The width of the streets of a town must be decided, in a great measure, by local circumstances.

In the case of a country township placed upon the line of a three-chain-wide road, there is no reason for reducing this width, which gives ample standing-room for bullock-teams, but the cross and back streets, if any, may very well be limited to one chain in width.

242. Chain-wide streets are, however, too narrow for closely-built towns where there is much traffic, and it is better to make them chain-and-a-half wide, which allows for a wide pavement, and also standing-room for cabs in the centre of the road, where this may be required.

243. Two chains will be found an objectionable width, as it increases the cost of street-paving without any adequate return. Three chains and upwards, however, may be employed in some situations with great

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TOWN SITES.

advantage, the centre of the street being planted with trees. This arrangement has been carried out with very pleasing effect in the principal street of Ballarat.

244. Width of Footpath. —This must depend partly on the width of the street. In business streets, twelve feet will be found a convenient width.

A very good arrangement in hot climates, and where space can be obtained, is to make the footway twenty feet wide, with a row of trees between the gutter and the edge of the paving. The paving must on no account be extended round the trees, or they will not thrive. In streets intended solely as warehouse frontages, a narrow strip of paving, with a stout kerbing to keep the waggons from backing on to the walls of the buildings, is all that is required; and a wide pavement in these cases would be inconvenient and objectionable.

245. Arrangement of Blocks. —lf the building blocks are double, that is, laid out with sections back to back, the two lines of sections should be separated from each other by a right of way not less than half a chain wide, so that access to each property may be had both from the front and rear.

If underground drainage is employed, the sewers should be laid along these rights of way, so that the house-drains may be laid into them without passing under the houses.

246. Gas and Water Mains. —These are best laid along the main streets. The services should not be

PARKS AND RECREATION GROUNDS.

135

tapped into the mains, but connected with rider-pipes laid at the edge of the footpaths, thus obviating the necessity of breaking up the street pavement for laying or repairing services.

247. Paries and Recreation-Grounds. —lt is desirable to make liberal reserves for recreation-grounds in laying out a new township, and to define the limits of the town-lands by a public road outside these reserves. The road may with advantage be laid out of sufficient width to allow of a belt of plantation along its centre.

Less than three chains in width is insufficient for this purpose; more than five chains is undesirable.

248. It is much better to lay out a new township on a moderate scale but with large reserves, than to cover a large area at first with projected streets, which are not likely to be built upon for many years.

249. In the first case, the buildings are concentrated, forming a nucleus round which the town grows naturally, whilst additional streets can always be taken when required from the reserved lands, which can in the interim be used with advantage as commonage. In the latter case, the result is too often merely a straggling village, ill-paved and ill-lighted, and which perhaps never attains to the dignity of a town for want, in the first instance, of that concentration which is essential to financial success in municipal management.

250. In the case of broken and irregular ground,

136

TOWN SITES.

with gullies and water-holes, it is better to leave such spots for ornamental planting than to incur expense in levelling the ground. These unsightly places may thus be made very picturesque features, greatly improving the appearance of the town.

251. Railway Stations. —Where railway communication is possible, the lines of future railways and the positions of the stations should always be fixed before determining the direction of the streets. This precaution will save much subsequent trouble and difficulty.

If the traffic is likely to be important, a rectangular block should be provided, thirty chains in length if possible, and not less than five, nor more than ten chains broad, with roads all round.

Ample space should always be left for the erection of warehouses in connection with the rails. Much expense that would otherwise be incurred in carting to and from the railway station, may thus be avoided.

It may be said that this system of reservation creates a monopoly, and is destructive of private enterprise, but it should be thoroughly understood that concentration of traffic is the natural result of railway communication, and is the only way in which economy of transit can be fully developed.

25 2. Gas-Works. —Eeserve a site for gas-works somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood of every new township, at a low level, capable of being thoroughly drained.

137

CEMETERIES.

253. Cemeteries. —Cemetery reserves should not be far from the town to which they belong, nor should they be placed in any situation whence there is any possibility of the drainage communicating with the town water supply.

CHAPTER X.

ON CARPENTRY.

254. Hard and Soft Woods. —All timber may be classed under one of two heads, viz., hard-wood and soft-wood.

These two classes of timber require very different kinds of treatment.

255. Hard-wood, as its name implies, is hard, and it is generally brittle. A hard-wood beam may be loaded with scarcely any deflection, almost to the break-ing-point ; and it will often break, when overloaded, without giving any previous notice of fracture.

256. A soft-wood beam, on the contrary, will deflect so much as to render it useless before the breakingpoint is reached, and it possesses more elasticity and is much lighter than a hard-wood beam.

Hence, whilst hard-wood is best suited for piles, uprights, and capsills supported at short intervals, softwood is better suited for the chords of bridges and for trussed beams to which a camber is to be given.

257. In hard-wood, considerable dependence may be placed upon the strength of tenons; but, in soft-

139

BOLTS AND STRAPS.

wood, the reverse is the case, and a different system of joints should be employed.

258. Bolts. —The use of bolts in carpentry is to hold the butting portions of timber to their work, not to take a cross strain. In a great many cases, hardwood dowels might be substituted for iron bolts with advantage.

It is true that a screw-bolt gives great facilities

Junctions of struts and beams by bolts and by straps.

for drawing timbers together taut, which have shrunk from their original position, but the same thing may be done by using a screw-clamp and wedging up the ends of the dowels.

259. Straps. —Straps are generally inferior to bolts, and they are much more expensive.

Thus, in the case of a raking strut butting on a horizontal beam, a bolt passed through both, as shown in Fig. 44, will hold the strut in place for a time, even

140

ON CARPENTRY.

if the timbers have shrunk from their bearing; whilst in the case of a strap used for the same purpose, there is nothing to prevent it from slipping out of place in the event of the shrinking of the timber (see Figs. 45 and 46).

260. Angle-bands. —Angle-bands upon framing are always objectionable, and are wrong in principle, as they

Angle-bands at junctions of beams.

do not allow for the shrinking of the timber. Thus in the case of a strut butting on a straining piece secured by an angle-band, when the timber shrinks — and it is sure to do so in time—the pressure is transferred from the ends of the timbers to the bolts which fasten the bands ; the structure becomes rickety, and the strut is generally split by the cross strain on the bolts (see Figs. 47 and 48).

Cases of this kind are best treated by running a

BRIDGE BEAMS.

141

dowel through both timbers, or by putting a vertical sawcut in each and inserting a strip of boiler-plate.

261. Struts. —Struts, at their lower ends, should not be notched into the bearing-piles, but should rest on cleats placed with the grain of the timber vertical, so that the shrinkage of the cleats will not allow the struts to drop, as would be the case if resting on a woling.

Fig. 49. Struts and cleats.

A strut may be kept in its place by a dowel driven through its foot, or, still better, by an upright strip of boiler-plate let half into the cleat and half into the strut (see Fig. 49).

262. Bridge-Beams. —ln a bridge with continuous floor-beams, it is better, instead of scarfing or lapping them over the capsills, to cut them of greater length than the spans, and to lay the ends side by side, and bolt or dowel them together. This is a much stronger plan

142

ON CARPENTRY.

than scarfing; it gives great stiffness and avoids the chance of decay from the rainwater getting into and rotting the scarfs (see Fig. 50).

263. Bridge-Trusses. —ln framing bridge-trusses, carefully avoid the ordinary king or queenpost truss as constructed for roofs, because the slightest shrinkage in the head of the kingpost will produce very serious deflection of the truss.

Fig. 50. Joint of bridge-beams.

Cast-iron heads should always be used in these positions.

264. The feet of the struts should be cut square to the fibre, and should rest either in cast-iron shoes or on level blocks of bard wood, so that the shrinkage of the strut will not lead to settlement (see Fig. 51).

265. In large trusses, avoid using timber in tension, as in kingposts and bottom -chords; and make use of wrought iron for these purposes wherever it is practicable to do so.

BRIDGE-TRUSSES.

143

266. Wherever bolts pass through timber, care should be taken to provide large plates under the heads and nuts, to prevent their being squeezed into the wood.

267. One of the best and simplest forms of construction for timber spans not exceeding thirty feet, is a beam trussed with a tension-rod beneath it. The ends of the tension-rod should pass through abutment plates fitted to the ends of the beams, and sufficiently strong to prevent the beams from being crushed.

The screws should be of such size that the smallest

Fig. 51. Bridge-truss.

part of the screws should be equal to the full thickness of the rod, and the thickness of the nuts should not be less than two diameters.

268. The length of the saddles should be so adjusted, that, when the beam is screwed up to its proper camber, the tension-rod will assume the catenarian curve. If this be not attended to, the beam will drop under a heavy load until the tension-rod takes this curve, throwing the beam into a most unsightly twist.

269. Laminated timber arches were much in vogue some years back, but their use is now generally abandoned. It is very difficult to repair them when they

144

ON CARPENTRY.

begin to decay, and they are inferior in many respects to the parallel truss, made sufficiently deep to allow of the trusses being connected at the top chords without interference with the traffic. The truss known as the 'Howe' truss is one of the simplest and most efficient of these.

270. For temporary bridges, where the situation admits of it, nothing can be better than a simple log bridge in 16 ft. spans, built with logs not exceeding 12 in. in diameter. Such bridges are readily put up with a few simple tools; they do not involve the handling of heavy weights, and, if properly put together, they will last for many years. Where larger logs can be obtained, and machinery and tackle are available, trussed beams in 30 ft. spans may be employed with advantage.

271. Should the nature of the river to be crossed render it advisable to use spans wider than 30 ft., it is preferable to use spans of about 60 ft., and to employ the Howe truss.

272. All this, however, is on the supposition that suitable bridge-timber is readily available. In open country, where timber for bridge-beams would be difficult to obtain, wrought-iron girders would be preferable to a timber superstructure.

273. For spans up to 40 ft., a simple ordinary lattice-girder is the cheapest and most suitable. Girders of this kind can be readily transported in short lengths, to be riveted together on the spot where they are required to be used, at much less cost than would

be incurred for the carriage of heavy bridge-timber. For sections of girders for spans of from 20 to 50 ft., see Fig. 52.

274. Culverts. —Timber culverts may be considered to be a necessity in a timbered district, or in opening a road through a country where no other material is available.

In the first case, they are made of logs roughly

Fig. 52. Section of lattice girders.

squared, and of sufficient size and weight to keep their position without either bolts or dowels.

The floor should be made of stout poles, laid across the road so that carriage-wheels may not fall in between them; and it is well to cover the whole with sheets of bark and a layer of loam and metal if attainable.

275. Sawn-timber culverts have often to be used in open country where no other material is available. They are best made in lengths, the top, sides, and

145

145

LATTICE GIRDERS.

146

ON CARPENTRY.

bottom being framed separately. It is very difficult to get ordinary workmen to frame culverts properly, and it is therefore best to have them made at head-quarters by trained workmen, according to the design shown in Fig. 53, after which they can be carted to the spot where they are required, and may be put together by ordinary labourers.

276. Corduroy Roads. —lt is often necessary, in opening new roads, to put a temporary flooring of sap-

Fig. 53. Culverts of sawn timber.

lings over soft places. The following hints on the subject may be useful:—

Cut the saplings as nearly as possible of the same thickness, and use none shorter than the width of the intended road.

Lay down not less than three rows of stringers, viz., one at the centre and two at the outsides. These should be made of half-round split timber; and as the saplings are laid, put another tier of stringers above them, and trenail them to the lower tier. Sheets of bark may

147

CRIBBING.

It is also very suitable for bridge-piers, weirs, and rough wharves.

147

then be laid on the road, and they should be covered with a coat of loam and metal if available.

277. Cribbing. —ln crib-work, the logs should be as nearly as possible of the same diameter, say from 10 to 14 inches, and of lengths to be conveniently handled.

The bottom of each log is left round, the top is notched to receive the log above it, and all the intersections are securely trenailed.

This method of construction is better than that of squaring the ends of the logs, as it gives a better hold; besides, it saves the trouble of taking the logs out of winding.

Crib-work, executed in this manner, and filled in with broken stones, is an admirable substitute for masonry in building breast-walls, crossing gullies, or forming embankments in running water. It has been much used by the author, for these purposes, in New Zealand.

CHAPTER XI.

ON PILE-DRIVING.

278. A great deal has been written upon this subject, with reference to the calculation of the force of the blow given to the pile, and the relation which the weight of the hammer should bear to that of the pile itself.

All these scientific investigations, however interesting, are valueless so far as any practical result can be obtained from them, for the simple reason that we never, in practice, have any data by which we can calculate, beforehand, the resistance met with by the pile in the process of driving.

279. In driving piles for a foundation, there are three special cases:—

(1) That of a pile driven through a soft stratum, to rest on a hard bottom.

(2) That of piles driven into ground more or less capable of compression, for the purpose of obtaining support from lateral pressure.

(3) That of piles driven into moderately firm ground, for the purpose of keeping them fixed in an upright position, like pins in a pincushion.

PILE-DRIVING.

149

280. In the first case, the depth of the bearing stratum must be ascertained, and the piles must be of sufficient length. The work is squeezing rather than hammering, until the bearing stratum is reached, when the driving must be conducted with great care to avoid splitting the piles.

281. In the second case, trial piles must be driven to ascertain the depth to which they will go.

It is always well to drive with a heavy ram and a low fall, rather than with a light ram and a high fall, as the former requires less labour and involves less risk of injury to the head of the pile.

282. In the third case, in which a great portion of the pile generally remains above the level of the ground, it is necessary either to use a high engine for driving, or to erect a staging at the level to which the heads of the piles are to be cut off when fully driven. The latter will often be found to be the most convenient plan.

283. A great deal depends both on the shoeing and on the hooping of the pile. The shoe should always be slightly convex and never concave, and should be forged upon a metal core with an inside face 2 inches square, upon which the foot of the pile should rest truly. The hoop for the head of the pile should be slightly conical and perfectly true, and the pile-head should be dressed accurately to a template.

284. No rule can be given for proportioning strictly the weight of the ram to that of the pile, but the following scale may be found useful:—

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PILE-DRIVING

For piles 10 inches diameter, use a 15 cwt. ram.

„ 12 „ 20 „

„ 15 „ 30 „

„ 18 „ 40

Where any large number of piles are to be driven, it is always cheaper to use steam-power than handlabour.

285. Piles should be carefully trimmed before being driven, as a great deal of the truth of the work depends on this, and they should always be driven in the reverse direction to that in which they have grown, viz., with the butt uppermost.

CHAPTEE XII.

ON MASONRY.

286. Preliminary Observations. —It is not intended, in this chapter, to enter upon the principles of masonic projection, which the reader will find fully treated in the volume of Weale's Rudimentary Series on 'Masonry and Stonecutting.'

Neither is it necessary here to refer to the local technicalities of wall-building which prevail in many country districts, having their origin in the nature of the stone of the locality, and which are matters for the architect rather than for the engineer; beyond observing, that it is well, before writing a specification for work in a given locality, thoroughly to examine the materials and the building customs of the district. Attention to this will often save much difficulty in the execution of the work.

It is, therefore, to be understood by the reader, that the following observations have reference to the work of the engineer rather than to that of the architect; and that they apply specially to bridge work, retaining walls, and other engineering works, where large masses of masonry are employed.

152

ON MASONRY.

287. Masonry of Three Classes. —Masonry may be classed under one of three heads, viz., Ashlar, Block-in-Course, and Rubble.

These terms are sometimes loosely applied, as though they referred to the size of the stones employed, but they have a strict technical reference to the manner in which the stones are worked.

288. Ashlar. —ln ashlar, all the surfaces are taken out of winding, and the abutting surfaces worked to planes with greater or less finish, according to the intended thickness of the mortar-joints.

289. Block-in-Course. —In block-in-course, the face and the beds are taken out of winding, and the joints are squared for a short distance from the face; but the backs are left rough, and the beds are not squared, and the vertical joints are packed with spalls.

290. Hubble. —In rubble-work, the stones receive no dressing beyond what is given with a spallinghammer, to take off sharp points, and give the work a face.

291. Eubble-work is of three classes:

First. Stones of any shape, except round pebbles, bedded in a mass of mortar; thus forming a species of concrete. In work of this kind, everything depends on the quality of the mortar used; and if this is of good quality, and tough and well-tempered, the result is exceedingly satisfactory. A great deal of the Eoman work in Britain is of this character, bonded at short intervals with courses of tiles or thin bricks.

153

CLASSES OF MASONRY.

Flint rubble bedded in chalk-lime mortar, was much used in the bridge works of the Brighton and SouthCoast Railway, and with much success.

292. Secondly. Large long stones, laid as headers, overlapping each other, the interstices filled up with smaller stones: each stone carefully laid by hand so as to rest in its place without vibration; the whole thoroughly bedded in mortar, which should not in any place exceed half an inch in thickness. This work, if carefully done, gives exceedingly satisfactory results.

It is advisable to level the work at short intervals.

293. Thirdly. Flat bedded stones roughly squared on the beds with the spalling-hammer, built in courses and bedded in mortar.

Slate, lias limestone, and some sandstones which will split into slabs on being tapped with the hammer, form very suitable material for work of this class. The stones should be sorted into sizes before commencing to build, and the largest should be used for the lowest courses.

294. Bubble work in which the above conditions do not obtain, is simply worthless; and if the material is not suitable for any of the above descriptions of work, it should be broken up small and used as concrete.

295. Block-in-Course Facing. — Block-in-course work is generally used as a facing to rubble work, and the mortar joints should not exceed a quarter of an inch in thickness.

The beds are usually punched without margin drafts,

154

ON MASONRY.

a kind of work which is often called hammer-dressed; but this term is more correctly applied to work done with the hammer only.

296. Ashlar, how worked. —Ashlar work is generally set with a fine mortar-joint, which necessitates the use of chisel-drafts round the beds and joints, between which the stone may be either axed or chiselled, according to its hardness.

297. Basalt, grit, and granite look best with a rough quarry face and pitched arrises, but limestones and sandstones have a better appearance with a smooth face, either sawn or chiselled and rubbed.

298. Specifications for Masonry. —Specifications for masonry should specify—

The quality of stone to be used.

The sizes of the stones.

The proportion of headers to stretchers.

The class of workmanship to be used in beds and joints.

The manner of finishing the exposed faces.

The following hints may be useful:—

299. Footings. —To be of ashlar, roughly squared on the beds. No stone to be of less dimensions than 5 feet superficial on the bed, nor less than 15 inches thick; the beds to be punched, the joints and backs to be left rough.

300. Abutments. —To be of block-in-course facing in 12-inch courses. Stones to be not less than 15 inches wide on the bed for two-thirds of their length, nor less

ARCHES.

155

than 2 feet in length; not less than one-third of the stones to be laid as headers.

No stone to be of less area on the bed than threequarters of the full area, if squared to the outside dimensions. The whole width of the beds and the joints, for 6 inches from the face, to be punched true, and out of winding for ¼ inch mortar-joint.

The work to be quarry-faced with pitched arrises.

The backing to be of self-bedded rubble flushed in mortar, well bonded and levelled at every course of the facing, and no spalls are to be used except in filling the vertical joints of the facing.

301. Piers. —To be of ashlar, of the sizes shown on the drawings. The beds, backs, and joints to be mediumaxed between chisel-drafts 2 inches wide. No mortarjoint to be more than £ inch thick. The face of each stone is to be neatly chiselled with vertical strokes.

302. Arches. —The archstones are to be ashlar, with punched backs ; the beds and joints to be fine-axed, between tool-drafts 1 inch wide.

The imposts to be ashlar with axed beds and punched backs; the joints to be medium-axed, and the bevel beds fine-axed to receive the archstones. The exposed faces to be tooled with vertical channels, six to the inch.

303. String-Courses. —To be ashlar, with axed beds and joints, punched backs, and faces tooled with vertical channels, six to the inch.

304. Cornices. —To be ashlar, with axed beds and

156

ON MASONRY.

joints, punched backs, and moulded faces neatly chiselled with horizontal strokes.

305. Parapets. —To be ashlar, with punched beds and joints, quarry-faced with pitched arrises.

306. Copings. —To be ashlar, with axed beds and joints, the face and top neatly chiselled.

307. Concrete. —Concrete may be described as a species of rubble made with very small stones.

The mortar should be first mixed and then added to the stone, and the whole turned over and over again until the mass is thoroughly incorporated.

No advantage is to be gained by throwing it down from a height, but rather the reverse, and it should be thoroughly consolidated by ramming with wooden beaters.

If cement is used, care must be taken that no time is lost in mixing, or the result will be an imperfect set.

It is best to bring up the work in courses, takingcare that the surface of the last course is quite clean and moist without being actually wet, as each fresh course is laid.

A very good proportion for concrete is, 1 of cement, 1½ of sand, and 6 of stone broken of different sizes, from 1¼ in. to 3 in., with a proportion of screenings.

308. Concrete is not to be used as a substitute for arched masonry in bridges, because the slightest settlement in one of the abutments will fracture the pseudo-arch and produce failure.

If it is used for large arches, it must, therefore, be

157

MORTAR.

built up in detached voussoirs, so as to allow for possible settlement.

309. Concrete may, however, be used with great advantage for building large culverts, or for lining tunnels, for which purpose it is well adapted, as it can be rammed into the irregularities of the excavation in a manner impossible to execute with masonry or brickwork.

310. Mortar. —lt must be borne in mind that limemortar and cement-mortar require very different treatment.

311. For lime-mortar, the lime should have been slaked for some time previously, and the more the mortar is beaten and worked, the tougher and more adhesive will it become.

312. For cement-mortar, on the contrary, beyond the labour necessary for thorough incorporation with the sand employed, the less it is stirred and the more quickly it is used, the better is the set.

Quick-setting cement-mortar should not be used in the arches of tunnels, or the crowns of bridges, or in other situations exposed to cross strain, as this will probably lead to fracture and failure.

In foundations and bridge-piers, on the contrary, exposed simply to vertical pressure, the quicker the cementing medium sets, the better for the work.

CHAPTER XIII.

ON TUNNELLING.

313. Setting out the Centre-Line. —The first thing to be done in setting out tunnel-work, is to range the centre line on the surface of the ground, and to mark it securely by permanent marks placed in situations where they will not be interfered with during the progress of the tunnel works.

314. There are two cases: the work may be driven from the two ends only, or from shafts sunk at intervals from the lowest points of the surface-section.

315. In the first case, observatories must be built at each end, in positions which command a view of the tunnel and of leading marks placed on the centre line both over the tunnel itself and in the rear of the observatories. A transit-instrument is placed on each observatory, and is carefully adjusted to the centre line by means of the leading marks.

These preliminaries effected, the accuracy of the centre line of the underground workings, can be ascertained, at any time, by testing the position of a light placed at one of the faces in the range of the transit.

If the summit of the range under which the tunnel

159

TUNNELLING.

passes is very high, and the angle of elevation consequently very great, extreme care will be necessary to prevent errors from creeping into the work. The most trifling settlement in the masonry of the observatories, refraction in the atmosphere, or even the difference of temperature at different times of the year, and the consequent expansion or contraction of the ground itself, all interpose great difficulties to perfect accuracy, which can only be obtained by extreme care and patience on the part of the observer.

316. In the case of working from shafts, the mode of procedure is somewhat different. It is of very little use to attempt the erection of permanent marks round the shafts, as they are certain to be disturbed. It is therefore advisable, in addition to permanent leading marks beyond the ends of the tunnel, to fix a point midway between each pair of shafts, over which a plumb-line can be suspended. A transit instrument is then set up, and brought into the line of the tunnel by reference to the leading marks and to the plumblines between the shafts; and, with the assistance of the transit thus adjusted, the shaft-lines are carefully adjusted on battens laid upon the shaft-framing until they are truly in line. The plumb-bobs attached to the shaft-lines should be turned true, and the lines themselves should be both fine and free from knots. It is well to steady the bobs in treacle, which is sufficiently stiff to check their vibration without preventing them from coming to a state of rest in a vertical position.

160

ON TUNNELLING.

Whilst one observer checks the position of the lines at the top of each shaft, another at the bottom of each shaft prolongs the line thus given in each direction, securing it by means of nails driven into the head-trees of the drives, or into wooden plugs let into holes drilled in the roof.

317. Levels. —The next step is to transfer the levels from the surface of the ground to the bottom of the shafts. There are many ways in which this may be done, but that which the author has found most successful, is to lower a series of ten-feet rods, connected together by wire links so as to hang freely, the zero being at the bottom of the series, the odd feet and inches being read off at a batten placed across the shaft, and of which the height has been previously ascertained.

318. Size of Shafts. —The size of the shafts depends a great deal upon the special circumstances of the work. If intended to be working shafts, they should not be less than nine feet diameter. If intended simply to facilitate the construction of a bottom heading, a section of seven feet by three feet is sufficient.

319. Heading. —When the ground is such that a waggon-heading can be kept open, it will often be economical to run a seven-feet square heading throughout the whole of the work before commencing to widen out any part.

It may often happen that the centre portion of a tunnel will be through hard rock, whilst the ends

161

ROCK-TUNNELS.

In the latter case, the trucks can be taken right up to the working face, and the débris from the enlargement is thrown upon a platform, through openings in which it is passed into the trucks below.

Plates V. and VI., Figs. 54 to 59 and 60 to 63, illustrate fully both these methods of working.

321. A great deal must depend upon the hardness of the material, and whether it will stand without protection until the masonry lining can be put in.

Some soils which could not be safely left without the protection of lining, are at the same time sufficiently firm to remain without support for months.

Clays and marls, on the other hand, require to be strongly timbered, and cannot be trusted for an hour

M

and the approaches are through soft material. In this case, the end cuttings and brick-lining may be left until such progress has been made with the hard material in the interior, as to warrant the simultaneous completion of the whole of the work, thus saving as far as possible the payment of interest on the cost of the works during their progress.

320. Rock Tunnels. —A great difference of practice prevails in the excavation of rock tunnels.

Some engineers prefer to begin at the crown and work downwards, whilst others mine the work entirely from a bottom heading. In the former case no scaffolding is required, but the removal of the material from the working face to the head of the gullet is a costly process.

162

ON TUNNELLING.

without support, whilst volcanic and unstratified rocks generally require no support, either temporary or permanent, and are, generally speaking, blasted out in large masses, that render it advisable to bring the trucks up to the working face.

322. Timbering. —The timbering of a tunnel requires great care and judgment, as it is necessary on the one hand so to fix each bar and strut that the ground may be firmly wedged up from it, whilst at the same time each timber must be so placed that it can be removed as the masonry proceeds without any vacancy being left between the masonry and the face of the excavation. It cannot be too strongly insisted on that every portion of the work should be packed thoroughly solid, as, if the ground is allowed room to slip, it is impossible to say where the mischief will terminate. The reader may consult 'Simms' Practical Tunnelling' with reference to the timbering of double-track tunnels.

The annexed illustrations, Plates VII. and VIII. Figs. 64 and 65 to 69, form a complete set of data for the timbering of a single-line tunnel.

323. Invert. —It has been very much the fashion to make the lining of tunnels as nearly as possible cylindrical, the floor being formed by an inverted arch, on the extremities of which rest the side walls carrying the arched roof.

It is, however, very questionable how far this practice is sound in principle. The invert may give way

163

CENTERING.

M2

from one of two opposite causes. It may be undermined by the percolation of water below it, which is very likely to happen if the drainage of the tunnel finds its way through the brickwork of the invert, or if the invert bed is not perfectly solid. In the second place, as the curvature must necessarily be slight, it may be forced up by the expansion of the ground, which frequently happens in stiff clays. In either case, the foundations of the side walls are endangered, and the whole work is placed in jeopardy.

324. In the construction of the Lyttelton tunnel in New Zealand, there being considerable fear of springs rising in the floor, the author thought it most prudent to dispense with an invert, and to carry the side walls down in cement rubble masonry to a depth of five feet below rail level, as a much surer mode of ensuring a permanent foundation.

325. Centering. —The style of centre to be adopted is governed by the manner in which the works are being carried on. If the tunnel is being driven from shafts, it is of no great consequence to keep a clear space below the centres, and they may, therefore, be trussed and strutted in any manner which is efficient and economical. If, however, the tunnel is being worked from the ends through a bottom waggon-head-ing, and a clear road for the trucks has to be maintained whilst the brickwork is being executed, the centres must be so framed and supported as not only to leave a clear road below the springing of the arch, but

164

ON TUNNELLING.

space above this level for stacking building materials, and the ribs must be of sufficient strength to bear the weight of the scaffolds hung from them when thus loaded, without any alteration of curvature.

326. Concrete-Packing. —Where there is unavoidably a space left between the brickwork and the solid ground, it should be filled up with concrete, thoroughly punned.

327. Use of Cement. —The foundations and side walls of tunnels may be laid in cement, but the arch should be turned in mortar or in slow-setting cement, which will take several days to set, so that the brickwork may be able to adjust itself without fracture to the pressure which is sure to come upon it after the crown-bars shall have been drawn.

CHAPTER XIV.

ON SPECIFICATION'S AND CONTRACTS.

328. It must be borne in mind that a specification is not merely a description, but a definition of the nature and the quantity of the work to be done, from which, in connection with the attached drawings, intending contractors can ascertain the conditions under which it is to be performed, and its probable cost.

329. The following general outline may be useful:—

(1) Title. —This should set forth the nature and the locality of the work to be done.

(2) Extent of Contract. —This clause should enumerate each specific portion of the work.

(3) Liabilities of Contractor. —Under this head it should be stated whether the contractor is to provide all labour and material, or material only; and all the special liabilities to which he is to be made subject, with reference to the charge of the works, rate of progress, penalties for delay, date of completion, and subsequent maintenance.

(4) Mode of Payment. —Under this head should

166

ON SPECIFICATIONS AND CONTRACTS.

be described the conditions under which the amount of the contract is to be paid, and the amounts to be retained during the progress of the work as security for its completion.

(5) Determination of Contract. — This clause should define clearly the conditions under which the contract may be determined, should the contractor fail to make proper progress, or to conduct the works in a satisfactory manner.

(6) General Conditions. — It is customary to attach to Government contracts a long schedule of conditions, many of which, from their sweeping nature, must often be inapplicable to the specification to which they are attached. It is much better to annex a few general conditions only, and to embody in the description of the work any special conditions that may be required by its nature.

It is also common to insert a clause giving the engineer the power of deciding any case of dispute between himself and the contractor. A clause of this kind is, however, against equity, and does not prevent a contractor from suing for compensation for what he may consider an unjust decision.

It is, therefore, better, whilst giving the engineer full authority over the contractor in the execution of the work, to insert an arbitration-clause providing for the settlement of disputes as to the amount of compensation to be paid in consequence of any variations of the contract.

CONDITION'S, &C.

167

(7) Description of Work. —This portion of the specification should contain a complete description of the work to be done, every portion being clearly defined in such a manner that, in conjunction with the drawings, full data are provided for making out bills of quantities for the whole of the work. Nothing should be described in a vague or indefinite manner, or in such a way as to leave room for doubt as to the extent of the contractor's liability. The same principle should be followed throughout the drawings, which should be fully figured, so that the work of whatever description can be set out from them at once without further calculation; and where several parts have to be provided of the same pattern, the number required of each pattern should be marked on the drawings. This refers specially to ironwork, but the remark is also applicable to masonry and to carpentry.

330. Bills of Quantities. —In the case of all large works, bills of quantities should be prepared for the double purpose of facilitating the preparation of tenders and of checking progress payments.

There is a considerable difference to be observed in the preparation of bills of quantities for architectural and for engineering works.

Architectural works are generally works of construction only, and the contractor's liabilities are therefore in a definite proportion to the amount of material used in the permanent work.

With engineering work, on the other hand, a great

168

ON SPECIFICATIONS AND CONTRACTS.

deal of labour and material has often to be expended on temporary works which must be provided for in the bills of quantities, but which cannot well be thrown as a pro ratâ charge on the permanent works, and must therefore be specially enumerated in addition to the measurements of the permanent material.

Thus in the case of a river-wall to be built under the protection of a cofferdam, the construction of the latter must be a separate item in the bills of quantities, distinct from the cube of the masonry or brickwork in the wall itself.

331. Contracts. —The actual contract should be short and simple, specifying that the contractor agrees to perform the work described in the specification for a given sum and in a given time, to the satisfaction of the engineer appointed to superintend the work; and that the employer agrees to pay the amount of the contract in the manner set forth in the specification.

CHAPTER XV.

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF OFFICE WORK.

332. A few hints on this subject may be of service to those who have had no experience of the necessity of keeping a careful record of all official transactions.

No rule can be laid down for keeping a set of books that will not require modification according to the varying nature of the transactions to be recorded; but the principle is the same in all cases, and a wellorganised system of record is one of the most important points to be attended to by everyone who has the conduct of public works.

In the following pages, a sketch is given of a system of accounts made use of by the author, for many years, in connection with the Public Works department of one of the Australasian colonies, which was found to answer its purpose in a very complete manner. Any returns required could be prepared at a very short notice.

333. The principal books required are the following:—(1) Office-Diary and Index.

(2) Letter-Book and Index.

170

OFFICE-WORK.

(3) Index to Files of Letters received.

(4) Contract-Book and Index.

(5) Voucher-Book and Register.

(6) Appropriation-Ordinance Ledger.

(7) Contract Ledger.

(8) Public-Works Ledger.

334. Office Diary. —The office diary should be written up daily. It should contain the names of all the places visited during the day, and brief notices of all important matters connected with the progress of the works.

The index should be alphabetical, and the references to the diary are best made by entering the day of the year on which the events recorded occurred. Thus, if an inspection were made of the Anakie Tunnel on the 26th of March, which is the 85th day of the year, on turning to the letter T in the index, the entry would be found as follows: Tunnel, Anakie's, inspection of, 85.

335. Letter-Book . — The letter-book requires no description. The letters should be copied by press and not by hand. Every letter should have its number and date, and should be headed according to the subject to which it refers. No letter should refer to more than a single subject, except in the case of official reports, necessarily embracing a variety of details.

The index to the letter-book is a matter of considerable importance. It should contain, first, a register of each letter, written in consecutive order,

171

OFFICE-WORK.

stating its number and date, to whom addressed, its subject, and a brief summary of its contents; secondly, an alphabetical index, arranged according to the names of the persons addressed, and the subject of the letters.

This cannot be done too fully. For instance, a letter,

addressed to the Minister of Public Works, referring to th neglect of Mr. Bosting, contractor for the Ballasker bridge on the Bognor road, will be indexed under the several heads of—Minister of Public Works, 672; Bosting, 672; Bridge, Ballasker, 672; Road, Bognor, 672. Although this may appear to involve much office-work, it is only work of a kind that can be done by an intelligent lad, whilst the time saved in tracing the history of the work is that of the principal, who is thus enabled at a glance to refer to any correspondence that may have taken place with regard to the works under his charge.

It very much simplifies office-work to register all letters, returns, and reports, under one consecutive series of numbers.

336. Letters received. —Each letter, so soon as received, should be marked with a consecutive number and the date of receipt, and should have affixed to it a docket containing its registration numbers and date when written, name of writer, subject, and a précis of its contents. The letters should be filed in bundles of convenient size, in numerical order. When a letter is required for reference, it should be taken from its

172

OFFICE-WORK.

docket, on which latter an entry should be made of the name of the person to whom it is sent, with the date of sending; and an entry should also be made of the date when the letter is returned to its place in the file.

This plan is preferable to that of tying up letters in bundles according to their subjects, and it has the farther advantage that every letter can at once be found by reference to its number.

The index to the files of letters received, is precisely similar to that of the letters sent, except that there are two columns for numbers and dates instead of one only.

337. Contract-Book. — The contracts should be numbered and dated consecutively, and copies should be bound in volumes, with duplicates of the drawings belonging to them.

The index to the contract-book should contain, first, a consecutive register of all the contracts, stating number and date, the vote under which each contract is to be paid for, the names and addresses of the contractor and his sureties, the name of the work to which the contract refers, the nature of the work to be done, the time for completion, the penalty for overtime, the actual date of completion, the amount of the contract, and the amount actually paid; secondly, an alphabetical index of the names of contractors, and of the works in reference to which the works are undertaken.

It is impossible to make this index too complete.

Thus, if John Stokes has taken a contract,

173

OFFICE-WORK.

for supplying cement for building the Timperly bridge on the Western road, the contract would be indexed four times, under the headings—Bridge, Timperly, 267; Road, Western, 267; Cement, 267; Stokes, John, 267.

338. Voucher-Book. —Every voucher passed in respect of public works, should contain its number and date, the name and address of the payee, the place at which the money is to be paid, the vote out of which it is to be paid, the authority under which the vote is to be expended, which will be either an authorised contract, an approved requisition, or an executive minute of instructions; the name of the work to which the expenditure is to be charged, the particulars of the account, and the signature of the claimant. Press copies, in a bound book, should be kept of all vouchers.

A register should be kept of all vouchers passed in consecutive order, having columns for each of the above details, with the exception of the particulars of the work and the signature of the claimant. The annexed form has been found very convenient. (See p. 174.)

339. Ledgers. —The ledgers should be posted from the register of vouchers. They should be kept in triplicate. First, each voucher should be posted with reference to the appropriation ordinance, an account being opened for each vote. Secondly, a contractor's ledger should be kept, in which an account is opened

174

OFFICE-WORK.

Specimen Page of Voucher-Book (See page 173).

No. and date of voucher Reference to Reference appropriation ordinance Reference to authority Name of payee Address of payee Place of payment Name of work Date of service Description of service performed Schedule Division Item Contract No. Requisition No. Minute No.

175

OFFICE-WORK.

for each contract. Thirdly, a general ledger should be kept, in which an account is opened for every separate work. These three ledgers, combined, will show, at a glance —the state of the available finances, the liabilities under contracts, and the total cost of the works up to date.

These ledgers may be kept in a very simple manner, the only entries required being the headings of the several accounts, and the numbers and amounts of the vouchers passed.

The very headings may be simplified by confining them to the numbers of the contracts or votes to which they refer.

In this system of book-keeping, the quantity of clerical work is so. reduced that a single clerk is quite sufficient to keep all the books referring to a very large expenditure.

There is a further advantage in this system, viz., that whilst the history of every transaction can be traced at once with the greatest ease, the ledgers afford no information to anyone who has not the voucherbook as a key, and there is therefore little fear of improper use being made of their contents.

340. It is unnecessary to enter upon the method of keeping subordinate books and the wages and store accounts, the principle of registration and indexing being the same as that of the principal books, whatever peculiarities of detail may be due to the special nature of the works in hand.

176

OFFICE-WORK.

It is only necessary to say, in conclusion, that whilst bookkeeping is a very simple matter, requiring nothing more than ordinary care and attention, it cannot be neglected for a single day without involving the risk of error, and often, as a sequel, the loss of character and position.

P1. I.

TREATMENT OF ROLLING COUNTRY

SKETCH OF THE ROAD OVER ARTHURS PASS. N.Z. Fig, 32.

P1. II.

PLAN OF TIMBERED VALLEY, SO LAID OUT AS TO RENDER THE TIMBER INACCESSIBLE. Fig. 40.

P1. III.

P1. IV.

PLAN OF TIMBERED VALLEY, SO LAID OUT AS TO FACILITATE SETTLEMENT. Fig. 41.

P1. V.

ROCK TUNNELLING, BELGIAN SYSTEM, BREAKING DOWN FROM TOP HEADING. COMPILED FROM THE PUBLISHED SECTIONS OF THE ST GOTHARD TUNNEL.

P1 .VI.

ROCK TUNNELLING, ENGLISH SYSTEM, BREAKING UP FROM BOTTOM HEADING. COMPILED FROM THE RECORD DRAWINGS OF THE LYTTELTON TUNNEL N.Z.

TIMBERING OF TUNNELS. COMPILED FROM THE RECORD DRAWINGS OF THE LYTTELTON TUNNEL N.Z.

TIMBERING OF TUNNELS. COMPILED FROM THE RECORD DRAWINGS OF THE LYTTELTON TUNNEL N.Z.

177

INDEX.

ALT

DEG

Altitudes, measurement of, by spirit level, 41; by barometer, 42

Cesspools, 127

Chairs for railways, 113

Angles, measurement of, 24; by chain, 24; by compass bearings, 25; by sextant angles, 25; by theodolite, 25; plotting of angles, 28

Circular curves, setting out, 54

Clearing, 97

Compass, measurement of straight lines by, 18; of angles by, 25; use of pocket compass in levelling, 53; and in laying out roads, 65

Artesian wells, 121

Ashlar masonry, 152, 154

Concrete, 156

Astronomical degrees, 4, 10, 15

Contour lines, setting out, 52; in road-making, 75; in river-crossing with contoured approaches, 79; contoured road in timbered valley, 99

Ballast for railways, 110

Barometer, use of, in levelling, 42; use of aneroid in laying out roads, 65

Contracts, specifications and, 165

Corduroy roads, 146

Block-in-course masonry, 152, 153

Cost of roads, 63; question of distance, 63; cost of railways, 106

Bridges, approaches to, 68; errors in, 68; fords versus bridges, 73; construction of road bridges, 90, 91; railway bridges, 109

Creeks, roads through, 95; draining a creek, 96, 97

Cribbing, 147

Bridle roads, 62

Crown lands, roads to, 98

Culverts, wooden, 145

Curves, circular, setting out, 54; from the tangent, 55; to find the length of tangent, 58; setting out by chords, 59

Carpentry, 138; hard and soft woods, 138; bolts and straps, 139; angle-bands, 140; struts, bridgebeams. 141; bridge-trusses, 142; lattice girder, 144; culverts, 145; corduroy roads, 146; cribbing, 147

Curves on railways, 106, 109, 113

Cuttings for railways, 110

Carriages, passenger, for railways, 107

Dams, 116

Definitions, 1

Cart roads, 61

Degrees, geographical, 3, 5, 15; astronomical, 4, 10, 15

Cemeteries, 137

N

178

INDEX.

DIS

Distances, measurement of, by chain or telescope, 20; by pocket sextant, 23

Drainage of railways, 110 —of roads, in level country, 93; of a creek, 96; in side cutting, 103; on steep gradients, 104 —of surfaces, 123, 128 —of towns, 124, 128; outlets, 132

Earth closets, 127

Embankment, for roads, 102; for railways, 110

Ferries, 74

Field work, 18; straight lines, 18; measurement of distances, 20; measurement of angles, 24; to set out a meridian line, 26

Fords, 73; in crossing lateral streams, 91

Frontage to river, 74

Gas works, 136

Gauge of railways, 107, 108

Geodetic survey, 30

Geographical degrees, 3, 5, 15

Goods' trucks for railways, 106

Gradients of railways, 114 — of roads, 61; of cart roads, 61 ; of bridle roads, 62; on watersheds, 80; crossing passes, 84, 89; crossing a river which canons, 90

Ironwork in carpentry, 139, 140 Irrigation by sewage, 127

Level Look, 51 —country, roads through, 92; drainage outfalls, 93; formation of surface of roads, 102 —spirit. See Spirit-level —staff 51

RAI

Levelling, 41; by barometer, 42, 44; by spirit-level, 48; correction for curvature, 49; spirit-level for rough work, 50; level-staff, 51; level-book, 51

Locomotives, 108

Map, road, 101

Mapping, 29, 38, 101

Masonry, 151; preliminary observations, 151; ashlar, block-in-course, rubble, 152; block-in-course facing, 153; how ashlar is worked, specifications for masonry, footings, abutments, 154; piers, arches, string courses, cornices, 155; parapets, copings, concrete, 156; mortar, 157

Meridian line, to set out, 26; meridians and parallels, 32

Metal, for roads, 103

Mortar, 157

Mountain ranges, crossing, 80; passes, 83

Office work, 169; books required, 169

Parallels, 18, 32

Passes, crossing of, 83, 85 Pile-driving, 148

Pipes, for water supply, 119; laying, 119; reticulation, 120

Projection, conical, of the earth, 39

Rails, for railways, 111

Railway lines, 105; general considerations, 105; construction, cost, goods-trucks, 106; passenger carriages, 107; tank-engines, gauges, 108; curves, bridges, 109; embankments, cuttings, drainage, ballast, 110; sleepers, rails, 111; chairs, limit of curvature, 113; gradients, 114; stations, 136

179

INDEX.

RIV

Biver crossings, 67; errors in bridge approaches, 69; crossing rivers which canon, 90; structures, 90, 91

Road lines, selection of, 39, 61; gradients, cart roads, 61; stock roads, bridle roads, 62; cost, distances, 63; accommodation roads, 64; determination of route, 65; river crossings, 67; approaches to bridges, 68; fords, 72; ferries, river-frontages, watersheds, 74; crossing mountain ranges, 80; mountain passes, 83; crossing streams, 90; roads through level country, 92; clearing, 97; access to Crown lands, timbered country, 98; road map, 101; formation of road surfaces, 102; corduroy roads, 146

Rubble masonry, 152

Sewage of towns, 126; sewage irrigation, cesspools, earth-closets, 127

Sextant, measurement of distances by, 23; of angles by, 25

Sites of towns, 129; selection, flooded sites, 129; hillsides, 131; draining outlets, 132; width of streets, 133; width of footpaths, arrangement of blocks, 134; parks and recreation grounds, 135; railway stations, gas works, 136; cemeteries, 137

Sleepers for railways, 111

Specifications and contracts, 165

Spherical triangles, reduction of, 26 Spirit-level, use of, in levelling, 48; spirit-level for rough work, 50; setting out contour lines, 52 Stock roads, 62

Straight lines, measurement of, 18

WOO

Surfaces of roads, formation of, 102; in level ground, 102; in side cutting, 103; surface of formation of railways, 110

Survey work, 1; straight lines, 18; distances, 20; angles, 24; meridian line, 26; traversing, 27: waste lands, 29; mapping, 38; road lines, 39 Swamp, roads through, 94

Telescope, traversing by, 27 Theodolite, measurement of angles by, 25

Timbered country, clearing, 97; laying out a road in a timbered valley, 98

Topographical survey, 29 Towns, supply of water to, 119; drainage of, 124; sewage, 126; sites, 129

Traversing, 27, 36, 101

Triangulation, 30

Tunnelling, 158; setting out the centre line, 158; levels, size of shafts, heading, 160; rock tunnels, clays and marls, 161; timbering, invert, 162; centering, 163; concrete packing, use of cement, 164

Waste lands, survey of, 29; sketch map, 29; topographical survey, 29; geodetic survey, 30; triangulation, 30; meridians and parallels, 32; traverses, 36; mapping, 38

Water, storage of, 116; dams, 116; town supply, 119; reticulation of water-mains, 120; artesian wells, 121

"Watersheds, road lines on, 74; drainage of roads on, 93 Wells, artesian, 121 Woods, 138

Spoltiswoode & Co., Printers, London and Westminster.

Works by the Author of the present Volume.

THE ART OF BUILDING, Rudiments of. General Principles of Construction, Materials used in Building, Strength and Use of Materials, Working Drawings, Specifications, and Estimates. By Edward Dobson, C.E. Illustrated. 1s. 6d.

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MASONRY AND STONECUTTING, Rudimentary Treatise on; in which the Principles of Masonic Projection and their Application to the Construction of Curved Wing-Walls, Domes, Oblique Bridges, and Roman and Gothic Vaulting, are concisely explained. By Edward Dobson, C.E. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. 2s. 6d.

FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS, a Rudimentary Treatise on; containing a Synopsis of the Principal Cases of Foundation Works, with the usual Modes of Treatment, and Practical Remarks on Footings, Planking, Sand Concrete, Béton, Pile-driving, Caissons, and Cofferdams. By E. Dobson, C.E. Fourth Edition, revised by George Dodd, C.E. Illustrated. 1s. 6d.

THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE OF MEASURING, AND VALUING- ARTIFICERS' WORKS; containing Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the respective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner, Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates and Woodcuts. Originally edited by Edward Dobson, C.E. New Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construction, and useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and Measurements. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A. 8vo. 10s. 6d. cloth.

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THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE OF MEASURING-, AND VALUING ARTIFICER'S WORKS; containing Directions for taking Dimensions, abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the respective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner, Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates and Woodcuts. Originally Edited by EDWARD DOBSON, Architect. New Edition by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A. 8vo. 10s. 6d. cloth.

PRACTICAL TUNNELLING; explaining in detail the Setting-out of the Works, Shaft-sinking and Heading, Driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling Underground, Sub-excavating, Timbering, and the Constructicn of the Brickwork of Tunnels, with the Amount of Labour Required for, and the Cost of, the Various Portions of the Work. By Frederick Walter Simms, C.E., Author of 'The Public Works of Great Britain,' 'A Treatise on the Principal Mathematical Instruments employed in Surveying, Levelling, and Astronomy, ' &c. Third Edition, revised and extended. With additional chapters illustrating the Recent Practice of Tunnelling as exemplified by the St. Gothard, Mont Cenis, and other modern works. By D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo., cloth, with 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engravings. Price 30s. [Just published.

A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING; showing its application to purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads; with Mr. Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Simms, C.E. Sixth Edition, very carefully revised, with the addition of Mr. Law's Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and Mr. Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo. 8s. 6d. cloth.

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'The book is very handy, and the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes.'—Athenæum.

AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, Levelling, &c. By Lieut.-General FROME, R.E. Fourth Edition, enlarged, thoroughly revised, and partly re-written. By Captain Charles Warren, R.E., F.G.S. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo. price 16s. cloth.

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THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. Edited by Peter Barlow, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, corrected and enlarged. With 64 Plates (11 of which now first appear in this edition), Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In 1 vol. 4to. £1. 5s. cloth.

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EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRTUCTION OF MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON; consisting of 46 Plates from the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of select Works. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Second Edition, with the addition of 554 Estimates, and the Practice of Setting-out Works. Illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imperial 4to. price £2. 12s. 6d. half-morocco.

'One of the very few works extant descending to the level of ordinary routine, and treating on the common every-day practice of the railway engineer.'—Engineering.

LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways, Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies, Docks and Harbours; with Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Demy 8vo. with 14 folding Plates and numerous Woodcuts, price 12s 6d. cloth.

'Mr. Haskoll has knowledge and experience, and can so give expression to it as to make any matter on which he writes clear to the youngest pupil in a surveyor's Office.'—Colliery Guardian.

HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, AND FORMULÆ for finding , the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formulæ, Tables, and General Information on Rainfall, Catchment Basins, Drainage. Sewerage. Water Supply for Towns find Mill Power. By John Neville, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Third Edition, carefully revised, with considerable Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 14s. cloth.

'Undoubtedly an exceedingly useful and elaborate compilation.'—Iron. 'Will prove alike valuable to students and engineers in practice.'—Mining Journal.

MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN; being a Commonplace Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors. By Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., F.R.A.S. Enlarged by Henry Law, C.E. Fourth Edition, carefully revised and corrected by J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College. With 13 Plates. Medium 8vo. £1. 1s. cloth.

'The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand rules for solving nearly every mathematical difficulty that may arise in his practice.'—Builder.

London: CROSBY LOCKWOOD & Co., 7 Stationers'-Hall Court, E.C.

London, June, 1876.

A Catalogue of Books

INCLUDING MANY

NEW & STANDARD WORKS

IN

ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AGRICULTURE, MATHEMATICS, MECHANICS, SCIENCE, &c. &c.

PUBLISHED BY

CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.,

7, STATIONERS'-HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.C.

ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &C.

Humbers Great Work on Bridge Construction.

A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATISE on CAST and WROUGHT-IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron Foundations. In Three Parts- Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C. E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, revised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous additions to the Text. In 2 vols. imp. 4to, price 6l. 16s. 6d. halfbound in morocco.

"A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering."— Civil Engineer and A Achitect's Journal. " Mr. Humber's stately volumes lately issued—in which the most important bridges erected during the last five years, under the direction of our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in great detail."—Engineer.

List of the Plates.

Frontispiece to Vol. I.—General View of Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash. Frontispiece to Vol. II. — General View of Taptee Viaduct.

The Plates contain Elevations, Cross-sections, and Details of the following Works:— Plate I—7. Rochester Bridge.—8—15. Rochester Swing Bridge.—16-17. Standish Bridge.—18—23. Westminster Bridge: Elevation.— 24—29. Victoria Bridge.— 30—32. Staines Bridge.— 33—34. Trent Lane Bridge.—35. Victoria Bridge (Australia). 36—38. Taptee Viaduct.— 39—40. Ebro Bridge.— 41-45. Jumna Bridge.— 46—47. Leven Viaduct.—48—49. Kent Viaduct.— 50—55. Beelah and Deepdale Viaducts.—56—59. Londonderry Bridge.—60—63. Charing Cross Bridge.— 64—65. Lerida Bridge.—66. Alcanadre Bridge.—67. Murillo Bridge.—68—69. Carlos Gomes. —70—72. Windsor Bridge.—73— 77. Shannon Bridge.—78—80. Saltash Bridge.—81—83. Clifton Bridge.—84—87. Chelsea Bridge.—88—91. Lambeth Bridge.— 92—98. Prague Bridge. The following Seventeen Plates and Diagrams are inserted with the Text:—Sections of Wrought-Iron Girders and Bridges—Parapets of various Bridges—Punching, Shearing, and Riveting Machines—Coode's Diving Cylinder—Milroy's Excavator—Hughes' Method of Sinking Cylinders— Bridge Piers on the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway—Curve of Strains en Victoria Bridge, Australia—Victoria Bridge, Montreal—Staines Bridge—Britannia Bridge—Results of Tests on Victoria Bridge, Pimlico—Proportions of Piers on Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway—Results of Tests on Jumna Bridge — Shannon Bridge

2

WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

Humber's Modern Engineering. First Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER. ING, 1863. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c. Price 3l. 3s. half morocco.

List of the Plates.

NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER.

Victoria Station and Roof —L.B.&S.C. Rail. 1 to 8 Mr. R. Jacomb Hood, C.E.

Southport Pier........................... 9 and 10 Mr. James Brunlees, C.E.

Victoria Station and Roof—L.C.&D.&G.W.

Railways ...................... 11 to 15A Mr. John Fowler, C.E.

Roof of Cremorne Music Hall .............. 16 Mr. William Humber, C.E.

Bridge over G. N. Railway ................ 17 Mr. Joseph Cubitt, C.E.

Roof of Station —Dutch Rhenish Railway .. 18 and 19 Mr. Euschedi, C.E.

Bridge over the Thames—West London Extension Railway..................... 20 to 24 Mr. William Baker, C.E.

Armour Plates ..................... 25 Mr. James Chalmers, C.E.

Suspension Bridge, Thames ..................... 26 to 29 Mr. Peter W. Barlow, C.E.

The Allen Engine ...................... 30 Mr. G. T. Porter, M.E.

Suspension Bridge, Avon .......................... 31 to 33 Mr. John Hawkshaw, C.E. and W. H. Barlow, C.E.

Underground Railway ................... 34 to 36 Mr. John Fowler, C.E.

With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c.

"Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve in a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the contractors for many important engineering works." — Engineer.

Humber' s Modern Engineering. Second Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEERING, 1864; with Photographic Portrait of Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c. Price 3l. 3s. half morocco.

List of the Plates.

NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER.

Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin ............ 1 to 15 Mr. G. F. Lyster, C.E.

Charing Cross Station Roof—C. C. Railway. 16 to 18 Mr. Hawkshaw, C.E.

Digswell Viaduct —Great Northern Railway. 19 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E.

Robbery Wood Viaduct —Great N. Railway. 20 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E.

Iron Permanent Way ..................... 20a

Clydach Viaduct — Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny Railway ................. 21 Mr. Gardner, C.E.

Ebbw Viaduct ditto ditto ditto 22 Mr. Gardner, C.E.

College Wood Viaduct —Cornwall Railway .. 23 Mr. Brunel.

Dublin Winter Palace Roof 24 to 26 Messrs. Ordish & Le Feuvre.

Bridge over the Thames—L. C. & D. Railw. 27 to 32 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E.

Albert Harbour, Greenock ................ 33 to 36 Messrs. Bell & Miller.

With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c.

"A resumé of all the more interesting and important works lately completed in Great Britain; and containing, as it does, carefully executed drawings, with full working details, it will be found a valuable accessory to the profession at large."— Engineer. " Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples he has here brought before the profession and the public."— Practical Mechanics' Journal.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

3

Humber's Modern Engineering. Third Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEERING, 1865. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photo Portrait of J. R. M'Clean, Esq., late President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Price 3l. 3s. half morocco.

List of Plates and Diagrams.

MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS, North Side.

Plate I. Map showing Interception of Sewers.—2 and 3. Middle Level Sewer. Sewer under Regent's Canal; and Junction with Fleet Ditch.— 4, 5, and 6. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over River Lea. Elevation and Details. —7. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich Railway, and Bow and Barking Railway Junction.—8, 9, and 10. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway. Elevation and Details.— 11 and 12. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over East London Waterworks' Feeder. Elevation and Details. —13 and 14. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir. Plan and Section.— 15. Outfall Sewer. Tumbling Bay and Outlet. —16. Outfall Sewer. Penstocks.

South Side.

Plates 17 and 18. Outfall Sewer. Bermondsey Branch.—19, 20, 21, and 22.

MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS, continued—

Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. Plan and Details.— 23. Outfall Sewer. Filth Hoist.— 24. Sections of Sewers (North and South Sides).

THAMES EMBANKMENT.

Plate 25. Section of River Wall. — 26 and 27. Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Elevation and Details. — 28. Landing Stairs between Charing Cross and Water 100 Bridges.—29 and 30. York Gate. Front Elevation. Side Elevation and Details. —31, 32, and 33. Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. Details; and Penstock.— 34, 35, and 36. Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. Elevation and Details.— 37. Junction of Sewers. Plans and Sections—38. Gullies. Plans and Sections.— 39. Rolling Stock. —40. Granite and Iron Forts.

With copious Descriptive Letterpress, &c.

Humber's Modern Engineering. Fourth Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEERING, 1866. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of John Fowler, Esq., President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Price 3l. 3s. half-morocco.

List of the Plates and Diagrams.

NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER.

Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drainage, Metropolis 1 to 4 Mr. Bazalgette, C.E.

Barrow Docks .................. 5 to 9 Messrs. M'Clean & Stillman, Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Valparaiso [C.E.

Railway ................. 10, 11 Mr. W. Loyd, C.E.

Adams' Locomotive, St. Helen's Canal Railw. 12, 13 Mr. H. Cross, C.E.

Cannon Street Station Roof ....................... 14 to 16 Mr. J. Hawkshaw, C.E.

Road Bridge over the River Moka ........... 17, 18 Mr. H. Wakefield, C.E.

Telegraphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia .... 19 Mr. Siemens, C.E.

Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Railw. 20 to 22 Mr. W. H. Barlow, C.E.

St. Germans Viaduct, Cornwall Railway .... 23, 24 Mr. Brunel. C.E.

Wrought-Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell ................ 25 Mr. J. Coode, C.E.

Millwall Docks .................. 26 to 31 Messrs. J. Fowler, C.E., and William Wilson, C. E.

Milroy's Patent Excavator ................ 3 2 Mr. Milroy, C.E.

Metropolitan District Railway .............. 33 to 38 Mr. J. Fowler, and Mr. T. M. Johnson, C.E.

Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters ................ A to C

With Copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c.

4

WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

Humber's New Work on Water-Supply.

A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS. By William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Author of "Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c. &c. Imp. 4to. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, 2 Single Plates, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwardsof 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pages of Text, elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco. Price 6l. 6s.

The Author of the present work has been very liberally assisted by several professional friends who have made this department of engineering their special study , and through the kindness of Messrs. Bateman, Hawksley, Homersham, Baldwin Latham, Mansergh Muir, Quick, Rawlinson, Simpson, and others, several works; constructed and in course of construction, from the designs of these gentlemen, are fully illustrated and described.. Valuable Specifications and Tables will also be found appended.

List of Contents: —

I. Historical Sketch of some of the means that have been adopted for the Supply of Water to Cities and Towns.—II. Water and the Foreign Matter usually associated with it.—III. Rainfall and Evaporation.—IV. Springs and the waterbearing formations of various districts. —V. Measurement and Estimation of the 1 Flow of Water.—VI. On the Selection of the Source of Supply.—VII. Wells.— VIII. Reservoirs.—IX. The Purification of Water.—X. Pumps.—XI. Pumping Machinery.—XII. Conduits.—XIII. Distribution of Water. —XIV. Meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings.—XV. The Law and Economy of Water Works.— XVI. Constant and Intermittent Supply.—XVII. Description of Plates. —Appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, &c. &c, together with Specifications of several Works illustrated, among which will be found: —Aberdeen, Bideford, Canterbury, Dundee, Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and others.

List of Plates :—

1.Wells.—2. Reservoir Dams and Filter Beds. By R. Rawlinson, C.B.— 3. Bradford and Sheffield Water Works.— 4. Bombay Water Works.— 5. New River Company's Filter Beds.—6. Leicester Water Works' Filter Beds, &c.— 7. Covered Reservoirs. —8. Diagrams of Pumping Engines.—9. Eastbourne Water Works. —10. Lambeth Water Works. —11. Air Vessels and Stand Pipes.— 12. Mains. —13. Dublin Water Works.— 14. Liverpool Water Works.— 15. Street Appendages, Hydrants, Meters, &c. —16, 17, 18. Bideford Water Works, Reservoir, Filter Beds, &c. —19. Dundee Water Works. —20, 21, 22, 23. Rotherham Water Works, Sections of Embankment, Byewash, Valve Well, Foot Bridge, Filter Beds, &c. — 24. Port Glasgow Water Works. —25, 26. Manchester Water Works, Sluices, &c.— 27, 28, 29, 30. —Loch Katrine Water Works, Weir, Aqueduct Bridge, Inlet Sluice, Salmon Stairs, Straining Well, &c.—31 32.-Halifax Corporation Water Works, Reservoirs, Waste Weir, Embankment, &c.— 33, 34, 35, 36, 37. Aberdeen Water Works, Reservoir, Intake, Embankment, Filters, Cast Iron Aqueduct, High Service Reservoir, Culverts, and Overflow Tanks.—38 Cockermouth Water Works. Reservoirs and Filter Beds. —39. Sunderland Water Works.— 40, 41, 42, 43. Sunderland Engine and Boiler House, Chimney Shaft, Engine Frame, Pumps, &c.— 44, 45, 46, 47, 48. — Canterbury Water Works. Depositing and Lime Water Reservoirs, General Plan, Engine and Boiler House, Well Houses, Service Reservoirs and Filling Pipes, Pumps, Emptying Pipes, &c. —49. Dr. Clark's Softening Process. Plans and Sections of Depositing, Lime Water, and Service Reservoirs, &c.— 50. Water Towers. Wallasey, Croydon, Birkenhead.—Coloured Frontispiece, Diagrams, &c.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

5

Iron and Steel.

' IRON AND STEEL': a Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing Ready, Useful, and Trustworthy Information for Ironmasters and their Stocktakers; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills; Iron and Metal Founders; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders; Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers; Architects, Contractors, Builders, and Professional Draughtsmen. By Charles Hoare, Author of 'The Slide Rule,' &c. Eighth Edition. Revised throughout and considerably enlarged. With folding Scales of "Foreign Measures compared with the English Foot," and "fixed Scales of Squares, Cubes, and Roots, Areas, Decimal Equivalents, &c." Oblong, 32mo, leather elastic-band, 6s. [Just ready.

"Differing materially, as it does with few exceptions, in its treatment of the various processes, this work also contains a greater amount of special information on Iron and Steel Working than can be found in any other book. It has a purpose beyond the mere shortening of processes; the endeavour has been made, it is believed successf ully, to furnish rules so uniform, brief and simple, that the actual working of a wide range of questions in daily use by Ironmasters, Engineers, &c., may be performed in less time, and with less trouble, than is required for reference to printed tables. Very little practice and attention to the easy instructions and examples given will render any one independent of the use of these ready reckoners." -Extract from Preface.

"We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in considering the details of all kinds of iron and steel works..... It has been compiled with care and accuracy.... Many useful rules and hints are given for lessening the amount of arithmetical labour which is always more or less necessary in arranging iron and steel work of all kinds, and a great quantity of useful tables for preparing estimates of weights, dimensions, strengths of structures, costs of work, &c., will be found in Mr. Hoare's book.—Naval Science.

Weale's Engineers' Pocket-Book.

THE ENGINEERS', ARCHITECTS', and CONTRACTORS POCKET-BOOK (Lockwood & Co.'s; formerly Weale's). Published Annually. In roan tuck, gilt edges, with 10 CopperPlates and numerous Woodcuts. Price 6s.

"A vast amount of really valuable matter condensed into the small dimensions of a book which is, in reality, what it professes to be—a pocket-book..... We cordially recommend the book.—Colliery Guardian.

"It contains a large amount of information peculiarly valuable to those for whose use it is compiled. We cordially commend it to the engineering and architectural professions generally."—Mining Journal.

Iron Bridges, Girders, Roofs, &c.

A TREATISE on the APPLICATION of IRON to the CONSTRUCTION of BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, and OTHER WORKS; showing the Principles upon which such Structures are Designed, and their Practical Application. Especially arranged for the use of Students and Practical Mechanics, all Mathematical Formulae and Symbols being excluded. By Francis Campin, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. 12mo, cloth boards, 3s.

"Invaluable to those who have not been educated in mathematics."—Colliery Guardian.

"Remarkably accurate and well written."—Artizan.

6

WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

Barlow on the Strength of Materials, enlarged.

A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, with Rules for application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c.; and an Appendix on the Power of Locomotive Engines, and the effect of Inclined Planes and Gradients. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A New Edition, revised by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H. Barlow, F.R.S., to which are added Experiments by Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, and Kirkaldy; an Essay (with Illustrations) on the effect produced by passing Weights over Elastic Bars, by the Rev. Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S. And Formulas for Calculating Girders, &c. The whole arranged and edited by W. Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of "A Complete and Practical Treatise on Cast and Wrought-Iron Bridge Construction," &c. &c. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates, and numerous woodcuts, price 18s. cloth.

"The book is undoubtedly worthy of the highest commendation."—Mining Journal.

"The best book on the subject which has yet appeared We know of no work that so completely fulfils its mission."—English Mechanic.

"The standard treatise upon this particular subject."—Engineer.

Strains, Formula & Diagramsfor Calculation of.

A HANDY BOOK for the CALCULATION of STRAINS in GIRDERS and SIMILAR STRUCTURES, and their STRENGTH; consisting of Formulæand Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous Details for Practical Application, &c. By William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C. E., &c. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, with nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, price 7s. 6d. cloth.

"The arrangement of the matter in this little volume is as convenient as it well could be .... The system of employing diagrams as a substitute for complex computations is one justly coming into great favour, and in that respect Mr. Humber's volume is fully up to the times."—Engineering.

"The formulæ are neatly expressed, and the diagrams good."—Athenæum.

"We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers."—English Mechanic.

Mechanical Engineering.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL ENGINEERING: comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of the Steam Engine, &c. &c. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ore, and Glossary of Terms. By Francis Campin, C.E. Illustrated with 91 Woodcuts and 28 Plates of Slotting, Shaping, Drilling, Punching, Shearing, and Riveting Machines —Blast, Refining, and Reverberatory Furnaces—Steam Engines, Governors, Boilers, Locomotives, &c. 8vo, cloth, 12s.

Steam Engine.

STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, Stationary and Portable, an Elementary Treatise on. Being an Extension of Mr. John Sewell's Treatise on Steam. By D. Kinnear Clark, C.E., M.I.C.E., Author of 'Railway Machinery,' 'Railway Locomotives,' &c., &c. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo, cloth boards, 4s.

"Every essential part of the subject is treated of competently, and in a popular style."—Iron.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

7

Strains.

THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, with 5 plates. Royal 8vo, 5s. cloth. Contents. —Introductory Remarks; Beams Loaded at Centre; Beams Loaded at unequal distances between supports; Beams uniformly Loaded; Girders with triangular bracing Loaded at centre; Ditto, Loaded at unequal distances between supports; Ditto, uniformly Loaded; Calculation of the Strains on Girders with triangular Basings; Cantilevers; Continuous Girders; Lattice Girders; Girders with Vertical Struts and Diagonal Ties; Calculation of the Strains on Ditto; Bow and String Girders; Girders of a form not belonging to any regular figure; Plate Girders; Apportionments of Material to Strain; Comparison of different Girders; Proportion of Length to Depth of Girders; Character of the Work; Iron Roofs.

Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, &c.

IRON AND HEAT, Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By James Armour, C.E. Woodcuts, 12mo, cloth boards, 3s. 6d.; cloth limp, 2s. 6d.

"A very useful and thoroughly practical little volume, in every way deserving of circulation amongst working men."—Mining Journal.

"No ironworker who wishes to acquaint himself with the principles of his own trade can afford to be without it."—South Durham Mercury.

Power in Motion.

POWER IN MOTION: Horse Power, Motion, Toothed Wheel Gearing, Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular Forces, &c. By James Armour, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. 12mo, cloth boards, 3s. 6d. [Recently published.

"Numerous illustrations enable the author to convey his meaning as explicitly as it is perhaps possible to be conveyed. The value of the theoretic and practical knowledge imparted cannot well be over estimated." —Newcastle Weekly Chronicle.

Metallurgy of Iron.

A TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON: containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edition, revised and much enlarged. 12mo, cloth boards, 5s. 6d. [Just published.

"Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important points, while all material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into."— Standard.

Trigonometrical Surveying.

AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, Levelling, &c., with the most useful Problems in Geodesy and Practical Astronomy, and Formulas and Tables for Facilitating their Calculation. By Lieut-General Frome, R.E., late In-spector-General of Fortifications, &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged, thoroughly Revised, and partly Re-written. By Captain Charles Warren, R.E., F.G.S. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, price 16s. cloth.

8

WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

Hydraulics.

HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULAE for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formulas, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By John Neville, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Third Edition, carefully revised, with considerable Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 14s. cloth.

"Undoubtedly an exceedingly useful and elaborate compilation."—Iron. "Will prove alike valuable to students and engineers in practice; its study will prevent the annoyance of avoidable failures, and assist them to select the readiest means of successfully carrying out any given work connected with hydraulic engineering."—Mining Journal.

Drawing for Engineers, &c.

THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING DRAWING. By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering Drawing, Royal Naval College, Greenwich, formerly of R. S. N. A., South Kensington. Third Edition, carefully revised. With upwards of 300 Plates and Diagrams. 12mo, cloth, strongly bound, 4s. 6d.

"Even accomplished draughtsmen will find in it much that will be of use to them. A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office."— Engineering. " Indispensable for teachers of engineering drawing."—Mechanics' Magazine.

Levelling.

A TREATISE on the PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE of LEVELLING; showing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads; with Mr. Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Sixth Edition, very carefully revised, with the addition of Mr. Law's Practical Examples for Setting out Railway Curves, and Mr. Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 8s. 6d. cloth. Trautwine on Curves, separate, price 5s.

"One of the most important text-books for the general surveyor, and there is scarcely a question connected with levelling for which a solution would be sought but that would be satisfactorily answered by consulting the volume."— Mining Journal.

" The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges."— Engineer.

Earthwork.

EARTHWORK TABLES, showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c, of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. Cr. 8vo, oblong, 5s. cloth.

"Creditable to both the authors and the publishers.... The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three elements, two of which are constant and one variable, is ingenious."—Athenæum.

"Likely to be of considerable service to engineers."—Building News.

"Cannot fail to come into general use."—Mining Journal.

Tunnelling.

PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. By F. W. Simms. An entirely new edition, revised and greatly enlarged by D. Kinnear Clark, C. E. Imp. 8vo. [In the Press.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

9

Strength of Cast Iron, &c.

A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON and OTHER METALS. By the late Thomas Tredgold, Mem. Inst. C.E., Author of "Elementary Principles of Carpentry," &c. Fifth Edition, Edited by Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S. ; to which are added EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES on the STRENGTH and OTHER PROPERTIES of CAST IRON. By the Editor. The whole Illustrated with 9 Engravings and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 12s. cloth.

*** Hodgkinson's Experimental Researches on the Strength and Other Properties of Cast Iron may be had separately. With Engravings and Woodcuts. 8vo, price 6s. cloth.

The High-Pressure Steam Engine.

THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE ; an Exposition of its Comparative Merits, and an Essay towards an Improved System of Construction, adapted especially to secure Safety and Economy. By Dr. Ernst Alban, Practical Machine Maker, Plau, Mecklenberg. Translated from the German, with Notes, by Dr. Pole, F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E., &c. &c With 28 fine Plates, 8vo, I6s. 6d. cloth.

"A work like this, which goes thoroughly into the examination of the high-pressure engine, the boiler, and its appendages, &c, is exceedingly useful, and deserves a place in every scientific library."— Steam Shipping Chronicle.

Steam Boilers.

A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS : their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By Robert Wilson, late Inspector for the Manchester Steam Users' Association for the Prevention of Steam Boiler Explosions, and for the Attainment of Economy in the Application of Steam. Third Edition. 12mo, cloth boards, 328 pages, price 6s.

"We regard Mr. Wilson's treatise as the best work on boilers which has come under our notice, and we consider that all boiler makers and boiler owners should give it a place in their libraries."—Engineering.

"The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers."—Engineer.

"A valuable contribution to the subject of steam boiler literature. ..... The book is full of hints which the proprietor of a steam boiler would find it to his advantage to know."—Iron and Coal Trades Review.

Tables of Curves.

TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES for setting out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, price 3s. 6d.

"Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument —no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work. They are clearly printed, and compactly fitted into a small case for the pocket—an arrangement that will recommend them to all practical men."—Engineer.

"Very handy : a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind."—Athenœum.

WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

10

Estimate and Price Book.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S ESTIMATE AND PRICE BOOK for Home or Foreign Service : in reference to Roads, Railways, Tramways, Docks, Harbours, Forts, Fortifications, Bridges, Aqueducts, Tunnels, Sewers, Waterworks, Gasworks, Stations, Barracks, Warehouses, &c. &c. &c. With Specifications for Permanent Way, Telegraph Materials, Plant, Maintenance, and Working of a Railway ; and a Priced List of Machinery, Plant, Tools, &c. By W. D. Haskoll, C.E. Plates and Woodcuts. Published annually. 8vo, cloth, 6s.

"As furnishing a variety of data on every conceivable want to civil engineers and contractors, this book has ever stood perhaps unrivalled."—Architect.

Surveying (Land and Marine).

LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways, Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies, Docks and Harbours ; with Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C. E., Author of "The Engineer's field Book," "Examples of Bridge and Viaduct Construction," &c. Demy 8vo, price 12s. 6d. cloth, with 14 folding Plates, and numerous Woodcuts.

"A most useful and well arranged book for the aid of a student We can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written and valuable text-book."—Builder.

"Mr. Haskoll has knowledge and experience, and can so give expression to it as to make any matter on which he writes, clear to the youngest pupil in a surveyor's office."—Colliery Guardian.

"A volume which cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility It is one which may be safely recommended to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors."—Mining Journal.

Engineering Fieldwork.

THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING FIELDWORK, applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine Surveying and Levelling. Second Edition, revised, with considerable additions, and a Supplementary Volume on WATERWORKS, SEWERS, SEWAGE, and IRRIGATION. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Numerous folding Plates. Demy 8vo, 2 vols, in one, cloth boards, 1l. 1s. (published at 2l. 4s.)

Mining, Surveying and Valuing.

THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COMPLETE GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying, with new Traverse Tables ; and Descriptions of Improved Instruments ; also an Exposition of the Correct Principles of Laying out and Valuing Home and Foreign Iron and Coal Mineral Properties: to which is appended M. THOMAN'S (of the Credit Mobilier, Paris) TREATISE on COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES, with LOGARITHMIC TABLES. By William Lintern, Mining and Civil Engineer. 12mo, strongly bound in cloth boards, with four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c., price 10s. 6d.

"Contains much valuable information given in a small compass, and which, as far as we have tested it, is thoroughly trustworthy."—Iron and Coal Trades' Review.

"The matter, arrangement, and illustration of this work are all excellent, and make it one of the best of its kind."—Standard.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

11

Fire Engineering.

FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management ; Remarks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c., &c. By Charles F. T. Young, C.E. With numerous Illustrations, handsomely printed, 544 pp., demy 8vo, price 11. 4s. cloth.

"We can most heartily commend this book.... It is really the only English work we now have upon the subject."—Engineering.

* We strongly recommend the book to the notice of all who are in any way interested in fires, fire-engines, or fire-brigades."—Mechanics' Magazine.

Manual of Mining Tools.

MINING TOOLS. For the use of Mine Managers, Agents, Mining Students, &c. By William Morgans, Lecturer on Practical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. Volume of Text. 12mo. With an Atlas of Plates, containing 235 Illustrations. 4to. Together, price 9s. cloth boards.

"Students in the Science of Mining, and not only they, but subordinate officials in mines, and even Overmen, Captains, Managers, and Viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful hints by the study of Mr. Morgans's Manual."— Colliery Guardian.

"A very valuable work, which will tend materially to improve our mining literature."—Mining Journal.

Gas and Gasworks.

A TREATISE on GASWORKS and the PRACTICE of MANUFACTURING and DISTRIBUTING COAL GAS. By Samuel Hughes, C. E. Fourth Edition, revised by W. Richards, C.E. With 68 Woodcuts, bound in cloth boards, l2mo, price 4s

Waterworks for Cities and Towns.

WATERWORKS for the SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS, with a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as influencing Supplies of Water. By Samuel Hughes, F.G.S., Civil Engineer. New and enlarged edition, 12mo, cloth boards, with numerous Illustrations, price 5s.

" One of the most convenient, and at the same time reliable works on a subject, the vital importance of which cannot be over-estimated."—Bradford Observer.

Coal and Coal Mining.

COAL AND COAL MINING: a Rudimentary Treatise on. By Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. New edition, revised and corrected. 12mo, cloth boards, with numerous Illustrations, price 4s. 6d.

"Every portion of the volume appears to have been prepared with much care, and as an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the two principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers."—Mining Journal.

"Certainly experimental skill and rule-of-thumb practice would be greatly enriched by the addition of the theoretical knowledge and scientific information which Mr. Warington Smyth communicates in combination with the results of his own experience and personal research."—Colliery Guardian.

WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

12

Field-Book for Engineers.

THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CONTRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. By W. Davis Haskoll, Civil Engineer. Third Edition, much enlarged, consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and Use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; Setting out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument; Setting out Curves without Theodolite on the System of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tangents and Offsets; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth. With numerous wood-cuts, 12mo, price 12s. cloth.

"A very useful work for the practical engineer and surveyor. Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such a work and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume."—Railway News.

"The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same." — Athenœum.

"The work forms a handsome pocket volume, and cannot fail, from its portability and utility, to be extensively patronised by the engineering profession/'— Mining journal.

"We strongly recommend Mr. Haskoll's 'Field Book' to all classes of surveyors." — Colliery Guardian .

Earthwork, Measurement and Calculation of.

A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham, C.E., Resident Engineer, Forest of Dean Central Railway. With numerous Diagrams. 18mo, 2s. 6d. cloth.

"As a really handy book for reference, we know of no work equal to it; and the nailway engineers and others employed in the measurement and calculation of earth work will And a great amount of practical information very admirably arranged, and available for general or rough estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations required in the engineers' contractor's offices."— Artizan.

Harbours.

THE DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION of HARBOURS: A Treatise on Maritime Engineering. By Thomas Stevenson, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., M.I.C.E. Second Edition, containing many additional subjects, and otherwise generally extended and revised. With 20 Plates and numerous Cuts. Small 4to, 15s. cloth.

Mathematical and Drawing Instruments.

A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPAL MATHEMATICAL AND DRAWING INSTRUMENTS employed by the Engineer, Architect, and Surveyor. By Frederick W. Simms, M. Inst. C.E., Author of "Practical Tunnelling," &c. Third Edition, with numerous Cuts. 12mo, price 3s. 6d. cloth.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

13

Bridge Construction in Masonry, Timber, & Iron.

EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON ; consisting of 46 Plates from the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of select Works. By W. Davis Haskoll, C. E. Second Edition, with the addition of 554 Estimates, and the Practice of Setting out Works, illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imp. 4to, price 2l. 12s. 6d. half-morocco.

" One of the very few works extant descending to the level of ordinary routine, and treating on the common every-day practice of the railway engineer. ... A work of the present nature by a man of Mr. Haskoll's experience, must prove invaluable to hundreds. The tables of estimates appended to this edition will considerably enhance its value."— Enghieering.

Mathematical Instruments, their Construction, &c.

MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS : their CONSTRUCTION, ADJUSTMENT, TESTING, AND USE; comprising Drawing, Measuring, Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instruments. By J. F. Heather, M.A., Author of "Practical Plane Geometry," "Descriptive Geometry," &c. Enlarged Edition, for the most part entirely rewritten. With numerous Wood-cuts. 12mo, cloth boards, price 5s.

Oblique Arches.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION of OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John Hart. Third Edition, with Plates. Imperial 8vo, price 8s. cloth.

Oblique Bridges.

A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE BRIDGES, with 13 large folding Plates. By Geo. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, corrected by W. H. Barlow, M. Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo, 12s. cloth.

"The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches, is Mr. Buck s (treatise, and it would be impossible to consult a better."—Engineer.

Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers.

A POCKET BOOK FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. Containing useful Rules and Formulæ in a compact form. By Frank Proctor, A.I.N.A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Royal 32m0, leather, gilt edges, with strap, price 4s.

"We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want."— Naval Science.

"A most useful companion to all marine engineers."—United Service Gazette. "Scarcely anything required by a naval engineer appears to have been for-

"A very valuable publication ... a means of saving much time and labour."— New York Monthly Record.

Weale's Dictionary of Terms.

A DICTIONARY of TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, ARCHAEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &c. By John Weale. Fourth Edition, enlarged and revised by Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records, Editor of "Ure's Dictionary of Arts," &c. 12mo, cloth boards, price 6s.

WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

14

Granthanis Iron Ship-Building, enlarged.

ON IRON SHIP-BUILDING ; with Practical Examples and Details. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40 Plates (21 quite new), including the latest Examples. Together with separate Text, 12mo, cloth limp, also considerably enlarged. By John Grantham, M. Inst. C.E., &c. Price 2l. 2s. complete.

Description of Plates.

1. Hollow and Bar Keels, Stem and Stern Posts. [Pieces.

2. Side Frames, Floorings, and Bilge 3. Floorings continued—Keelsons, Deck Beams, Gunwales, and Stringers.

4. Gunwales continued—Lower Decks, and Orlop Beams. 4a. Gunwales and Deck Beam Iron.

5. Angle-Iron, T Iron, Z Iron, Bulb Iron, as Rolled for Building.

6. Rivets, shown in section, natural size; Flush and Lapped Joints, with Single and Double Riveting.

7. Plating, three plans ; Bulkheads and Modes of Securing them.

8. Iron Masts, with Longitudinal and Transverse Sections.

9. Sliding Keel, Water Ballast, Moulding the Frames in Iron Ship Building, Levelling Plates.

Levelling plates. 10. Longitudinal Section, and Halfbreadth Deck Plan of Large Vessels on a reduced Scale.

11. Midship Sections of Three Vessels.

12. Large Vessel, showing Details—Fore End in Section, and End View, with Stern Post, Crutches, &c.

with Stern Post, crutches, &c. 13. Large Vessel, showing Details—After End in Section, with End "View, Stern Frame for Screw, and Rudder.

14. Large Vessel, showing Details—Midship Section, half breadth.

15. Machines for Punching and Shearing Plates and Angle-Iron, and for Bending Plates ; Rivet Hearth.

15a. Beam-Bending Machine, Independent Shearing, Punching and AngleIron Machine.

15b Double Lever Punching and Shearing, Machine, arranged for cutting Angle and T Iron, with Dividing Table and Engine.

16. Machines. —Garforth's Riveting Machine, Drilling and Counter-Sinking Machine.

16a. Plate Planing Machine.

17. Air Furnace for Heating Plates and Angle-Iron: Various Tools used in Riveting and Plating.

18. Gunwale; Keel and Flooring ; Plan for Sheathing with Copper.

18a. Grantham's Improved Plan of Sheathing Iron Ships with Copper.

19. Illustrations of the Magnetic Condition of various Iron Ships.

20. Gray's Floating Compass and Binnacle, with Adjusting Magnets, &c.

21. Corroded Iron Bolt in Frame of Wooden Ship ; Jointing Plates.

22-4. Great Eastern—Longitudinal Sections and Half-breadth Plans —Midship Section, with Details—Section in Engine Room, and Paddle Boxes.

25-6. Paddle Steam Vessel of Steel.

27. Scarbrough—Paddle Vessel of Steel.

28-9. Proposed Passenger Steamer.

30. Persian—Iron Screw Steamer.

31. Midship Section of H.M. Steam Frigate, Warrior.

32. Midship Section of H.M. Steam Frigate, Hercules.

33. Stem, Stern, and Rudder of H.M. Steam Frigate, Bellerophon.

34. Midship Section of H.M. Troop Ship, Serapis.

35. Iron Floating Dock.

"A thoroughly practical work, and every question of the many in relation to iron shipping which admit of diversity of opinion, or have various and conflicting personal interests attached to them, is treated with sober and impartial wisdom and good sense.

. . . . As good a volume for the instruction of the pupil or student of iron naval architecture as can be found in any language."—Practical Mechanics' Journal.

"A very elaborate work. . . . It forms a most valuable addition to the history of iron shipbuilding, while its having been prepared by one who has made the subject his study for many years, and whose qualifications have been repeatedly recognised, will recommend it as one of practical utility to all interested in shipbuilding."—Army and Navy Gazette.

Steam.

THE SAFE USE OF STEAM : containing Rules for Unprofessional Steam Users. By an Engineer. Second Edition. 12mo. Sewed, 6d.

N. B.—This little work should be in the hands of every person having to deal with a Steam Engine of any kind.

"If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, and then hand it to their stokers to do the same, and see that the latter do it, boiler explosions would become sensations by their rarity."—English Mechanic.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

15

ARCHITECTURE, &c.

Construction.

THE SCIENCE of BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. Illustrated with 47 Wood Engravings. Demy 8vo, price 8s. 6d. cloth.

"A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students."—Builder.

"The treatise does credit alike to the author and the publisher."—Engineer.

"No architectural student should be without this hand-book."—Architect.

"The book is very far from being a mere compilation ; it is an able digest of information which is only to be found scattered through various works, and contains more really original writing than many putting forth far stronger claims to originality." —Engineering.

Beaton's Pocket Estimator.

THE POCKET ESTIMATOR FOR THE BUILDING TRADES, being an easy method of estimating the various parts of a Building collectively, more especially applied to Carpenters' and Joiners' work, priced according to the present value of material and labour. By A. C. Beaton, Author of 'Quantities and Measurements.' 33 Woodcuts. Leather. Waistcoat-pocket size. 2s.

Beaton's Builders' and Surveyors Technical Guide.

THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE AND MEASURER FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS: containing a Complete Explanation of the Terms used in Building Construction, Memoranda for Reference, Technical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, with a Treatise on the Measurement of Timbers, and Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, and Drains. By A. C. Beaton, Author of ' Quantities and Measurements.' With 19 Woodcuts. Leather. Waistcoat-pocket size. 2s.

Villa Architecture.

A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Detailed Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickles, Architect, Author of " The Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of England," &c. First Series, consisting of 30 Plates ; Second Series, 31 Plates. Complete in I vol. 4to, price 21. 10s. half morocco. Either Series separate, price 1l. 7s. each, half morocco.

"The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive to architects, students, and amateurs."—Buildmg News.

House Painting.

HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN WRITING : a Practical Manual of, containing full information on the Processes of House Painting in Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary Drawing for House Painters, Writers, &c., and a Collection of Useful Receipts. With 9 Coloured Plates of Woods and Marbles, and nearly 150 Wood Engravings, By Ellis A. Davidson, Author of 'Building Construction,' 'Drawing for Carpenters,' &c. 12mo, 6s. cloth boards.

WORKS IN ARCHITECTURE, ETC.,

16

Architecture, Ancient and Modern.

RUDIMENTARY ARCHITECTURE, Ancient and Modern. Consisting of VITRUVIUS, translated by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A., &c., with 23 fine copper plates; GRECIAN Architecture, by the Earl of Aberdeen ; the ORDERS of Architecture, by W. H. Leeds, Esq.; The STYLES of Architecture of Various Countries, by T. Talbot Bury ; The PRINCIPLES of DESIGN in Architecture, by E. L. Garbett. In one volume, half-bound (pp. 1,100), copiously illustrated, 12s.

*** Sold separately, in two volsas follows —

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE.' Containing Gwilt's Vitruvius and Aberdeen's Grecian Architecture. Price 6s. half-bound.

N.B. — This is the only edition of VITRUVIUS procurable at a moderate price.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE. Containing the Orders, by Leeds ; The Styles, by Bury; and Design, by Garbett. 6s. half-bound.

The Young Architect's Book.

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wightwick, Architect, Author of " The Palace of Architecture," &c. &c. New Edition, revised and enlarged. By G. Huskisson GuilLAUME, Architect. Numerous illustrations. 12mo, cloth boards, 4s.

"Will be found an acquisition to pupils, and a copy ought to be considered as necessary a purchase as a box of instruments."—Architect,

"This is a book which every young architect ought to study, and, as far as possible, learn by heart, for it contains nothing which one would wish to forget."— British Architect.

"Contains a large amount of information, which young architects will do well to acquire, if they wish to succeed in the everyday work of their profession.—English Mechanic.

Drawing for Builders and Students.

PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURE. By George Pyne, Author of a "Rudimentary Treatise on Perspective for Beginners." With 14 Plates, 4to, 7s. 6d. boards.

Contents. —I. Practical Rules on Drawing—Outlines. II. Ditto—the Grecian and Roman Orders. III. Practical Rules on Drawing—Perspective. IV. Practical Rules on Light and Shade. V. Practical Rules on Colour, &c. &c.

Cottages, Villas, and Country Houses.

DESIGNS and EXAMPLES of COTTAGES, VILLAS, and COUNTRY HOUSES ; being the Studies of several eminent Architects and Builders ; consisting of Plans, Elevations, and Perspective Views; with approximate Estimates of the Cost of each. In 4to, with 67 plates, price 1l. 1s. cloth.

Builder's Price Book.

LOCKWOOD & CO.'S BUILDER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S PRICE BOOK—with which is incorporated Atchley's, and portions of the late G. R. Burnell's Builders' Price Books —for 1876, containing the latest prices of all kinds of Builders' Materials and Labour, and of all Trades connected with Building, &c., &c. The whole revised and edited by Francis T. W. Miller, Architect and Surveyor. Fcap. 8vo, strongly half-bound, price 4s.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

17

Handbook of Specifications.

THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or, Practical Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and Engineers. Preceded by a Preliminary Essay, and Skeletons of Specifications and Contracts, &c., &c. By Professor Thomas L. Donaldson, University College, London, M.I.B.A. With A Review of the Law of Contracts, and of the Responsibilities of Architects, Engineers, and Builders. By W. Cunningham Glen, of the Middle Temple. 2 vols., 8vo, with upwards of 1100 pp. of text, and 33 Lithographic Plates, cloth, 2l. 2s. (Published at 4l.)

"In these two volumes of 1,100 pages (together), forty-four specifications of executed works are given, including the specifications for parts of the new Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, and for the new Royal Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. Donaldson's Handbook of Specifications must be bought by all architects."—Builder.

Taylor and Cresy's Rome.

THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By the late G. L. Taylor, Esq., F.S.A., F.R.1.B.A., and Edward Cresy, Esq. New Edition, thoroughly revised, and supplemented by the most recent accessions to the topography and archceology of that city. Completed under the editorial care of the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and Chaplain of Gray's Inn. This is the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the precision of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient Rome in plan, elevation, and detail. Large folio, with 130 Plates, half-bound, price 3l. 3s.

*** Originally published in two volumes, folio, at 18l. 18S.

Specifications for Practical Architecture.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE: A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder; with an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. By Frederick Rogers, Architect. With numerous Illustrations. Demy 8vo, price 15s., cloth. (Published at 1l, 10s.)

*** A volume of specifications of a practical character being greatly required, and the old standard work of Alfred Bartholomew being out of print, the author, on the basis of that work, has produced the above. Some of the specifications he has so altered as to bring in the now universal use of concrete, the improvements in drainage, the use of iron, glass, asphalte, and other material. He has also inserted specifications of works that have been erected in his own practice.

The House-Owner's Estimator.

THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR; or, What will it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price-Book adapted to the Use of Unprofessional People as well as for the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By the late James D. Simon, A.R.I.B.A. Edited and Revised by Francis T. W. Miller, Surveyor. With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, with the prices carefully revised to 1875. Crown 8vo, cloth, price 3s. 6d.

"In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over."—Field.

"A very handy book for those who want to know what a house will cost to build, alter, or repair."—English Mechanic.

"Especially valuable to non-professional readers.—Mining Journal,

18

WORKS ON CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC.,

CARPENTRY, TIMBER, &c.

Tredgold's Carpentry, new, enlarged, and cheaper Edition.

THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY : a Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. Edited by Peter Barlow, F.R.S, Fifth Edition, corrected and enlarged. With 64 Plates (11 of which now first appear in this edition), Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. 111 I vol., 4to, published at 2l. 2s., reduced to 1l. 5.s., cloth.

"''Tredgold's Carpentry' ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library, and those who do not already possess it ought to avail themselves of the new issue."—Builder.

"A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful carpentry is concerned. The Author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time, and, as now presented, combine the surest base with the most interesting display of progressive science. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value."— Building News.

Grandy s Timber Tables.

THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. Grandy. Comprising :—An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for Fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including] all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c., &c. ; together with Copious Information for the Retailer and Builder. Second Edition. Carefully revised and corrected. 12mo, price 3s. 6d. cloth.

"Everything it pretends to be: built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c.—all that the class to whom it appeals requires."—English Mechanic. "The only difficulty we have is as to what is not in its pages. What we have tested of the contents, taken at random, is invariably correct."—IIIustrated Builders Journal.

Tables for Packing-Case Makers.

PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Superficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. Compiled by William Richardson, Accountant. Oblong 4to, cloth, price 3s. 6d.

"Will save much labour and calculation to packing-case makers and those who use packing-cases."—Grocer. "Invaluable labour-saving tables."—Ironmonger.

Nicholson's Carpenter's Guide.

THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE; or, BOOK of LINES for CARPENTERS : comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late Peter Nicholson's standard work. A new Edition, revised by Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A., together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by George Pyne. With 74 Plates, 4to, Il, 1s. cloth.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

19

Dowsing's Timber Merchant's Companion.

THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COMPANION ; containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand Pieces, and the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Standard Hundred; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet; the proportionate Value of Deals and Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet; the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot. Also a variety of other valuable information. By William Dowsing, Timber Merchant. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. cloth.

"Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no doubt that every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it."—Hull Advertiser.

Timber Freight Book.

THE TIMBER IMPORTERS' AND SHIPOWNERS' FREIGHT BOOK: Being a Comprehensive Series of Tables for the Use of Timber Importers, Captains of Ships, Shipbrokers, Builders, and all Dealers in Wood whatsoever. By William Richardson, Timber Broker, author of "Packing Case Tables," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth, price 6s.

MECHANICS, &c.

Horton's Measurer.

THE COMPLETE MEASURER ; setting forth the Measurement of Boards, Glass, &c., &c. ; Unequal-sided, Square-sided, Octagonal-sided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing Timber. With just allowances for the bark in the respective species of trees, and proper deductions for the waste in hewing the trees, &c.; also a Table showing the solidity of hewn or eight-sided timber, or of any octagonal-sided column. Compiled for the accommodation of Timber-growers, Merchants, and Surveyors, Stonemasons, Architects, and others. By Richard Horton. Second edition, with considerable and valuable additions, 12mo, strongly bound in leather, ss.

"The office of the architect, engineer, building surveyor, or land agent that is without this excellent and useful work cannot truly be considered perfect in its furnishing."—Irish Builder.

"We have used the improved and other tables in this volume, and have not observed any unfairness or inaccuracy."—Builder.

"The tables we have tested are accurate To the builder and estate agents this work will be most acceptable."—British Architect.

"Not only are the best methods of measurement shown, and in some instances illustrated by means of woodcuts, but the erroneous systems pursued by dishonest dealers are fully exposed. .... The work must be considered to be a valuable addition to every gardener's library.—Garden.

Superficial Measurement.

THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT. Tables calculated from Ito 200 inches in length, by 1 to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By James Hawkings. Fcp. 3s. 6d. cloth.

WORKS IN MECHANICS, ETC.,

20

Mechanics Workshop Companion.

THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COMPANION, and THE SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMAN'S PRAC-TICAL-ASSISTANT ; comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules in Mechanical Science; with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calculated Results. By W. Templeton, Author of "The Engineer's, Millwright's, and Machinist's Practical Assistant." Eleventh Edition, with Mechanical Tables for Operative Smiths, Millwrights, Engineers, &c.; together with several Useful and Practical Rules in Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics, a variety of Experimental Results, and an Extensive Table of Powers and Roots. 11 Plates. 12mo, 5s bound.

"As a text-book of reference, in which mechanical and commercial demands are judiciously met, Templeton's Companion stands unrivalled."— Mechanics'Magazine. " Admirably adapted to the wants of a very large class. It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little work."— Building News.

Engineer's Assistant.

THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S PRACTICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a Collection of Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. Compiled and Arranged, with Original Matter, by W. Templeton. 5th Edition. 18mo, 2s. 6d. cloth.

"So much varied information compressed into so small a space, and published at a price which places it within the reach of the humblest mechanic, cannot fail to command the sale which it deserves. With the utmost confidence we commend this book to the attention of our readers.— Mechanics' Magazine .

"Every mechanic should become the possessor of the volume, and a more suitable present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made." — Building News.

Designing, Measuring, and Valuing.

THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEASURING, and VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS; containing Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the respective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner, Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates and Woodcuts. Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. New Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construction, and useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and Measurements. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., 8vo, 10s-. 6d. cloth.

"This useful book should be in every architect's and builder's office. It contains a vast amount of information absolutely necessary to be known."— The Irish Builder.

" We have failed to discover anything connected with the building trade, from excavating foundations to bell-hanging, that is not fully treated upon in this valuable work."— The Artizan,

" Mr. Tarn has well performed the task imposed upon him, and has made many further and valuable additions, embod ying a large amount of information relating to the technicalities and modes of construction employed in the several branches of the building trade. ,, — Colliery Guardian .

"Altogether the book is one which well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we can thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work, and have especially augmented its value to students, -Engineering.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

21

MATHEMATICS, &c.

Gregory's Practical Mathematics.

MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN ; being a Commonplace Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors. Part I. Pure Mathematics—comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves. Part 11. Mixed Mathematics—comprising Mechanics in general, Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix of copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By Olinthus Gregory, LL. D., F.R. A. S. Enlarged by Henry Law, C. E. 4th Edition, carefully revised and corrected by J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College ; Author of " A Course of Mathematics," &c. With 13 Plates. Medium Bvo, 1l. is. cloth. "As a standard work on mathematics it has not been excelled."— Artizan.

" The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand, rules for solving nearly every mathematical difficulty that may arise in his practice. The rules are in all casess explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked out. "— Builder.

"One of the most serviceable books to the practical mechanics of the country. . In the edition just brought out, the work has again been revised by Professor Young. He has modernised the notation throughout, introduced a few paragraphs here and there, and corrected the numerous typographical errors which have escaped the eyes of the former Editor. The book is now as complete as it is possible to make it. It is an instructive book for the student, and a Textbook for him who having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to refresh his memory upon them."— Building News.

The Metric System.

A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, C. E. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo, 10s. 6d. strongly bound.

"Mr. Dowling's Tables, which are well put together, come just in time as a ready reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other."—Atheneeum.

"Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer-Royal."— Builder.

"Resolution 8. —That advantage will be derived from the recent publication of Metric Tables, by C. H. Dowling, C.E."—Report of Section F, British Association, Bath.

Comprehensive Weight Calculator.

THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR; being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference the exact Value of any Weight from 1lb. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from I Penny to 168 Shillings per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which with their Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calculated and designed to ensure Correctness and promote Despatch. By Henry Harben, Accountant, Sheffield, Author of 'The Discount Guide.' An entirely New Edition, carefully revised. Royal 8vo, strongly half-bound, 30s. [Just Published.

WORKS IN MATHEMATICS, ETC.,

22

Inwood's Tables, greatly enlarged and improved.

TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other corporate bodies; for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c, together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate Rates. By William Inwood, Architect. The 20th edition, with considerable additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of Money, Discount, Annuities, &c, by M. Fèdor Thoman, of the Societe Credit Mobilier of Paris. 12mo, 8s. cloth.

*** This edition (the 20th) differs in many important particulars from former ones. The changes consist, first, in a more convenient and systematic arrangement of the original Tables, and in the removal of certain numerical errors which a very careful revision of the whole has enabled the present editor to discover; and secondly, in the extension of practical utility conferred on the work by the introduction of Tables now inserted for the first time. This new and important matter is all so much actually added to Inwood's Tables ; nothing has been abstracted from the original collection: so that those who have been long in the habit of consulting Inwood for any special professional purpose will, as heretofore, find the inforviation sought still in its pages.

"Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c, will find the present edition of eminent service."— Engineering.

Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, &c.

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic ; giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect, Author of "The Science of Building," &c. With 164 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 12s. 6d.

" No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory."—Scotsman.

Compound Interest and Annuities.

THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES ; with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. With an elaborate Introduction. By Fèdor Thoman, of the Sociètè Credit Mobilier, Paris. 12mo, cloth, 5s.

"A very powerful work, and the Author has a very remarkable command of his subject."—Professor A. de Morgan.

"We recommend it to the notice of actuaries and accountants "—Athenaum.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

23

SCIENCE AND ART.

The Military Sciences.

AIDE-MEMOIRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the different Services. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an Officer of the Corps, with many additions; containing nearly 350 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 3 vols, royal 8vo, extra cloth boards, and lettered, price 41, 10s.

"A compendious encyclopaedia of military knowledge."— Edinburgh Review. " The most comprehensive work of reference to the military and collateral sciences." -Volunteer Service Gazette.

Field Fortification.

A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK of FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, and RECONNOITRING. By Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of Fortification in the R. M. A., Woolwich. Sixth Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, price 12s. complete.

Field Fortification.

HANDBOOK OF FIELD FORTIFICATION, intended for the Guidance of Officers preparing for Promotion, and especially adapted to the requirements of Beginners. By Major W. W. Knollys, F.R.G.S., 93rd Sutherland Highlanders, &c. With 163 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth.

Storms.

STORMS : their Nature, Classification, and Laws, with the Means of Predicting them by their Embodiments, the Clouds. By William Blasius. With Coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth boards.

Light-Houses.

EUROPEAN LIGHT-HOUSE SYSTEMS ; being a Report of a Tour of Inspection made in 1873. By Major George H. Elliot, Corps of Engineers, U.S.A. Illustrated by 51 Engravings and 31 Woodcuts in the Text. 8vo, 21s. cloth.

Dye- Wares and Colours.

THE MANUAL of COLOURS and DYE-WARES: their Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Dry Salters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. Slater. Post 8vo, cloth, price 7s. 6d.

"A complete encyclopædia of the materia tinctoria. The information given respecting each article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles such as these, so liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and are practical as well as valuable."—Chemist and Druggist.

WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC.,

24

Electricity.

A MANUAL of ELECTRICITY; including Galvanism, Magnetism, Diamagnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magno-Electricity, and the Electric Telegraph. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at St. George's Hospital. Fourth Edition, entirely rewritten. Illustrated by 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, 1l. 4s. cloth.

" The commendations already bestowed in the pages of the Lancet on the former editions of this work are more than ever merited by the present. The accounts given of electricity and galvanism are not only complete in a scientific sense, but, which is a rarer thing, are popular and interesting."— Lancet.

Text-Book of Electricity.

THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., Lecturer on Chemistry at St. George's Hospital. New Edition, revised and enlarged, with additions on Telegraphy, by G. E. Preece, Esq. Upwards of 400 Illustrations. In Preparation.

Rudimentary Magnetism.

RUDIMENTARY MAGNETISM : being a concise exposition of the general principles of Magnetical Science, and the purposes to which it has been applied. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.R.S. New and enlarged Edition, with considerable additions by Dr. Noad, Ph.D. With 165 Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth, 4.s. 6d.

"There is a good index, and this volume of 412 pages may be considered the best possible manual on the subject of magnetism."—Mechanics' Magazine.

"As concise and lucid an exposition of the phenomena of magnetism as we believe it is possible to write. "—English Mechanic.

"Not only will the scientific student find this volume an invaluable book of reference, but the general reader will find in it as much to interest as to inform his mind. Though a strictly scientific work, its subject is handled in a simple and readable style."—Illustrated Review.

Chemical Analysis.

THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANALYSIS ; or Practical Instructions for the determination of the Intrinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. Normandy, Author of "Practical Introduction to Rose's Chemistry," and Editor of Rose's "Treatise of Chemical Analysis." New Edition. Enlarged, and to a great extent re-written, by Henry M. Noad, Ph. D., F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. [Just ready.

"We recommend this book to the careful perusal of every one ; it may be truly affirmed to be of universal interest, and we strongly recommend it to our readers as a guide, alike indispensable to the housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner."— Medical Times.

"Will be found to be essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. . . . In all cases the most recent results are given, and the work is well edited and carefully written."— Nature.

Mollusca.

A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA; being a Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. Woodward, A.L.S. With Appendix by Ralph Tate, A.L.S. F.G.S. With numerous Plates and 300 Woodcuts. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth gilt.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

25

Clocks, Watches, and Bells.

RUDIMENTARY TREATISE on CLOCKS, WATCHES, and BELLS. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart, (late E. B. Denison), LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S., Author of "Astronomy without Mathematics," &c. Sixth edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. Limp cloth (No. 67, Weale's Series), 6d.; cloth boards, 5s. 6d.

"As a popular, and, at the same time, practical treatise on clocks and bells, it is unapproached."—English Mechanic.

"The best work on the subject probably extant . . . So far as we know it has no competitor worthy of the name. The treatise on bells is undoubtedly the best in the language. It shows that the author has contributed very much to their modern improvement, if indeed he has not revived this art, which was decaying here ... To call it a rudimentary treatise is a misnomer, at least as respects clocks and bells. It is something more. It is the most important work of its kind in English."— Engineering.

"The only modern treatise on clock-making."—Horological Journal. "Without having any special interest in the subject, and even without possessing any general aptitude for mechanical studies, a reader must be very unintelligent who cannot find matter to engage his attention in this work. The little book now appears revised and enlarged, being one of the most praiseworthy volumes in Weale's admirable scientific and educational series."—Daily Telegraph.

"We do not know whether to wonder most at the extraordinary cheapness of this admirable treatise on clocks, by the most able authority on such a subject, or the thorough completeness of his work even to the minutest details. The chapter on bells is singular and amusing, and will be a real treat even to the uninitiated general reader. The illustrations, notes, and indices, make the work completely perfect of its kind."— Standard.

"There is probably no book in the English language on a technical subject so easy to read, and to read through, as the treatise on clocks, watches, and bells, written by the eminent Parliamentary Counsel, Mr. E. B. Denison—now Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart."—Architect.

Science and Scripture.

SCIENCE ELUCIDATIVE OF SCRIPTURE, AND NOT ANTAGONISTIC TO IT; being a Series of Essays on—1. Alleged Discrepancies; 2. The Theory of the Geologists and Figure of the Earth; 3. The Mosaic Cosmogony; 4. Miracles in general —Views of Hume and Powell; 5. The Miracle of Joshua — Views of Dr. Colenso: The Supernaturally Impossible; 6. The Age of the Fixed Stars —their Distances and Masses. By Professor J. R. Young, Author of "A Course of Elementary Mathematics," &c. &c. Fcap. 8vo, price 5s. cloth lettered.

"Professor Young's examination of the early verses of Genesis, in connection with modern scientific hypotheses, is excellent"—English Churchman.

"Distinguished by the true spirit of scientific inquiry, by great knowledge, by keen logical ability, and by a style peculiarly clear, easy, and energetic."—Nonconformist.

"No one can rise from its perusal without being impressed with a sense of the singular weakness of modern scepticism."—Baptist Magazine.

"A valuable contribution to controversial theological literature."—City Press.

Practical Philosophy.

A SYNOPSIS of PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY. By the Rev. John Carr, M.A., late Fellow of Trin, Coll., Cambridge. Second Edition. 18mo, 5s. cloth.

26

WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC.,

Dr. Lardner's Museum of Science and Art.

THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. Contents : The Planets; are they inhabited Worlds?— Weather Prognostics— Popular Fallacies in Questions of Physical Science —Latitudes and Longitudes—Lunar Influences—Meteoric Stones and Shooting Stars—Railway Accidents—Light—Common Things: Air— Locomotion in the United States —Cometary Influences —Common Things: Water —The Potter's Art—Common Things: Fire— Locomotion and Transport, their Influence and Progress—The Moon —Common Things: the Earth—The Electric Telegraph— Terrestrial Heat—The Sun—Earthquakes and Volcanoes—Barometer, Safety Lamp, and Whitworth's Micrometric Apparatus— Steam —The Steam Engine—The Eye—The Atmosphere—Time —Common Things: Pumps—Common Things: Spectacles, the Kaleidoscope—Clocks and Watches—Microscopic Drawing and Engraving—Locomotive—Thermometer—New Planets: Leverrier and Adams's Planet—Magnitude and Minuteness—Common Things: the Almanack —Optical Images—How to observe the Heavens —Common Things : the Looking-glass—Stellar Universe —The Tides —Colour—Common Things: Man—Magnifying Glasses—Istinct and Intelligence—The Solar Microscope—The Camera Lucida—The Magic Lantern —The Camera Obscura — The Microscope—The White Ants: their Manners and Habits — The Surface of the Earth, or First Notions of Geography—Science and Poetry—The Bee — Steam Navigation—Electro-Motive Power—Thunder, Lightning, and the Aurora Borealis—The Printing Press —The Crust of the Earth—Comets—The Stereoscope —The Pre-Adamite Earth—Eclipses—Sound. With upwards of 1200 Engravings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt, price £1 1s.

"The 'Museum of Science and Art' is the most valuable contribution that has ever been made to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society."—Sir David Brewster in the North British Review.

" Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of the writing, or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to be found among the new books, one that would be welcomed by people of so many ages and classes as a valuable present."— Examiner.

*** Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen's Libraries, Science Classes, &c.

Common Things Explained. With 233 Illustrations, 5s. cloth.

The Electric Telegraph Popularized. 100 Illustrations, 1s, 6d. cloth.

The Microscope. With 147 Illustrations, 2s. cloth.

Popular Geology. With 201 Illustrations, 2s. 6d. cloth.

Popular Physics. With 85 Illustrations. 2s. 6d. cloth.

Popular Astronomy. With 182 Illustrations, 4s. 6d. cloth.

Steam and its Uses. With 89 Illustrations, 2s. cloth.

The Bee and White Ants. With 135 Illustrations, cloth, 2s.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

27

DR. LARDNER'S SCIENTIFIC HANDBOOKS.

Astronomy.

THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. By Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkin, F.R.A.S., Superintendent of the Altazimuth Department, Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 plates and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. In one thick vol., Crown 8vo, price 9s. 6d. cloth.

"Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious and well-arranged a form —certainly none at the price at which this is offered."—Athenceum, April 8, 1876.

"A trustworthy and valuable guide to the study of astronomy."—English Mechanic.

Optics.

THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. New Edition. Edited by T. Olver Harding, B.A. Lond., of University College, London. With 298 Illustrations. Small 8vo, cloth, 448 pages, price 5s.

Electricity.

THE HANDBOOK of ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, and ACOUSTICS. New Edition. Edited by Geo. Carey Foster, 8.A., F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, cloth, price 5s.

"The book could not have been entrusted to any one better calculated to preserve the terse and lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the present state of scientific knowledge."—Popular Science Review.

Mechanics.

THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Revised and enlarged by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. [Reprinting.

Hydrostatics.

THE HANDBOOK of HYDROSTATICS and PNEUMATICS. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With numerous Illustrations. 5s. [Just published.

Heat.

THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. New Edition, Re-written and Enlarged. By Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. [Nearly Ready.

Animal Physics.

THE HANDBOOK OF ANIMAL PHYSICS. With 520 Illustrations. New edition, small 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d. 732 pages.

Electric Telegraph.

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. New Edition. Revised and Re-written by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations. Small 8vo, is. 6d. cloth.

"One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph."—Eng. Mechanic.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. 328 Illustrations. Fifth Edition. 1 vol. 3s. 6d. cloth.

"Conveys, in clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science."—British Quarterly Review.

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition. 1 vol. 3s. 6d. cloth.

"Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated."—Gardeners' Chronicle.

28

WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC.,

Geology and Genesis Harmonised.

THE TWIN RECORDS of CREATION; or, Geology and Genesis, their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By George W. Victor Le Vaux. With numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, price 5.C cloth.

"We can recommend Mr. Le Vaux as an able and interesting guide to a popular appreciation of geological science."—Spectator.

"The author combines an unbounded admiration of science with an unbounded admiration of the Written Record."—London Review.

Geology, Physical.

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. (Partly based on Major-General Portlock's Rudiments of Geology.) By Ralph Tate, F.G.S. Numerous Woodcuts. 12mo, 2s.

Geology, Historical.

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. (Partly based on Major-General Portlock's Rudiments of Geology.) By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. Numerous Woodcuts. 12mo, 2s. 6d.

*** Or Physical and Historical Geology, bound in One Volume, price 5s.

Wood- Carving.

INSTRUCTIONS in WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs; with Hints on Design. By A Lady. In emblematic wrapper, handsomely printed, with Ten large Plates, price 2s. 6d.

" The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from 'A Lady's' publication."—Athenceum.

"A real practical guide. It is very complete."—Literary Churchman.

"The directions given are plain and easily understood, and it forms a very good introduction to the practical part of the carver's art."—English Mechanic.

Popular Work on Painting.

PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED; with Historical Sketches of the Progress of the Art. By Thomas John Gullick, Painter, and John Timbs, F.S.A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. With Frontispiece and Vignette. In small 8vo, 6s. cloth.

*** This Work has been adopted as a Prize-book in the Schools of Art at South Kensington.

"A work that may be advantageously consulted. Much may he learned, even by those who fancy they do not require to be taught, from the careful perusal of this unpretending but comprehensive treatise."—Art Journal.

A valuable book, which supplies a want. It contains a large amount of original matter, agreeably conveyed, and will be found of value, as well by the young artist seeking information as by the general reader. We give a cordial welcome to the book, and augur for it an increasing reputation."—Builder,

Grammar of Colouring.

A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING, applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New edition, enlarged and adapted to the use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer, by Ellis A. Davidson. With new Coloured Diagrams and numerous Engravings on Wood. 12mo, 3s. cloth boards.

"One of the most useful of student's books, and probably the best known of the few we have on the subject."—Architect.

"The book is a most useful rèsumè of the properties of pigments."—Builder.

"This treatise forms a most valuable vade mecum for the ornamental painter and designer."—Scotsman.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

29

Delamotte's Works on Illumination & Alphabets.

A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION; for the use of Beginners: with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for its Exercise, and numerous Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Delamotte. Small 4to, price 9s. Elegantly bound, cloth antique.

"A handy book, beautifully illustrated ; the text of which is well written, and calculated to be useful. . . . The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, as well as taste."- Athenæum.

ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT and MEDIEVAL ; from the Eighth Century, with Numerals ; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c. &c, for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. &c. &c. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Royal 8vo, oblong, price 4s. cloth.

" A well-known engraver and draughtsman has enrolled in this useful book the. result of many years' study and research. For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop-doors, who letter church. walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be useful."— Athenæum.

EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN and ORNAMENTAL; including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque; with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Royal 8vo, oblong, price 4s. cloth.

"To artists of all classes, but more especially to architects and engravers, this very handsome book will be invaluable. There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the vapious plain and ornamental letters is wonderful."— Standard .

MEDIÆVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMINATORS. By F. Delamotte, Illuminator, Designer, and Engraver on Wood. Containing 21 Plates, and Illuminated Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. Willis Brooks. Small 4to, 6s. cloth gilt.

"A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the colours of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled, sometimes with a sort of rainbow arabesque. A poem emblazoned in these characters would be only comparable to one of those delicious love letters symbolized in a bunch of flowers well selected and cleverly arranged."— Sun.

THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN ; containing Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, 2s. 6d. in ornamental boards.

WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.,

30

AGRICULTURE, &c.

Youatt and Burn's Complete Grazier.

THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLEBREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry. By William Youatt, Esq., V.S. 11th Edition, enlarged by Robert Scott Burn, Author of "The Lessons of My Farm," &c. One large 8vo volume, 784 pp. with 215 Illustrations. 1l. 1s. half-bd.

"The standard and text-book, with the farmer and grazier."— Farmer's Magazine. "A treatise which will remain a standard work on the subject as long as British agriculture endures."—Mark Lane Express.

Spooner on Sheep.

SHEEP; THE HISTORY, STRUCTURE, ECONOMY, AND DISEASES OF. By W. C. Spooner, M.R.V.C., &c. Third Edition, considerably enlarged; with numerous fine engravings, including some specimens of New and Improved Breeds. Fcp. 8vo, 366 pp., price 6s. cloth.

"The book is decidedly the best of the kind in our language."— Scotsman.

"Mr. Spooner has conferred upon the agricultural class a lasting benefit by embodying in this work the improvements made in sheep stock by such men as Humphreys, Rawlence, Howard, and others."—Hampshire Advertiser.

"The work should be in possession of every flock-master."—Banbury Guardian.

Scott Bum's System of Modern Farming.

OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. Soils, Manures, and Crops—Farming and Farming Economy, Historical and Practical —Cattle, Sheep, and Horses—Management of the Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry, with Notes on the Diseases of Stock —Utilisation of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, and Reclamation of Waste Land. New Edition. In I vol. 1250 pp., half-bound, profusely illustrated, price 12s.

"There is sufficient stated within the limits of this treatise to prevent a farmer from going far wrong in any of his operations."—Observer.

Horton's Underwood and Woodland Tables.

TABLES FOR PLANTING AND VALUING UNDERWOOD AND WOODLAND; also Lineal, Superficial, Cubical, Wages, Marketing, and Decimal Tables. Together with Tables for Converting Land-measure from one denomination to another, and instructions for Measuring Round Timber. By Richard Horton. 12mo. 2s. strongly bound in leather.

Good Gardening.

A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING; or, How to Grow Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. With Practical Notes on Soils, Manures, Seeds, Planting, Laying-out of Gardens and Grounds, and on the various kinds of Garden Structures. By Samuel Wood (late gardener to Sir B. P. Wrey, Bart.), Author of 'Gardening for the Cottage.' Second Edition, with very considerable Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, pp. 416, cloth elegant, price 5s.

"A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide. The practical directions are excellent."—Atheneeum.

"A thoroughly useful guidebook for the amateur gardener who may want to make his plot of land not merely pretty, but useful and profitable."—Daily Telegraph,

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

31

Ewart's Land Improver's Pocket-Book.

THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FORMULAE, TABLES, and MEMORANDA, required in any Computation relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Property. By John Ewart, Land Surveyor and Agricultural Engineer. Royal 32mo, oblong, leather, gilt edges, with elastic band, 4s.

"A compendium long required by land surveyors, agricultural engineers, &c."— Sussex Daily News.

"It is admirably calculated to serve the purpose for which it was intended."— Scotsman.

"A compendious and handy little volume. ,, — Spectator.

Hudson's Tables for Land Valuers.

THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT: being Tables, on a very much improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. To which are added, Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure; also, Tables of Square Measure, and of the various Dimensions of an Acre in Perches and Yards, by which the Contents of any Plot of Ground may be ascertained without the expense of a regular Survey; &c. By R. Hudson, C.E. New Edition, royal 32mo, oblong, leather, gilt edges, with elastic band, 4s.

"Of incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional man."—Farmer"s Journal.

Complete Agricultural Surveyor's Pocket-Book.

THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COMPLETE POCKET-BOOK; consisting of the above two works bound together, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 7s. 6d.

The above forms an unequalled and most compendious Pocket Vade-mecum for the Land Agent and Agricultural Engineer.

"We consider Hudson's book to be the best ready-reckoner on matters relating to the valuation of land and crops we have ever seen, and its combination with Mr. Ewart's work greatly enhances the value and usefulness of the latter-mentioned. It is most useful as a manual for reference to those for whom it is intended."— North of England Farmer.

House Property.

HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY: a Popular and Practical Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and Land; including the Law of Dilapidations and Fixtures; with Explanations and Examples of all kinds of Valuations, and useful Information and Advice on Building. By Edward Lance Tarbuck, Architect and Surveyor. 12mo, 5s. cloth boards.

"We are glad to be able to recommend it."—Builder.

"The advice is thoroughly practical."—Law Journal.

Scott Burn's Introduction to Farming.

THE LESSONS of MY FARM: a Book for Amateur Agriculturists, being an Introduction to Farm Practice, in the Culture of Crops, the Feeding of Cattle, Management of the Dairy, Poultry, and Pigs, and in the Keeping of Farm-work Records. By Robert Scott Burn. With numerous Illustrations. Fcp. 6s. cloth.

"A most complete introduction to the whole round of farming practice."—John Bull.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO.

32

"A Complete Epitome of the Laws of this Country."

EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER; a Handy-Book of the Principles of Law and Equity. By A Barrister. 13th Edition, Revised to the end of last Session. Including a Summary of the Judicature Acts, 1873 and 1875, and the principal Acts of the past Session, viz., —The Explosive Acts, The Sale of Food and Drugs Act, The Public Health Act, &c., &c. With Notes and References to the Authorities. 12mo, price 6s. 8d. (saved at every consultation), strongly bound.

COMPRISING THE LAWS OF

Bankruptcy—Bills of Exchange—Contracts and Agreements—Copyright —Dower and Divorce —Elections and Registration—Insurance—Libel and Slander—Mortgages—Settlements—Stock Exchange Practice — Trade Marks and Patents—Trespass, Nuisances, etc. —Transfer of Land, etc. —Warranty—Wills and Agreements, etc. Also Law for Landlord and Tenant—Master and Servant—Workmen and Apprentices—Heirs, Devisees, and Legatees—Husband and Wife—Executors and Trustees —Guardian and Ward —Married Women and Infants —Partners and Agents—Lender and Borrower—Debtor and Creditor—Purchaser and Vendor —Companies and Associations —Friendly Societies—Clergymen, Churchwardens —Medical Practitioners, &c.—Bankers —Farmers—Contractors—Stock and Share Brokers—Sportsmen and Gamekeepers—Farriers and Horse-Dealers—Auctioneers, House-Agents— Innkeepers, &c.—Pawnbrokers—Surveyors—Railways and Carriers, &c. &c.

"No Englishman ought to be without this book."—Engineer.

"A useful and concise epitome of the law."—Law Magazine.

"What it professes to be—a complete epitome of the laws of this country, thoroughly intelligible to non-professional readers."—Bell's Life.

Auctioneer's Assistant.

THE APPRAISER, AUCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE "AND ESTATE AGENT, AND VALUER'S POCKET ASSISTANT, for the Valuation for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities, and Reversions, and of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By John Wheeler, Valuer, &c. Third Edition, enlarged, by C. Norris. Royal 32mo, cloth, 5s.

A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearlyarranged list of prices for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c."— Standard.

Pawnbroker s Legal Guide.

THE PAWNBROKER'S, FACTOR'S, and MERCHANT'S GUIDE to the LAW of LOANS and PLEDGES. By H. C. Folkard, Esq., Barrister-at-Law, Author of the "Law of Slander and Libel," &c. 12mo, cloth boards, price 7s.

The Laws of Mines and Mining Companies.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE on the LAW RELATING to MINES and MINING COMPANIES. By Whitton Arundell, Attorney-at-Law. Crown 8vo, cloth.

Cotmty Court Statutes.

THE COUNTY COURT STATUTES, from 1846 to 1875, with the new Consolidated Orders, Forms, Fees, and Costs, Practical Notes, and very full Index. By G. Manlev Wetherfield, Solicitor, Author of "Mayor's Court Procedure," "Liquidation and Compositions," &c. 12mo, pp. 600, cloth 10s. 6d.

Bradbury, Agnew, & Co., Printers, Whitefriars, London.

THE PRIZE MEDAL, INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862, was awarded to the Publishers of "Weale's Series."

A NEW LIST OF WEALE'S

RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC, EDUCATIONAL, AND CLASSICAL SERIES.

These popular and cheap Series of Books, now comprising nearly Three Hundred distinct works in almost every department of Science, Art, and Education, are recommended to ike notice of Engineers, Architects, Builders, Artisans, and Students generally, as well as to those interested in Workmen , s Libraries, free Libraries,

Literary and Scientific Institutions, Colleges, Schools, Science classes, &c., &c.

N.B. —In ordering front this List it is recommended, as a means of facilitating business and obviating error, to quote the numbers affixed to the volumes, as well as the titles and prices.

*** The books are bound in limp cloth, unless otherwise stated.

RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC SERIES.

ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC.

No.

16. ARCHITECTURE —ORDERS—The Orders and their Esthetic Principles. By W. H. Leeds. Illustrated, is. 6d.

17. ARCHITECTURE —STYLES—The History and Description of the Styles of Architecture of Various Countries, from the Earliest to the Present Period. By T. Talbot Bury, F.R.I.B.A., &c. Illustrated. 2s.

*** Orders and Styles of Architecture, in One Vol., 35-. 6d.

18. ARCHITECTURE—.DESIGN—The Principles of Design in Architecture, as deducible from Nature and exemplified in the Works of the Greek and Gothic Architects. By E. L. Garbett, Architect. Illustrated. 2s.

***The three preceding Works, in One handsome Vol., half bound, entitled "Modern Architecture," Price 6s.

22. THE ART OF BUILDING, Rudiments of. General Principles of Construction, Materials used in Building, Strength and Use of Materials, Working Drawings, Specifications, and Estimates. By Edward Dobson, M.R.I.B.A., &c. Illustrated, 1s. 6d.

23. BRICKS AND TILES, Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufacture of; containing an Outline of the Principles of Brickmaking. By Edw. Dobson, M.R.I.B.A. With Additions by C. Tomlinson,F.R.S. Illustrated, 3s.

25. MASONRY AND STONE CUTTING, Rudimentary Treatise on; in which the Principles of Masonic Projection and their application to the Construction of Curved Wing-Walls, Domes, Oblique Bridges, and Roman and Gothic Vaulting, are concisely explained. By Edward Dobson, M.R.I.B.A., &c. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. 2s. 6d.

44. FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS, a Rudimentary Treatise on; containing a Synopsis of the principal cases of Foundation Works, with the usual Modes of Treatment, and Practical Remarks on Footings, Planking, Sand, Concrete, Bèton, Pile-driving, Caissons, and Cofferdams. By E. Dobson, M.R.I.B.A., &c. Fourth Edition, revised by George Dodd, C.E. Illustrated, is. 6d.

CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO. ; 7 , STATIONERS , HALL COURT, E.O.

WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES.

2

Architecture, Building, etc., continued.

42. COTTAGE BUILDING. By C. Bruce Allen, Architect. Eleventh Edition, revised and enlarged. Numerous Illustrations, is. 6d.

45. LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, CONCRETES, MASTICS, PLASTERING, &c, Rudimentary Treatise on. By G. R. Burnell, C.E. Ninth Edition, with Appendices, 1s. 6d.

57. WARMING AND VENTILATION, a Rudimentary Treatise on; being , a concise Exposition of the General Principles of the Art ofWarming and Ventilating Domestic and Public Buildings, Mines, Lighthouses, Ships, &c. By Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S., &c. Illustrated. 3s.

83**. CONSTRUCTION OF DOOR LOCKS. Compiled from the Papers of A. C. Hobbs, Esq., of New York, and Edited by Charles TomLinson, F.R.S. To which is added, a Description of Fenby's Patent Locks, and a Note upon Iron Safes by Robert Mallet, M.I.C.E. Illus. 2s. 6d.

III. ARCHES, PIERS, BUTTRESSES, &c.: Experimental Essays on the Principles of Construction in; made with a view to their being useful to the Practical Builder. By William Bland. Illustrated, 1s. 6d.

116. THE ACOUSTICS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS; or, The Principles of the Science of Sound applied to the purposes of the Architect and Builder. By T. Roger Smith, M.R.I.B.A., Architect. Illustrated, is. 6d.

124. CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS, Treatise on the, as regards Carpentry and Joinery. Deduced from the Works of Robison, Price, and Tredgold. Illustrated, 1s. 6d.

127. ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING IN PAPER, the Art of. By T. A. Richardson, Architect. With Illustrations, designed by the Author, and engraved by O. Jewitt. 1s. 6d.

128. VITRUVIUS—THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLO. In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. With 23 Plates. 5s.

130. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in ; with a Historical View of the Rise and Progress of the Art in Greece. By the Earl of Aberdeen, 1s.

*** The two Preceding Works in One handsome Vol., half bound, entitled "Ancient Architecture." Price 6s.

132. DWELLING-HOUSES, a Rudimentary Treatise on the Erection of. By S. H. Brooks, Architect. New Edition, with Plates. 2s. 6d.

156. QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENTS, How to Calculate and Take them in Bricklayers', Masons', Plasterers', Plumbers', Painters', Paperhangers', Gilders , , Smiths', Carpenters', and Joiners' Work. By A. C. Beaton, Architect and Surveyor. New and Enlarged Edition. Illus. is. 6d.

175. LOCKWOOD & CO'S BUILDER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S PRICE BOOK, with which, is incorporated Atchley's and portions of the late G. R. Burneli's "Builder's Price Books," for 1876, containingthe latest Prices of all kinds of Builders , Alaterials and Labour, and of all Trades connected with Building: with many useful and important Memoranda and Tables; Lists of the Members of the Metropolitan Board of Works, of Districts, District Officers, and District Surveyors, and the Metropolitan Bye-laws. The whole Revised and Edited by Francis T. W. Miller, Architect and Surveyor. 3s. 6d.

182. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY -The Elementary Principles of Carpentry. Chiefly composed from the Standard Work of Thomas Tredgold, C.E. With Additions from the Works of the most Recent Authorities, and a TREATISE ON JOINERY by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A. Numerous Illustrations. 3s. 6d.

182*. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. ATLAS of 35 Plates to accompany the foregoing book. "With Descriptive Letterpress. 4to. 6s.

187. HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wightwick. Author of "The Palace of Architecture," &c. &c. New, Revised, and enlarged Edition. By G. Huskisson Guillaume, Architect. With numerous Woodcuts. 3s. 6d, [Just published.

LONDON: CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO.,

WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES.

3

Architecture, Building, etc., continued.

188. HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, SIGN WRITING: A Practical Manual of, containing full information on the Processes of House Painting in Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary Drawing for House Painters, Writers, &c., and a Collection of Useful Receipts. With 9 Coloured Plates of Woods and Marbles, and nearly 150 Wood Engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson, Author of "Building Construction," "Drawing for Carpenters," &c. 5s.

[Just published.

189. THE RUDIMENTS OF PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING. In Six Sections: General Principles of Bricklaying; Arch Drawing, Cutting, and Setting; different kinds of Pointing; Paving, Tiling, Materials; Slating and Plastering; Practical Geometry, Mensuration, &c. By Adam Hammond. Illustrated with 68 Woodcuts, 1s. 6d. [Justpublished.

191. PLUMBING. A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. With Supplementary Chapters upon House Drainage, embodying the latest Improvements. Containing about 300 Illustrations. By William Paton Buchan, Practical and Consulting Sanitary Plumber; Mem. of Coun. San. and Soc. Econ. Sec. of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 3s. [Just published.

192. THE TiMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE; comprising copious and valuable Memoranda for the Retailer and Builder. By Richard E. Grandy. Second Edition, Revised. 3s.

CIVIL ENGINEERING, ETC.

13. CIVIL ENGINEERING, the Rudiments of; for the Use of Beginners, for Practical Engineers, and for the Army and Navy. By Henry Law, C.E. Including a Section on Hydraulic Engineering, by George R. Burnell, C.E. 5th Edition, with Notes and Illustrations by Robert Mallet, A.M., F.R.S. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. 5s.

29. THE DRAINAGE OF DISTRICTS AND LANDS. By G. Drysdale Dempsey, C.E. New Edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated, Is. 6d.

30. THE DRAINAGE OF TOWNS AND BUILDINGS. By G. Drysdale Dempsey, C.E. New Edition. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.

, With" Drainage of Districts and Lands" in One Vol., 3s. 6d. 31. WELL-DIGGING, BORING, AND PUMP-WORK. By John George Swindell, Assoc. R.I.B.A. New Edition, revised by G. R. Burnell, C.E. Illustrated. Is.6d.

35. THE BLASTING AND QUARRYING OF STONE, for Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on the Blowing- up of Bridges. By Gen. Sir John Burgoyne, Bart., K.C.B. Illustrated, is. 6d.

43. TUBULAR AND OTHER IRON GIRDER BRIDGES. Particularly describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. With a Sketch of Iron Bridges, and Illustrations of the Application of Malleable Iron to the Art of Bridge Building. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E., New Edition, with Illustrations, 1s. 6d.

62. RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION, Elementary and Practical Instruction on the Science of. By Sir Macdonald Stephenson, C.E. [New Edition, revised and enlarged by Edward Nugent, C.E. Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 3s.

80*. EMBANKING LANDS FROM THE SEA, the Practice of. Treated as a Means of Profitable Employment for Capital. With Examples and Particulars of actual Embankments, and also Practical Remarks on the Repair of old Sea Walls. By John Wiggins, F.G.S. New Edition, with Notes by Robert Mallet, F.R.S. 2s.

81. WATER WORKS, for the Supply of Cities and Towns. With a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as influencing Supplies of Water; and Details of Engines and Pumping Machinery for raising Water. By Samuel Hughes, F.G.S., C.E. New Edition, revised and enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. 4s.

82**. GAS WORKS, and the Practice of Manufacturing and Distributing Coal Gas. By Samuel Hughes, C.E. New Edition, revised by W. Richards, C.E. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.

7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.C.

WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES.

4

Civil Engineering, etc., continued.

117. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING; an Elementary and Practical Treatise on. By Thomas Fenwick. Also the Method of Conducting Subterraneous Surveys without the Use of the Magnetic Needle, and other modern Improvements. By Thomas Baker, C.E. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.

118. CIVIL ENGINEERING IN NORTH AMERICA, a Sketch of. By David Stevenson, F.R.S.E., &c. Plates and Diagrams. 3s.

121. RIVERS AND TORRENTS. With the Method of Regulating their Courses and Channels. By Professor Paul Frisi, F.R.S., of Milan. To which is added, AN ESSAY ON NAVIGABLE CANALS. Translated by Major-General John Garstin, of the Bengal Engineers. Plates. 2s. 6d.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ETC.

33. CRANES, the Construction of, and other Machinery for Raising Heavy Bodies for the Erection of Buildings, and for Hoisting Goods. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S., &c. Illustrated, is. 6d.

34. THE STEAM ENGINE, a Rudimentaiy Treatise on. By Dr. Lardner. Illustrated, 1s. 6d.

59. STEAM BOILERS: their Construction and Management. By R. Armstrong, C.E. Illustrated, 1s. 6d.

63. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING: Farm Buildings, Motive Power, Field Machines, Machinery, and Implements. By G. H. Andrews, C.E. Illustrated. 3s.

67. CLOCKS, WATCHES, AND BELLS, a Rudimentary Treatise on. By Sir Edmund Beckett (late Edmund Beckett Denison, LL.D., Q.C.) A new, Revised, and considerably Enlarged Edition (the 6th), with very numerous Illustrations. 4s. 6d. Just published.

77*. THE ECONOMY OF FUEL, particularly with Reference to Reverbatory Furnaces for the Manufacture of Iron, and to Steam Boilers. By T. Symes Prideaux. is. 6d.

82. THE POWER OF WATER, as applied to drive Flour Mills, and to give motion to Turbines and other Hydrostatic Engines. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S., &c. New Edition, Illustrated. 2s.

98. PRACTICAL MECHANISM, the Elements of; and Machine Tools. By T. Baker, C.E. With Remarks on Tools and Machinery, by J. Nasmyth, C.E. Plates. 2s. 6d.

114. MACHINERY, Elementary Principles of, in its Construction and Working. Illustrated by numerous Examples of Modern Machinery for different Branches of Manufacture. By C. D. Abel, C.E. 1s. 6d.

15. ATLAS OF PLATES. Illustrating the above Treatise. By C. D. Abel, C.E. 7s. 6d.

125. THE COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE, Chemically and Practically Considered. With an Appendix. By C. Wye Williams, A.I.C.E. Plates. 3s.

139. THE STEAM ENGINE, a Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of, with Rules at length, and Examples for the Use of Practical Men. By T. Baker, C.E. Illustrated, is. 6d.

162. THE BRASS FOUNDER'S MANUAL; Instructions for Modelling, Pattern-Making, Moulding, Turning, Filing, Burnishing, Bronzing, &c. With copious Receipts, numerous Tables, and Notes on Prime Costs and Estimates. By Walter Graham. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.

164. MODERN WORKSHOP PRACTICE, as applied to Marine, Land, and Locomotive Engines, Floating Docks, Dredging Machines, Bridges, Cranes, Ship-building, &c., &c. By J. G. Winton. Illustrated. 3s.

165. IRON AND HEAT exhibiting the Principles concerned in the Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By J. Armour, C.E. 2s. 6d.

LONDON: CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO.,

WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES.

5

Mechanical Engineering, etc., continued.

166. POWER IN MOTION: Horse-Power, Motion, Toothed-Wheel Gearing, Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular Forces. By James Armour, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. 2s. 6d.

167. THE APPLICATION OF IRON TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, AND OTHER WORKS. Showing the Principles upon which such Structures are designed, and their Practical Application. By Francis Campin, C.E. Second Edition, revised and corrected. Numerous Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.

171. THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING DRAWING. By John Maxton, Engineer, Instructor in Engineering , Drawing, Royal Naval College, Greenwich, formerly of R.S.N. A., South Kensington. Third Edition. Illustrated with 7 Plates and nearly 350 Woodcuts. 3s. 6d.

190. STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, Stationary and Portable. An elementary treatise on. Being an extension of Mr. John Sewell's "Treatise on Steam." By D. Kinnear Clark, C.E., M.I.C.E. Author of "Railway Machinery," "Railway Locomotives," &c, &c. With, numerous Illustrations. 3s. 6d. [Just published.

SHIPBUILDING, NAVIGATION, MARINE ENGINEERING, ETC.

51. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, the Rudiments of; or, an Exposition of the Elementary Principles of the Science, and their Practical Application to Naval Construction. Compiled for the Use of Beginners. By Tames Peake, School of Naval Architecture, H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth. Fourth Edition, corrected, with Plates and Diagrams. 3s. 6d.

53*. SHIPS FOR OCEAN AND RIVER SERVICE, Elementary and Practical Principles of the Construction of. By Hakon A. SommerFELDT, Surveyor of the Royal Norwegian Navy. With an Appendix, is.

53**. AN ATLAS OF ENGRAVINGS to Illustrate the above. Twelve large folding plates. Royal 4to, cloth. 7s. 6d.

54. MASTING, MAST-MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS, Rudimentary Treatise on. Also Tables of Spars, Rigging, Blocks; Chain, Wire, and Hemp Ropes, &c, relative to every class of vessels. Together with an Appendix of Dimensions of Masts and Yards of the Royal Navy of Great Britain and Ireland. By Robert Kipping, N.A. Thirteenth Edition. Illustrated, is. 6d.

54*. IRON SHIP-BUILDING. With Practical Examples and Details for the Use of Ship Owners and Ship Builders. By John Grantham, Consulting Engineer and Naval Architect. Fifth Edition, with important Additions. 4s.

54**. AN ATLAS OF FORTY PLATES to Illustrate the above. Fifth Edition. Including the latest Examples, such as H.M. Steam Frigates "Warrior," "Hercules," "Bellerophon;" H.M. Troop Ship "Serapis," Iron Floating Dock, &c, &c. 4to, boards. 38s.

55. THE SAILOR'S SEA BOOK: a Rudimentary Treatise on Navigation. 1. How to Keep the Log and Work it off. 11. On Finding the Latitude and Longitude. By James Greenwood, 8.A., of Jesus College, Cambridge. To which are added, Directions for Great Circle Sailing; an Essay on the Law of Storms and Variable Winds ; and Explanations of Terms used in Ship-building. Ninth Edition, with several Engravings and Coloured Illustrations of the Flags of Maritime Nations. 2s.

80. MARINE ENGINES, AND STEAM VESSELS, a Treatise on. Together with Practical Remarks on the Screw and Propelling Power, as used in the Royal and Merchant Navy. By Robert Murray, C.E., Engineer-Surveyor to the Board of Trade. With a Glossary of Technical Terms, and their Equivalents in French, German, and Spanish. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. 3s.

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Shipbuilding, Navigation, etc., continued.

83bis. THE FORMS OF SHIPS AND BOATS: Hints, Experimentally Derived, on some of the Principles regulating Ship-building. By W. Bland. Sixth Edition, revised, with numerous Illustrations and Models, is. 6d.

99. NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. in Theory and Practice. With Attempts to facilitate the Finding of the Time and the Longitude at Sea. By J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.

100*. TABLES intended to facilitate the Operations of Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, as an Accompaniment to the above Book. By J. R. Young, is. 6d.

106. SHIPS' ANCHORS, a Treatise on. By George Cotselx, N.A. Illustrated, is. 6d.

149. SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING, an Elementary Treatise on. With Draughting, and the Centre of Effort of the Sails. Also, Weights and Sizes ot Ropes; Masting, Rigging-, and Sails of Steam Vessels, &c, &c. Tenth Edition, enlarged, with an Appendix. By Robert Kipping, N.A., Sailmaker, Quayside, Newcastle. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.

155. THE ENGINEER'S GUIDE TO THE ROYAL AND MERCANTILE NAVIES. By a Practical Engineer. Revised by D. F. M'Carthy, late of the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. 3s.

PHYSICAL SCIENCE, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, ETC.

1. CHEMISTRY, for the Use of Beginners. By Professor George Fownes, F.R.S. With an Appendix, on the Application of Chemistry to Agriculture, is.

2. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, Introduction to the Study of; for the Use of Beginners. By C. Tomlinson, Lecturer on Natural Science in King's College School, London. Woodcuts, is. 6d.

4. MINERALOGY, Rudiments of; a concise View of the Properties of Minerals. By A. Ramsay, Jun. Woodcuts and Steel Plates. 3s.

6. MECHANICS, Rudimentary Treatise on; being a concise Exposition of the General Principles of Mechanical Science, and their Applications. By Charles Tomlinson, Lecturer on Natural Science in King's College School, London. Illustrated, is. 6d.

7. ELECTRICITY; showing the General Principles of Electrical Science, and the purposes to which it has been applied. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.R.S., &c. With considerable Additions by R. Sabine, C.E., F.S.A. Woodcuts, is. 6d.

7*. GALVANISM, Rudimentary Treatise on, and the General Principles of Animal and Voltaic Electricity. By Sir W. Snow Harris. New Edition, revised, with considerable Additions, by Robert Sabine, C.E., F.S.A. Woodcuts, is. 6d.

8. MAGNETISM; being a concise Exposition of the General Principles of Magnetical Science, and the Purposes to which it has been applied. By Sir W. Snow Harris. New Edition, revised and enlarged by H. M. Noad, Ph.D., Vice-President of the Chemical Society, Author of "A Manual of Electricity," &c, &c. With 165 Wooocuts. 3s. 6d.

11. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH; its History and Progress; with Descriptions of some of the Apparatus. ByR. Sabine, C.E., F.S.A., &c. Woodcuts. 3s.

12. PNEUMATICS, for the Use of Beginners. By Charles Tomlinson. Illustrated, 1s. 6d.

72. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSC A; a Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. Woodward, A.L.S. With Appendix by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. With numerous Plates and 300 Woodcuts, 6s. 6d. Cloth boards, 7s. 6d.

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Physical Science, Natural Philosophy, etc., continued.

79**. PHOTOGRAPHY, Popular Treatise on; with a Description of the Stereoscope, &c. Translated from the French of D. Van Monckhoven, by W. H. Thornthwaite, Ph.D. Woodcuts, is. 6d.

96. ASTRONOMY. By the Rev. R. Main, M.A., F.R.S., Sec. New and enlarged Edition, with an Appendix on " Spectrum Analysis." Woodcuts, is. 6d.

97. STATICS AND DYNAMICS, the Principles and Practice of; embracing also a clear development of Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, and Central Forces. By T. Baker, C.E. is. 6d.

138. TELEGRAPH, Handbook of the; a Manual of Telegraphy, Telegraph Clerks' Remembrancer, and Guide to Candidates for Employment in the Telegraph Service. By R. Bond. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged: to which is appended, QUESTIONS on MAGNETISM, ELECTRICITY, and PRACTICAL TELEGRAPHY, for the Use of Students, by W. McGregor, First Assistant Superintendent, Indian Gov. Telegraphs. Woodcuts. 3s.

143. EXPERIMENTAL ESSAYS. By Charles Tomlinson. I. On the Motions of Camphor on Water. 11. On the Motion of Camphor towards the Light. 111. Historyof the Modern Theory of Dew. Woodcuts, is.

173. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY, partly based on Major-General Portlock's "Rudiments of Geology." By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., &c. Numerous Woodcuts. 2S.

174. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY, partly based on Major-General Portlock's "Rudiments." By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., &c. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.

173 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, Physical and & Historical. Partly based on Major-General Portlock's "Rudiments of j Geology." By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S., &c., &c. Numerous Illustrations. In One Volume. 4s. 6d.

183. ANIMAL PHYSICS, Handbook of. By Dionysius Lardner, &c, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. With 520 Illustrations. In One Volume, cloth 184. boards. 7s. 6d.

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183. Animal Physics. By Dr. Lardner. Part 1., Chapter I —VII. 4s.

184. Animal Physics. By Dr. Lardner. Part 11. Chapter VIII —XVIII. 3s.

MINING, METALLURGY, ETC.

117. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practical Treatise on, with and without the Magnetic Needle. By Thomas Fenwick, Surveyor of Mines, and Thomas Baker, C.E. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.

133. METALLURGY OF COPPER; an Introduction to the Methods of Seeking, Mining, and Assaying Copper, and Manufacturing its Alloys. By Robert H. Lamborn, Ph.D. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.

134. METALLURGY OF SILVER AND LEAD. A Description of the Ores; their Assay and Treatment, and valuable Constituents. By Dr. R. H. Lamborn. Woodcuts. 2s.

135. ELECTRO-METALLURGY; Practically Treated. By Alexander Watt, F.R.S.S.A. New Edition. Woodcuts. 2s.

172. MINING TOOLS, Manual of. For the Use of Mine Managers, Agents, Students, &c. Comprising Observations on the Materials from, and Processes by which they are manufactured; their Special Uses, Applications, Qualities, and Efficiency. By William Morgans, Lecturer on Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. 2s. 6d.

172*. MINING TOOLS, ATLAS of Engravings to Illustrate the above, containing 235 Illustrations of Mining Tools, drawn to Scale. 4to. 4s. 6d.

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176. METALLURGY OF IRON, a Treatise on the. Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. 4s. 6d.

180. COAL AND COAL MINING: A Rudimentary Treatise on. By Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. New Edition, revised and corrected. With numerous Illustrations. 3s. 6d.

EMIGRATION.

154. GENERAL HINTS TO EMIGRANTS. Containing Notices of the various Fields for Emigration. With Hints on Preparation for 'Emigrating, Outfits, &c, &c. With Directions and Recipes useful to the Emigrant. With a Map of the World. 2s.

157. THE EMIGRANT'S GUIDE TO NATAL. By Robert J.James Mann, F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Second Edition, carefully corrected to the present Date. Map. 2s.

159. THE EMIGRANT'S GUIDE TO AUSTRALIA, New South Wales, Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, and Queensland. By the Rev. James Baird, B.A. Map. 2s. 6d.

160. THE EMIGRANT'S GUIDE TO TASMANIA and NEW ZEALAND. By the Rev. James Baird, B.A. With a Map. 2s.

159 & THE EMIGRANT'S GUIDE TO AUSTRALASIA. By the 160. Rev. J. Baird, B.A. Comprising the above two volumes, i2rao, cloth boards. With Maps of Australia and New Zealand. 5s.

AGRICULTURE.

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63. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING: Farm Buildings, Motive Powers and Machinery of the Steading, Field Machines, and Implements. By G. H. Andrews, C.E. Illustrated. 3s.

66. CLAY LANDS AND LOAMY SOILS. By Professor Donaldson, is.

131. MILLER'S, MERCHANTS, FARMER'S READY RECKONER, for ascertaining at sight the value of any quantity of Corn, from One Bushel to One Hundred Quarters, at any given price, from £1 to £5 per quarter. Together with the approximate values of Millstones and Millwork, &c. is.

140. SOIL MANURES, AND CROPS. (Vol. 1. Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts. 2s.

141. FARMING AND FARMING ECONOMY, Notes, Historical and Practical, on. (Vol. 2. Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R.Scott Burn. Woodcuts. 3s.

142. STOCK; CATTLE, SHEEP, HORSES. (Vol. 3. Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.

145. DAIRY, PIGS, AND POULTRY, Management of the. By R. Scott Burn. With Notes on the Diseases of Stock. (Vol. 4. Outlines of Modern Farming.) Woodcuts. 2s.

146. UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, IRRIGATION, AND RECLAMATION OF WASTE LAND. (Vol. 5. Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.

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177. FRUIT TREES, The Scientific and Profitable Culture of. From the French of Du Breuil, Revised by Geo. Glenny. 187 Woodcuts. 3s. 6d.

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20. PERSPECTIVE FOR BEGINNERS. Adapted to Young Students and Amateurs in Architecture, Painting, &c. By George Pyne, Artist. Woodcuts. 2s.

40. GLASS STAINING; or, Painting on Glass, The Art of. Comprising Directions for Preparing - the Pigments and Fluxes, laying them upon [the Glass, and Firing or Burning in the Colours. From the German of Dr. Gessert. To which is added, an Appendix on The Art of Enamelling, &c. is.

41. PAINTING ON GLASS, the Art of. From the German of Emanuel Otto Fromberg. is.

69. MUSIC, A Rudimentary and Practical Treatise on. With numerous Examples. By Charles Child Spencer. 2s. 6d.

71. PIANOFORTE, The Art of Playing the. With numerous Exercises and Lessons. "Written and Selected from the Best Masters, by Charles Child Spencer, is. 6d.

181. PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED, including Fresco, Oil, Mosaic, Water Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, Miniature, Painting on Ivory, Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, &c. With Historical Sketches of the Progress of the Art by Thomas John Gullick, assisted by John Timbs, F.S.A. Third Edition, revised and enlarged, with Frontispiece and Vignette. 5s.

186. A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING, applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New Edition, enlarged and adapted to the Use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer. By Ellis A. Davidson, Author of "Drawing for Carpenters," &c. With two new Coloured Diagrams and numerous Engravings on Wood. 2S. 6d.

ARITHMETIC, GEOMETRY, MATHEMATICS, ETC.

32. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS, a Treatise on; in which their Construction and the Methods of Testing, Adjusting, and Using them are concisely Explained. By J. F. Heather, M.A., of the Royal Military Woolwich. Original Edition, in 1 vol., Illustrated, is. 6d.

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60. LAND AND ENGINEERING SURVEYING, a Treatise on; with all the Modern Improvements. Arranged for the Use of-Schools and Private Students; also for Practical Land Surveyors and Engineers. By T. Baker, C.E. New Edition, revised by Edward Nugent, C.E. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. 2s.

61*. READY RECKONER FOR THE ADMEASUREMENT OF LAND. By Arman, Schoolmaster, Thurleigh, Beds. To which is added a Table, showing the Price of Work, from 2s. 6d. to£1 per acre, and Tables for the Valuation of Land, from is. to £1,000 per acre, and from one pole to two thousand acres in extent, &c., &c. is. 6d.

76. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, an Elementary Treatise on; with a Theory of Shadows and of Perspective, extracted from the French of G. Monge. To which is added, a description of the Principles and Practice of Isometrical Projection; the whole being intended as an introduction to the Application of Descriptive Geometry to various branches of the Arts. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Illustrated with 14 Plates. 2s.

178. PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY: giving the Simplest Modes of Constructing Figures contained in one Plane and Geometrical Construction of the Ground. By J. F. Heather, M.A. With 215 Woodcuts. 2s.

179. PROJECTION: Orthographic, Topographic, and Perspective: giving the various Modes of Delineating Solid Forms by Constructions on a Single Plane Surface. By J. F. Heather, M.A. [In preparation.

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Arithmetic, Geometry, Mathematics, etc., continued.

83. COMMERCIAL BOOK-KEEPING. With Commercial Phrases [and Forms in English, French, Italian, and German. By James Haddon, M.A., Arithmetical Master of King's College School, London, is.

84. ARITHMETIC, a Rudimentary Treatise on: with full Explanations of its Theoretical Principles, and numerous Examples for Practice. For the Use of Schools and for Self-Instruction. By J. R. Young, late Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. New Edition, with Index, is. 6d.

84* A Key to the above, containing Solutions in full to the Exercises, together with Comments, Explanations, and Improved Processes, for the Use of Teachers and Unassisted Learners. By J. R. Young, is. 6d.

85. EQUATIONAL ARITHMETIC, applied to Questions of Interest, 85*. Annuities, Life Assurance, and General Commerce; with various Tables by which all Calculations may be greatly facilitated. By W. Hipsley. 2s.

86. ALGEBRA, the Elements of. By James Haddon, M.A., Second Mathematical Master of King's College School. With Appendix, containing miscellaneous Investigations, and a Collection of Problems in various parts of Algebra. 2s.

86* A Key and Companion to the above Book, forming an extensive repository of Solved Examples and Problems in Illustration of the various Expedients necessary in Algebraical Operations. Especially adapted for Self-Instruc-tion. By J. R. Young, is. 6d.

88. EUCLID, The Elements of: with many additional Propositions go, and Explanatory Notes: to which is prefixed, an Introductory Essay on Logic. By Henry Law, C.E. 2s. 6d.

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88. Euclid, The First Three Books. By Henry Law, C.E. is.

89. Euclid, Books 4, 5, 6, ix, 12. By Henry Law, C.E. is. 6d.

90. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND CONIC SECTIONS, a Rudimentary Treatise on. By James Hann, late Mathematical Master of King's College School, London. A New Edition, re-written and enlarged by J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics at Belfast College. 2s.

91. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY, the Elements of. By James Hann, formerly Mathematical Master of King's College, London, is.

92. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY, the Elements of. By James Hann. Revised by Charles H. Dowling, C.E. is.

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93. MENSURATION AND MEASURING, for Students and Practical Use. With the Mensuration and Levelling of Land for the Purposes of Modern Engineering. By T. Baker, C.E. New Edition, with Corrections and Additions by E. Nugent, C.E. Illustrated, is. 6d.

94. LOGARITHMS, a Treatise on; with Mathematical Tables for facilitating Astronomical, Nautical, Trigonometrical, and Logarithmic Calculations; Tables of Natural Sines and Tangents and Natural Cosines. By Henry Law, C.E. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.

101*. MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS OF ALL NATIONS, and an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan Calendars. By W. S. B. Woolhouse, F.R.A.S., &c. is. 6d.

102. INTEGRAL CALCULUS, Rudimentary Treatise on the. By Homersham Cox, B.A. Illustrated, is.

103. INTEGRAL CALCULUS, Examples on the. By James Hann, late of King's College, London. Illustrated, is.

101. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, Examples of the. By W. S. B. Woolhouse, F.R.A.S., &c. is. 6d.

104. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, Examples and Solutions of the. By James Haddon, M.A. is.

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Arithmetic, Geometry, Mathematics, etc., continued.

105. MNEMONICAL LESSONS. —Geometry, Algebra, and Trigonometry, in Easy Mncmonical Lessons. By the Rev. Thomas Penyngton Kirkman, M.A. is. 6d.

136. ARITHMETIC, Rudimentary, for the Use of Schools and SelfInstruction. By James Haddon, M.A. Revised by Abraham Arman. is. 6d.

137. A Key to Haddon's Rudimentary Arithmetic. By A. Arman. is. 6d.

147. ARITHMETIC, Stepping-Stone to; being a Complete Course of Exercises in the First Four Rules (Simple and Compound), on an entirely new principle. For the Use of Elementary Schools of every Grade. Intended as an Introduction to the more extended works on Arithmetic. By Abraham Arman. is.

148. A Key to Stepping-Stone to Arithmetic. By A. Arman , . is.

158. THE SLIDE RULE, AND HOW TO USE IT; containing full, easy, and simple Instructions to perform all Business Calculations with unexampled rapidity and accuracy. By Charles Hoare, C.E. With a Slide Rule in tuck of cover. 3s.

168. DRAWING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. Including—I. Instruments employed in Geometrical and Mechanical Drawing, and in the Construction, Copying", and Measurement of Maps and Plans, II.Instruments used for the purposes of Accurate Measurement, and for Arithmetical Computations. By J. F. Heather, M.A., late of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, Author of "Descriptive Geometry," &c., &c. Illustrated, is. 6d.

169. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. Including (more especially) Telescopes, Microscopes, and Apparatus for producing copies of Maps and Plans by Photography. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Illustrated, is. 6d.

170. SURVEYING AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. Including—l. Instruments Used for Determining the Geometrical Features of a portion of Ground. 11. Instruments Employed in Astronomical Observations. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Illustrated, is. 6d.

*** The above three volumes form an enlargement of the Author's original work, "Mathematicallnstruments: their Construction, Adjustment, Testing, and Use," the Eleventh Edition of which is on sale, price is, 6d. (See No. 32 in the Series.)

168. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS . By J. F. Heather, 169. M.A. Enlarged Edition, for the most part entirely re-written. The 3 Parts as 170. above, in One thick Volume. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth boards. 5s.

185. THE COMPLETE MEASURER; setting forth the Measurement of Boards, Glass, &c, Sec; Unequal-sided, Square-sided, Octagonalsided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing Timber. With just Allowances for the Bark in the respective species of Trees, and proper deductions for the waste in hewing the trees, &c.; also a Table showing the solidity of hewn or eight-sided timber, or of any octagonal-sided column. Compiled for the accommodation of Timber-growers, Merchants, and Surveyors, Stonemasons, Architects, and others. By Richard Horton. Third Edition, with considerable and valuable additions. 4s. [Just published.

LEGAL TREATISES.

50. THE LAW OF CONTRACTS FOR WORKS AND SERVICES. By David Gibbons. Third Edition, revised and considerably enlarged. 3s. [Just published.

151. A HANDY BOOK ON THE LAW OF FRIENDLY, INDUSTRIAL &- PROVIDENT BUILDING &• LOAN SOCIETIES. With copious Notes. By Nathaniel White, of H.M. Civil Service, is.

163. THE LAW OF PATENTS FOR INVENTIONS; and on the Protection of Designs and Trade Marks. By F. W. Campin, Barrister-at-Law. 2s.

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36. A DICTIONARY OF TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, ARCHEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &C. With Explanatory Observations on various Subjects connected with Applied Science and Art. By John Weale. Fifth Edition, revised and corrected. Edited by Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records, Editor of Ure's "Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines." Numerous Illustrations. 5s.

112. MANUAL OF DOMESTIC MEDICINE. By R. Gooding, 8.A., M.B. Intended as a Family Guide in all Cases of Accident and Emergency. 2s.

112*. MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH. A Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene. By the Rev. James Baird, B.A. is.

113. FIELD ARTILLERY ON SERVICE, on the Use of. With especial Reference to that of an Army Corps. For Officers of all Arms. By Taubert, Captain, Prussian Artillery. Translated from the German by Lieut.-Col. Henry Hamilton Maxwell, Bengal Artillery, is. 6d.

113*. SWORDS, AND OTHER ARMS used for Cutting and Thrusting, Memoir on. By Colonel Marev. Translated from the French by Colonel H. H. Maxwell. With Notes and Plates, is.

150. LOGIC, Pure and Applied. By S. H. Emmens. Third Edition, is. 6d.

152. PRACTICAL HINTS FOR INVESTING MONEY. With an Explanation of the Mode of Transacting Business on the Stock Exchange. By Francis Playford, Sworn Broker, is. 6d.

153. SELECTIONS FROM LOCKE'S ESSAYS ON THE HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. With Notes by S. H. Emmens. 2s.

193. HANDBOOK OF FIELD FORTIFICATION, intended forthe Guidance of Officers Preparing for Promotion, and especially adapted to the requirements of Beginners. By Major W. W. KNOLLYS, F.R.G.S., 93rd Sutherland Highlanders, &c. With 163 Woodcuts. 3s.

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49. Derivative Spelling-Book: Giving the Origin of Every Word from the Greek, Latin, Saxon, German, Teutonic, Dutch, French, Spanish, and other Languages ; with their present Acceptation and Pronunciation. By J. Rowbotham, F.R.A.S. Improved Edition, is. 6d.

51. The Art of Extempore Speaking: Hints for the Pulpit, the Senate, and the Bar. By M. Bautain, Vicar-General and Professor at the Sorbonnc. Translated from the French. Fifth Edition, carefully corrected. 2s. 6d.

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