E.—l2.
BY E. LAISHLEY;* Chevaliee de l'Oedee de Leopold, Officieb de l'Insteuction pubeique, E.B.S.L., F.B.G.S., F.B.S., F.E.Hist.Soc., F.E.Col.Inst. ; and Authob of "Education and Educatoes." * Since this Eeport was presented and ordered to bo printed the University of St. Andrews (in February, 1887) has conferred the degree of LL.D. upon Mr. Laishley. Presented to both Houses of the General Assembly by Command of His Excellency. WELLINGTON : BY AUTHOEITY: GEOBGE DIDSBUEY, GOVEENMENT EEINTEE.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, SWITZERLAND, ITALY, GERMANY, BELGIUM, AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA; INCLUDING A SPECIAL REPORT UPON DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
1886. NEW ZEALAND.
E.—l2
CONTENTS.
I AMI INTRODUCTION— Countries treated of .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 Questions involved .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 Prominence given to religious and financial features .. .. .. .. .. 2 Keligious feature .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2 Financial feature .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4 Pour other subjects of superior importance—l. Teachers. 2. Infant Schools. 3. Physical Training. 4. Technical Instruction .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4, 5 Remarks on education in Great Britain —the most elaborate—and the reason .. .. .. 5 Reference to publications, and the objects thereof .. .. .. .. .. 5 Respecting report as a whole .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5 Opportunities for observation and. accuracy .. .. .. .. .. .. 6 Special Report on Deaf Mute Institutions .. .. .. .. .. .. G GREAT BRITAIN— Brief digest of State education .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7-11 Religious teaching in State-aided schools, including opinions on secular education .. .. 11-13 State support, including opinions on gratuitous education .. .. .. .. 14, 15 Compulsory attendance at school, and school age, including fees and holidays .. .. .. 15, 16 Prohibition of injurious employment of children .. .. .. .. .. 17 Teachers, including training colleges .. .. .. .. .. .. 17-19 Subjects of study, technical instruction, and "over-pressure" .. .. .. .. 20, 21 Comparative table of subjects of study in the public elementary schools of England and New Zealand 17* Inspection and examination .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 21-23 Infant schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..23,24 Evening schools and half-time scholars .. .. .. .. .. .. 24 Industrial schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 25 Secondary and higher education .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 25 Scholarships .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 26 Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 26-28 FRANCE— Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29 Special features .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30 Classes of schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30 Gratuitous, secular, and compulsory phases .. .. .. .. .. .. 31 Protection of children .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 31 School age .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 32 Infant schools and classes .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 32 Elementary primary schools .. .. .. .. .. .. 32, 33 Superior primary schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 33 Secondary and higher schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 33, 34 Technical instruction .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 34, 35 Physical training and over-pressure .. .. .. .. .. 35, 36 Private schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 36 Corporal punishment and homo lessons .. .. .. .. .. .. 36 Teachers, including normal schools.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 36-38 Inspection .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 38 Scholarships .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 38 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 39 SWITZERLAND— Introduction, with a reference to excellence of Swiss schools and to the principles laid down by Confederation, including delegation to the cantons of local self-government, and to excellence in modern languages and scientific knowledge .. .. .. .. .. 40, 41 General principles, including religious, gratuitous, and compulsory features, school age, &o. .. 41-43 Features common to all cantons, including sub-divisional cantonal arrangements, &c. .. .. 44-46 Berne as representing cantonal education .. .. .. .. .. .. 40, 47 Zurich Polytechnic School .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 47 Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 47, 48 ITALY— Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 49 Main features .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 49, 50 Schools, including tabular statements .. .. .. .. .. .. 50, 51 Normal schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 51 Art Schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 51 Management of State education .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 51 Excellence of Deaf-Muto institutions .. .. .. .. .. .. 51 Roman Catholic schools.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 51 Roman Catholic opinion of State schools .. .. .. .. .. 51, 52 GERMANY— Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 53 Opportunities for inquiries .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 53 Result of investigations, inducing belief that discipline, pro-eminent attention to scientific knowledge and to study of philosophy, and insistence upon extreme exactness and minuteness, are the special features of German educational policy .. .. .. .. .. 54-56 General features .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 56-62 Material differences between German States .. .. .. .. .. .. b2
E.—l2
BELGIUM— Introduction, with a rcf oronco to recent changes in the law, including predisposing causes and probable results, and present law .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 63, 64 Main features, including tabular statements relating to public schools, public school teachers and scholarships .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 6d-67 Overpressure .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 67 Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 67, 68 THE UNITED STATES— Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 69, 70 Principles .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 70-72 Difficulties of administration .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 72 Gratuitous, secular, and compulsory features .. .. .. .. .. .. 72-74 School age .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 74 Schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 74-77 Superintendents .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 77 Teachers .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 78, 79 Conclusion, reviewing merits, demerits, and general results .. .. .. .. 7'J Tabular statement respecting compulsory education and employment of uneducated children .. 81-82 CONCLUSIONS— Tabular statement, showing main features of each system of national education .. .. 83* Apparently significant conjunction of circumstances in Germany and Switzerland .. .. 83 Features deserving of commendation in each of the other systems .. .. .. .. 84-85 Some important defects in different systems indicated .. .. .. .. .. 85, 86 Conclusions as applied to the Colony .. .. .. .. .. .. 86-95 DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION— See Special Report, including Contents List, Tabular Statement, Appendix and Index, relating to it.. 96-129
EEEATA.
Pago 17* Table. In heading for " Subject " read, " Subjects." Page 29. Noto 10, line 10, for " d'interesse " read " d'interesser." Page 53. Note 3, for " Beliner " read " Berliner." Page 54. Note 9, line 5, for " Loctionem " read " Lectionum." Page BG. Paragraph commencing " I recognise that grave ' charges ' " read " changes" ; and last line same paragraph, for " falsehold " read " falsehood " ; also note 5, line 5, same page, for " Esniarsch read " Esmarsch." Page 98. Note 1, lino 10, for "Surdupkone " read " Surduphone." Page 101. First lino, for " deal-muto " read " deaf-mute."
IV
E.—l2
IN GEEAT BEITAIN, FEANCE, SWITZEELAND, ITALY, GEEMANY, BELGIUM, AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMEEICA; INCLUDING A SPECIAL EEPOET UPON DEAF-MUTE INSTEUCTION.
To the Hon. the Premier of New Zealand. Auckland, November, 1886. " What you woulS have in the nation, that you must put in the schools." Int. Ed. Conf., 1884, vol. xiv., p. 405.
INTRODUCTION. Sir, — In compliance with the request contained in the letters to me, dated the Ist October, 1883, from the Hons. the then Premier of the colony, and the then Minister of Education, I now submit the results of my investigations respecting State education in Europe and America. 3 The countries written of are Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Belgium, and The United States; as it was to those countries, as special centres of educational life and progress, 3 that I directed my attention. It is conceived that the aim of national education is in each country the same; although the methods adopted may, necessarily, differ, as being, more or less, dependent on climatic, religious, financial, political, or, indeed, geographical 4 conditions. In studying, therefore, the subject, I have endeavoured to keep in view that three questions should be the tests of any existing system, or proposed innovation, viz. : — (1.) What is the true aim of national education ? 5 (2.) In what respects, if any, do the means employed in any other country differ 6 from those in the Colony ? and (3.) Whether there are such conditions as account for, or justify, any difference ? It has been also borne in mind that it does not necessarily follow because a particular regime, or feature, is the best suited for one place that it is so for another. 7 Thus, where a people is all, or virtually all, of the same creed, it is presumed that no serious difference on the religious aspect of national education can arise. Similarly, financial discussion could not, it is conceived, become important where no State assistance is needed; so that it is impossible to indiscriminately cull all the excellences
Countries treated of,
Questions involved.
1 " Education —that unconsidered word."—" Oceana," by J. A. Froude, p. 291. Longmans, 1886. 2 " Comparison through historical criticism is the method of educational progress."—John D. Philbrick, L.L.D., late Superintendent of Boston Schools, in Circulars of Information for the Bureau of Education No. 1, 1885, "City School Systems in the United States " (hereafter termed " Dr. Philbrick "). Washington Government Printing Office, 1885. 8 " However, progress has different definitions in different countries." —Marquis of Salisbury's speech on Homo Rule, 15 May, 1886. "The science of government is an experimental science ; and therefore it is, like all other experimental sciences, a progressive science." —Lord Macaulay, Essays, &c, 1885, p. 260. * As in Switzerland. 1 " The education of the people conducted on those principles of morality which are common to all the
forms of Christianity, is highly valuable as a means of promoting the main object for which Government exists," &e.—Lord Macaulay, Essays, &c, p. 493. For recent remarks on Objects of Education see (a) Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before Boyal Education Commission (188C); (b) "Journal of Ed.," July, 1880, p. 273 ; (c) Manitoba report for year ending 31 Jan., 188G, p. 56; and (d) " Education and Politics," Sat. Eev., 3 April, 1886, p. 465. 6 See Art. by J. H. Eaven, "Macm. Mag.," April, 1886, p. 437, thus : " In these latter days, when the civilized world seems to be completely agreed upon the value of education, and as completely divided upon educational methods," &c. i 7 " For what was good elsewhere might not be good when transferred to new soil."—The Right Hon. A. J. Mundella, quoted in Art. on " Free Schools," by Lord Norton, in "Nineteenth Century Review" (hereafter termed N.C.), Nov., 1885, p. 806.
EEPOKT UPON STATE EDUCATION 1
St—l2
INTEODUCTION.
—excellences they may be so far as any particular habitat is concerned —of a national system, and by patchworking, irrespective of climatic, religious, monetary, political, or geographical conditions, to produce a model system. " But the objector who tells us that the educational experience and opinions of foreign countries are valueless to us because of the divergence between their civilization and ours, betrays his ignorance, and reveals his incompetence for educational direction. Modern civilization is rapidly tending to uniformity and unity. Each nation is hastening more and more to adopt the innovations and improvements of all the others. The educational element of civilization forms no exception to the general drift of things. Methods of teaching have nothing to do with national boundaries. The best is the best everywhere. The essential elements of a good school system are the same in every country." 1 In aiming, however, at perfection, it is inferred that the special conditions must be considered. Even then, the result of an innovation cither by the omission or addition of a feature may not, of course, necessarily be satisfactory; however well tried such an innovation may have been elsewhere : inasmuch as we can only weigh the probabilities for or against success in deciding on any proposition, if hitherto untried where a trial is proposed. We know the defects, if any, of the status quo, but the possible effects in practice of a proposition as yet untested in a new field can, of course, only be estimated by probabilities. The religious and financial aspects of national education have especially engaged my attention ; because they must, it would seem, always involve the most serious issues in any State system : and, certainly, in the case of the Colony—which is my immediate concern— they are the features which admit of the greatest discussion. It is most seriously questioned whether the British—a de facto religious—system tends to diminish crime, and whether a secular one is not distinctly dangerous. 3 It is not for me to enter here, however, into the questions 2 as to — (1.) Whether religion is the foundation of morality, or conducive to it, or whether morality can be taught without it ? 3 or
Prominence given to religious and financial features.
Eeligious feature.
1 " Dr. Philbrick," p. 8. 2 For recent authorities, see— (a) " Nineteenth Century Review " (hereafter termed N.C.), Oct. and Dec., 1882, and vol. Jan.-July, 1883 ; arts, by the Abbe Martin, Cardinal Manning, Canon Gregory, and Rev. Dr. Dale. (b) Addresses by Lord Norton, Sir R. A. Cross, Bishop of Lincoln, Dean of Bangor, Archdeacon Darby, and Bishop of Melbourne; "Times," 3 Oct., 1884, 18 Sept., 1884, 8 Oct., 1883, 17 Oct., 1883; Official Year Book of Church of England, 1885, p. 154; and " Anglo-New Zealander," 7 Nov., 1884. (c) Canon McColl's paper at Intnl. Educ. Conf. and discussion, Health Exhib. Literature, London, 1884, repts. (hereafter termed 1.E.C.) Wm. Clowes and Sons (Limited), London, vol. xv., p. 66. (d) " Education and Religion, their mutual connection and relative bearings, with a way out of the religious difficulty." Elliott Stock, London; espec. pp. 200-6. (e) Prof. Laurent's (a freethinker's) advocacy that the morality of Christianity, of Christ, be taught; 1.E.C., vol. xiv., p. 617. (/) " Injustice in the working of the Act of 1870," by the Rev. H. Temple. Rivingtons, London, 1883. Ig) "Defects of the Law upon Public Education, and how to cure them," by F. Calvert, Q.C. Ridgeways, London, 1879. (h) " University Education as represented by the Irish Universities." —W. H. S. Monck, Transactions Nat. Soc. Scien. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, p. 443. See also notes 3 and 1, p. 3. Note Lord Macaulay's remarks on proposition " that propagation of religious truth is one of the principal ends of government, as government."—Essays, &c, 1885, p. 466, and seq., and especially pp. 483 and 492-494. :1 (a) The absence of the teaching of morale in New Zealand is noteworthy in view of the secular systems of Europe —in Franco and Belgium. (b) " The development of the moral nature is a primary requisite in any system of education. . . . Religion is the inspiration of all highest morality."—Manitoba report, as above, p. 27. ic) " k heartless law proscribed the teaching of religion in tjtW3 State schools, and the name of Christ was tabooed." " The State which undertook the education of its citizens was bound to aim at creating in them a sense of duty, and the necessary means
to that end was a religious education." Lecture by the ex-Bishop of Melbourne "On Bible-teaching in State schools," 2G Nov., 1885. —" Aust. Times and Anglo-New Zealander," 15 Jan., 1886. (d) As an instance of late writing on the subject see N.G., Jan., 1886, art. on " Irish Education," by Visct. Powerscourt, p. 130 : " It is absolutely necessary that the teaching of religion should be retained in intimate connection with the training of the young, as the only means by which virtue and morality can be upheld in a nation." (c) The " Melbourne Age," which for a long time advocated a secular system, now declares "that for the safety of the nation there must be a change." (/) "The Inspectors of Schools have reported that education was becoming dangerous unless morality were introduced into the State-school curriculum ; and the Inspector-General of Penal Establishments has declared that the neglect of careful moral instruction was one of the greatest causes of multiplicity of crimes, and that education without this kind of religious instruction was a dangerous possession."— "Aust. Times and Anglo-New Zealander," in respect of Victoria, 26 Feb., 1886, p. 26. And it seems significant that in Victoria " the Minister of Education in reply to a deputation from the Council of School Boards of Advice has promised to advise the Cabinet to ask Parliament that the passages relating to Christian teaching which were expunged from school reading-books when Mr. Ramsay was in office might be reinstated." —"Aust. Times," 23 April, 1886. Return to denominational system advocated in " The Victoria Review," 1 Dec, 1882. " The Education Question," by T. Harrison. See also " Ethical Teaching in Schools," same Review, June, 1883, by J. G. Stewart. (g) " The undenominational system was barren and unproductive, it would cut out culture in thia countr3 r."—C. Dawson, M.P., " University Ed. in Ireland." Transactions Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, p. 465. (h) " Education as a Factor in Prison Reform," by C. D. Warner, " Harper's Monthly Mag.," Feb., 1886, p. 444 : " The key-note of the system, let me repeat, is the discipline of the body, the mind, and the moral nature, applied simultaneously and continued by means of the indeterminate sentence long enough to form a habit of orderly working," &c, p. 448.
2
8._12.
INTRODUCTION.
(2.) Whether by teaching no religion a creed is not as arbitrarily taught as if Calvinism, or any other form of ism, were inculcated P 1 or (3.) Whether, even if a majority of the public be against an alteration of the law, it be not the duty of a Government not to obey public opinion, but to mould it ? a and 3 It suffices for my purpose to believe— (1.) That there should be on the part of a State great care that the utmost consideration be shown towards the religious feelings of all ; 3 (2.) ff That no form whatever of merely secular instruction will satisfy the great majority who believe that education without religion is impossible 4* ;" (3.) That there will be, if there be not already, " a strong reaction against allowing sectarian jealousy to cause numbers of the population to grow up without the simplest elementary knowledge 5 ;" and
(i) "A Lady Prison-Superintendent." — "Sunday at Home," April, 1886, p. 219. (j) Mr. Ruskin, in replying to an article in the " Spectator," of 13th March, 1886, entitled " Education and Discontent," writes to " The Pall Mall Budget," of 18th March, 1886, as follows : "Sir, —Will you permit me in your columns to ask the editor of the ' Spectator,' with reference to the article on education in his last Saturday's issue, whether ho has ever chanced to notice anything that either Mr. Thomas Carlyle or I, his pupil, have written on the subject during the last thirty years ? and farther, what he, the said editor, understands by the term ' education' ? I know of nothing that has been taught the youth of our times except that their fathers were apes, and their mothers winkles; that the world began in accident, and will end in darkness ; that honour is a folly, ambition a virtue, charity a vice, poverty a crime, and rascality the means of all wealth, and the sum of all wisdom. But Mr. Carlyle and I knew perfecty well all along what wouid be the outcome of that education. And I shall bo extremely glad to know what else was expected from it by tho members of the School Board.—l am, Sir, your obedient servant, John Ruskin." And see " P.M. Budget," 1 April, 1886, p. 6. For comments on this letter see " Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 272. But, contra, see— (a) " Board Schools and Criminal Statistics," " Saturday Review," 6 Feb., 188G, p. 187. For instance, " Nor can it be maintained that history supports the hypothesis of a necessary connection between ! education and morality." Again, "It would ap- I pear that even the highest intellectual culture by no means necessarily brings good morals, not always, perhaps, good manners, in its train. ... In other words, there has been an increase of crime, j but a diminution of apprehensions and convictions ; and this points, not te any decrease of criminals— rather the reverse—but to an increasing skill in avoiding detection. .. . The utmost that can, with any sort of plausibility, be argued in this respect for Board schools, is that they cannot be proved to have retarded moral reform," p. 188. (6) " Ten Years in Clerkenwell Prison."—" P.M. Budget," 13 May, 1886 — thus: "The School Board has varied the crime rather than decreased it." (c) On education promoting crime see " The Century " Mag., April, 1886, p. 939. (d) For statistics of illegitimacy in Scotland, notwithstanding that " for the last 300 years there has | been a school in every parish, and tho Scotch have been (according to the ' Pall Mall Budget') the best educated people in Europe."—See "P.M.8.," 7 June, 1886. (e) Art. " Education and Discontent," " Spectator," 13 March, 1886," and " University Education represented by Irish Universities." Transactions as above, p. 445, and discussion in respect of University Education in Ireland. "It was not the business of the University to teach theology at all. If they wanted religion, let them go to their respective priests or ministers." —J. W. Joynt. Transactions, as above. Again, "Ho confessed that, in the matter of University education, he was an ab- 5 solute secularist." —Prof. Richey, p. 461, Transac- | tions. |
1 " The most bigoted and sectarian of all sects are the unseetarians themselves."—See Rev. Dr. Haughton, address Nat. Soc, So. Assoc., Dublin, Transactions, p. 463, 1881. 2 See (a) "Principles of Political Economy."—J. S. Mill, 6th ed. p. 562 ; and (6) " If the masses of the people bo called upon to vote laws, they will either educate themselves or bo educated."—M. de Laveleye, "N.0.," Sept., 1885. " Recent Progress of Democracy in Switzerland," p. 512. (c) At the Afrikander Bond Congress, held at Grahamstown (Africa) this year (1886), it was resolved " that the franchise in the colony for blacks and whites should be raised to £50, with an educational test." " P. M. Budget," 29 April, 1886, p. 2. (d) On "Public Opinion," see "P. M. Budget," 13 May, 1886. " The most developed in mind are the most plastic."—H. Spencer. s " We never can admit that a ruler can be justified in helping to spread a system of opinions solely because that system is pleasing to the majority."—Lord Macaulay, Essays, &c, 1885, p. 495; and note, p. 496, " Falsehood, though no match for truth alone, has often been found more than a match for truth and power together." 4 Cardinal Manning: Arts, in " N.C.," "Is the Education Act of 1870 a just law," &c, Dec, 1882, and Vol. Jan.-July, 1883. "A Christian people can be perpetuated only by Christian education. Schools without Christianity will rear a people without Christianity. A people reared without Christianity will soon become anti-Christian. Where, then, will bo Christian England?"—Cardinal Manning. See " Daily Tel." (Lond.), 10 Nov., 1885. On the grievances of the Roman Catholics, and on a proposed remedy, see Art. by Visct. Powerscourt, as above. And for Cardinal Moran's recent denunciation of system, see " Aust. Times and Anglo-New Zealander," 26 Mar., 1886, p. 13. On the practicability of undenominational scripture teaching, see remarks by ex-Bishop of Melbourne, 26 Nov., 18S5, as above. For instance, "It had been argued that undenominational teaching of scricturc was impossible, but the experience of the Mothercountry, where such teaching had been given with great success since 1870, was a conclusive answer to that objection. The teaching of religion had proved a factor in the large towns of the colony, and in the country districts it had hardly existed at all. As many as 4,000 teachers were required for the secular education of the school children, and it was impossible for the 700 ministers of religion in the colony, 170 of whom were in Melbourne and the suburbs, to spare sufficient time to attend to the religious instruction of the children in the day-schools, &c. The true remedy for these evils was to adopt the recommendation in which both sections of the Education Commission concurred, viz., to let undenominational religious instruction bo given in the State schools as a regular part of the course, and to add to the Education Act a conscience-clause for both teachers and scholars." — See "Aust. Times and Anglo-Now Zealander," 26 Feb., 1886. Lord Norton. See "Times," 3 Oct., 1884; and see "Aust. Times and. Anglo-New Zealander," 20 Feb., 188G, p. 2G.
3
E.—l2
INTRODUCTION.
(4.) That friction, as between the State and religionists, retards, if it does not prevent, the perfect working of any State educational system. 1 And, if any proof were needed, surely the anti-clerical agitations in Belgium in 1881 3 show the seriousness of the questions involved in the arbitrary exclusion of religious teaching from public schools. 3 I have therefore endeavoured to devise such a system as will satisfy, virtually, all ; 4 being, however, well aware of the risk—in the phrase of the Eastern poet —of finding a tiger while beating the jungle for a deer. As regards the gravity of the financial question I need only point to the very startling amount of taxation for educational purposes ; which we should indeed recognize as startling were it in the form of a separate direct education rate. Tho large cost of— (a) Elementary day schools (including scholarships), and normal schools; (b) Secondary and university tuition 5 (including the annual value of the endowments); (c) Native schools 6; (d) Sumner deaf-mute institution 7; (e) Industrial and orphan schools ; and of (/) Public libraries — would, then, indeed, be keenly felt. Immense reductions in expenditure should, in my opinion, be made, and direct local taxation adopted. There are four other subjects to which also special attention is invited— (1.) Teachers B—becaus8 —because—(a) " The teacher is the key to the whole situation —he is the heart as well as the brain of the elementary school system; "° {b) The backbone of a good system is thorough training of all teachers 10 — and (c) The pupil-teacher system is fraught with injury to the taught and the teacher. 11 (2.) Infant Schools —because, to quote an opinion given to me by Professor Huxley, " the value of these cannot be overrated." 13 (3.) Physical training—because circumstances clearly tend to convince—in accordance with what Mr. Matthew Arnold has expressed to me —that it should be a
Financial feature.
Pour other subjects of superior importance,
1 " No Government ought to pross on tho people religious instruction, however sound, in such a manner as to excite among them discontents dangerous to the public order," &c.—Lord Macaulay, Essays, &c, 1885, p. 494, and note, p. 495. " The great principle that societies and laws exist only for the purpose of increasing the sum of private happiness, is not recognized with sufficient clearness." — Lord Macaulay, as above, p. 47. 2 This seems to supply an exception to tho proposition that " mere negation, mere Epicurean infidelity, as Lord Bacon most justly observes, has never disturbed the peace of the world."—Lord Macaulay, as above, p. 553. s See also in respect of Buenos Ayres, " Times," 16 Oct., 1884. The effects in the Hawaiian Islands should be also noted. Latest official documents herewith. 4 " We know of no great revolution which might not have been prevented by compromise, early and graciously given."—Lord Macaulay, as above, p. 97. * As an instance of the cost to the Colony of university education, I am informed that at Auckland there was but one pupil—and he an employe of the Education Department—attending one set of the lectures of one of the professors last year; and that the total number of pupils attending the University lectures of that pro- ■ fessor then and now, did and does not exceed 8. Tho cost to the Colony apportionable to that professor's department for last year, for lecture tuition a few hours a week (and that only for seven months in the year), cannot be less, I estimate, than £1,000. See also Parl. Paper, 1886, E.-8. Moreover, can it be generally known that the University is a closed book for over five months in the year ? In other words, that the University year is less than seven months. 6 For training of natives in South Africa, see Education Manual for 1886, compiled under direction of tho Cape Superintendent of Education. For cost of education of tho Hawaians see official documents as above.
7 For cost of a pupil at Sumner see special report. 3 Seo also— (a) 1.E.C., vol. xiv., p. 150 and set}., and p. 287 and seq.; and vol. xvi. (including p. 2 and seq., and p. 74 and seq.). (b) Ecports of the Eoyal Commissioners on Technical Instruction (hereafter termed R.C.) vol. iii., " Training Colleges " and " Pupil Teachers " in index. (c) "National (Primary) Education in Ireland," by J. Ferguson, President Irish National School Teachers' Association. Trans. Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc. Dublin, 1881, p. 352. " In Prussia they say, ' As is the teacher, so is the school.'" —Dr. Philbriok, p. 14. 9 Report of the Committee of Council on Education (Eng. and Wales) (hereafter termed G.R.), 1882-83, pp. 257 and 278. And see Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before Education Commission (1886). 10 " All competent authorities agreo in the opinion that a course of special training in the theory and practice of teaching should be insisted on as a prerequisite to the occupation of teacher."—Dr. Philbrick, p. 4G. And note Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 188G) report on Continental Schools, especially pp. 16-21, and Comments, " Journal of Ed.," 1 Sept., 1886, p. 354. 11 The teachers in the Colony seem to be becoming aroused to this fact. See, for instance, report of Auck. Ed. Inst.—" Auck. Evening Star," 18 Oct., 1886. 13 See also 1.E.C., espec. vols. xiii. and xiv. The following sentences appear peculiarly applicable to New Zealand : " Considering the liberality in providing for education in our country, the general neglect of infant schools is not easy to account for. One reason for it may be found, perhaps, that children of five years of age and upwards have been very generally provided for in the primary schools, and the margin below that age is rather restricted for the Kindergarten."—Dr. Philbrick, pp. 49, 50. " The real interests of tho world for good or evil must be those who have its first ten years in their hands." Rev. E. Thring, M.A., "Journal of Ed.," June, 1880.
4
E.—l2
INTRODUCTION.
main feature in school training, and not a subsidiary one, and should be looked upon as the necessary basis to be attended to above all other things—by reason of its being an essential preliminary to a sound and retentive mind j 1 and (4.) Technical instruction2—especially in view of— (a) The complaint, so often urged in the Colony, that agriculture is not profitable ; 3 and (b) Whether greater prominence ought not to be given in national study to what would tend to be useful in the development of the resources of the Colony, in preference to the greater attention paid to purely literary attainments ?* The stress laid upon drawing by the Royal Commissioners for Technical Instruction in their report, and by other authorities, is especially noticeable. 5 Indeed, at the International Education Conference in 1884 the President said: "The monopoly of the three Rs is doomed, 6 and the enthronement beside them of three Ds— drawing, drill, 7 and adroitness —approaching." B The remarks upon education in Great Britain are more elaborate than those relating to any foreign country : because we naturally, at least in the first instance, look there for example. In all cases, however, the main difficulty has been to write upon various systems so tersely as to fairly represent all features, and yet not to weary with minutiae. Numerous references are therefore made to publications, which are forwarded herewith where practicable and necessary. When no more detailed information than the text affords is required, the footnotes need not, of course, be noticed; but it is hoped that they may, whenever additional knowledge is needed, prove useful by facilitating investigation. Of the report as a whole, I cannot refrain from recording how greatly my European and American experiences have tended to confirm me in the view that "of education information itself is really the least part "9 —that knowledge is not necessarily power—and
Remarks on edueation'in Great Britain the most elaborate.
Concerning report as a whole.
1 "To my mind nothing is more certain than that tho highest success in intellectual education can be reached only by the aid of the most thorough system of physical training."—Dr. Philbrick, p. 101. Again, "If the history of education has made anything certain, it has made it certain that the gymnasium is an essential appendage of tho schoolhouse," p. 100. See also 1.E.C., vol. xiii., p. 337 and seq. Eor valuable suggestions in medical supervision of teaching in schools, and of premises, &c, note Hungarian system, "Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 297. - On this subject see especially — (a) R.C., vols. i., ii., iii., and iv. (including report of Sub-commissioner for Agriculture). (b) 1.E.C., vols. xiv. and xiii., p. 3. For definitions of and distinctions between " Non-tech-nical or General Education," " Technical Education," and "Industrial Education," see Dr. Philbrick, p. 69, and note espeo. the recommendation to provide " that kind of instruction and training which fits persons, in part at least, for some particular modes of gaining a livelihood," p. 88. " Education, to be of use to the class for whom it is intended, should be conducted with a special reference to the future life and needs of those who are under instruction." —Mrs. Cusack, Nat. S.S., Dublin, 1881. Transactions, p. 492. Note, for instance, provisions for teaching horticulture in Baden, and cooking in Brussels. —"Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 297. The progress of the Sloyd movement, " which aims at establishing handicrafts as one of the subjects generally taught in schools," should not be overlooked.—See "P. M. Budget," Sept. 23, 1886, pp. 23, 24. " On the position of Science in Colonial Education." — See Art. by W. L. Carpenter, 8.A., B.Sc. ; espec. notice of " New Zealand Journal of Ed.," supplement, Sept., 1886, p. 396. 3 See la) R.C. (6) 1.E.C., vol. xiv. (c) The authorities in Kew Gardens are trying to educate the public in regard to the attacks of insects on cultivated plants. (d) Provisions for teaching horticulture in volksschulen of Baden, with a view to improve the fruit markets. "Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 297. For account of tho new Colonial College and Training Farms Company see "The Colonies and
India," 11 Deo. 1885, p. 9, and 12 Feb. 1886, p. 21. 4 See (a) 1.E.G., vol. xiv., espeo. pp. 5, 51, 57, 67, and 571 ; vol. xiii., pp. 159 and 162. But see vol. xiv., p. 334. (b) R.C., vol. iii., p. 3061. (c) American Commissioners' Report on Education, 1884, for 1882-83, p. clvii. " We make progress in education mostly by means of specialization." Dr. Pliilbrick, p. 83. It has been asked, " What is the use of half the subjects taught in a national school to an ordinary artisan ? " Lord Brabazon's remarks in " Time," May, 1886, p. 549, on " Tho Need of National, Industrial, and Technical Training," specially referring to the Colonies, are well worthy of notice. 5 Seo (a) R.C., Ist report, and vols. i., ii., and iii., espee. conclusions and recommendations, vol. i. (b) 1.E.C., vol. xiv., especially p. 2 and sea. Tho English Code, 1886, Art. 15, provides as an amendment on the 1884 code that drawing is a " class subject." Note also Revised Inst. to Inspectors, Eng., 1886, Art. 44. 0 Upon the individual examination of children in the three Rs see paper read by R. Hamilton at Nat. S.S. Assoc., Dublin, 1881, Transactions, p. 485; and paper read by Dr. Doherty, p. 493. 7 On universal drill, " regarded rather as a part of school hours than of play hours." See " Public Schools in 1886."—" Atheneeum," 17 July, 1886. 81.E.C, vol. xiii., p. 3. 9 " Tho value of an educational system is to be judged not principally by the number of isolated facts retained in the memory, but by the general culture and improvement of the mental power," &e. C. H. Keane, M.A., paper read at Nat. S.S. Assoc., Dublin, 1881, Transactions, p. 495. "In a word, teach your pupils to think correctly. This is education."—"Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 297. " Tell as little as possible ; induce children to discover as much as possible."—" School Work," by J. Gladman (Jarrold and Son), see " Athenteum," 7 Aug., 1886, p. 173. See also Art. by J. H. Raven, " Macm. Mag.," April, 1886, p. 444. " You know nothing as yet; you have only learnt how to learn."—Address of Joseph Prud'hommo to prize women on leaving College. See also " Philosophy of Ed.," by Prof, Blackie, " Journal of. Ed." May, 1886, p. 201.
5
E.—l2.
INTEODUCTION.
that in order to render it power, there must exist the ability to rightly utilise it. 1 Until, therefore, physical training, and mental and moral discipline, 2 are pre-eminent in State training, it is a serious question whether national education must not fail of its true goal. 8 In the countries visited every facility has been granted to study their institutions. Moreover, through the courtesy of the Secretary to the Education Department in England I was enabled to attend the Education Conference of European and American delegates, held in London in August, 1884; and thereby enjoyed the great advantage of learning the views of an international assembly of high educational authorities. Further, as whatever value may attach to this report must greatly depend upon its accuracy, I have submitted the several sections to the perusal of experienced authorities in the respective countries : and, although nothing appears except from my pen, and no one other than myself is responsible for comments or conclusions, yet, I trust, the precaution taken may be considered to minimise the risks of error in statement. A special report on the training of deaf-mutes is annexed.*
Opportunities for observation and accuracy.
Special report upon deaf-mute instruction.
1 See also G.R., 1883-84, p. 433. a See Art. on " Philosophy of Education," by Prof. Blackie. —"Journal of Ed.," 1 June, 1886, p. 237. Also " Defective Industrial System in U.S.A." " The Century," April, 1886, p. 945. A very eminent Scotch educationalist told me that he considered education to be mainly a matter of influence, not of instruction. " The common schools of the Continent, in short, are an influence as well as a system."—" Daily News " (London), 31 July, 1886. See also (inter alia) paper by Dr. Molloy on " Intermediate Education in Ireland," read at Nat. S.S. Assoc., Dublin, 1881, Transactions, p. 372 and seq. ; and " University Education as represented by Irish Universities," by Prof. W. H. S. Monck, p. 445; and note 3, p. 2 supra. " People read novels and light literature They won't look at anything dull. Political tracts are a drug.
Education has not improved their tastes, if you judge by the demand for serious books." —An Interview with Mr. Stoneham, " P. M. Budget," 20 May, 1886. s " Education, to be of use to the class for whom it is intended, should be conducted with a special reference to the future life and needs of those who are under instruction." Mrs. Cusack, paper at Nat. S.S. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, Transactions, p. 492. 1 For the school system most suitable for a Lunatic Asylum, see paper read by Mr. John Fox, at Nat. S.S. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, Transactions, p. 049. In view of vote of £400 made by the Colony for aid to children to attend Blind School, Melbourne, it may be interesting to note what is being done for the education of the blind. See Art. on " The Normal College for the Blind," Upper Norwood, London.— " Sunday at Home," March, 1886.
6
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
GREAT BRITAIN. 1
DIGEST. 2 A digest of State education in Great Britain is first given; and the main features are then treated of more in detail. State education in Scotland is based on the English Acts and codes, although immediately controlled by the Scotch Acts and codes : 3 and its main lines run, to a great extent, parallel: so that I write of England, 4' 5 noting any main divergence as I proceed. 6 The educational system of England, unlike all others written of in this report, nominally provides only for elementary instruction ; 7 is secular in theory, 8 but virtually otherwise in practice; 9 is not provisionally 10 compulsory, but necessarily so; 11 and is not gratuitous for all/ 3 although free to all. 13 Class books, however, are provided without charge. The compulsory attendance period is, virtually, everywhere from the age of five to that of thirteen :u ' and no school age limit exists. 10 There is no Minister of Education : but the system is managed, although perhaps more indirectly than directly, by the " Education Department ; 1G which is nominally under the presidency of the Lord President of the Privy Council."
Introduction
Elementary, secular, compulsory, and gratuitous.
Compulsory period, and no school age limit. System managed by Education Department with Boards and managers.
1 The just published first report of the Royal Commission on the Working of the Elementary Education Act, containing 13,854 questions and answers, should be studied. 2 For "Origin and History of National Education in England," see Sir P. J. Keenan's address, Trans. National Social Science Assoc, p. 43, Dublin, 1881 (hereafter termed Sir P. J. Keenan's address). See also " Progress of National Education in England and Wales," by Rowland Hamilton. Transactions as above, p. 479. 3 Eng. Acts, 1870, 1871, 1873, 1876, 1879, and 1880, and Code of 1886 (hereafter termed Code) ; Scotch Acts, 1872, 1876, 1878 (2), 1882 (2), and 1883, and Code of 1886. See also " Instruction to Inspectors for England and Scotland," 1886. For hand-books on Code, note one by Mr. Heller, Bernrose and Son, Lond., and one by Mr. Moss, Cassells, Lond., 1886. * Unless otherwise mentioned, Wales is treated as included in the term England. » Note— (a) Rep. from Select Committee of the House of Commons on Education, &c, in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 31 July, 1884 (hereafter termed S. C), pp. 426-9 ; and for Ireland, p. 50 and seq. For historical sketch of State Education in Ireland and its present condition see paper on " Primary Education," with a review of German, Irish, and English systems, by W. F. Bailey; E. Ponsonby, Dublin, 1884 ; and see Sir P. J. Keenan's address, p. 36. "Ency. Brit.," vol. xx., 1886, under head "Roscommon," states that out of a population in 1881 of 132,490, 47,259 are unable to read or write, and 18,373 can read only; while 66,858 can both read and write. But the 47,259 include, I presume, all that are under school age. For further recent information see also Mr. Ellis's " Irish Directory." Dublin, Ponsonby, 1886. (6) I. E. C, vols. xii.-xvi., and "Times," 7 Aug., 1884. (c) B. 0., vols. i.-v. 6 Compare— (a) General Reports of Committee of Council on Education for England and Wales (hereafter termed G. R.), and for Scotland, 1885-86, and " Instruction to Inspectors for England and Scotland," 1886. (b) "Times," arts, and letters, Aug. 18, 20, 21, and 22, 1883; and see (c) Comparison of English and Scotch systems in publication by Henry Craik, M.A., LL.D., now Sec. to Scotch Ed. Dep.; Macmillan and Co., 1884, especially pp. 143-149, and 159. ' Compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sec. 55, and other provisions. But note that Eng, Code, arts. 16 and 17, and pro-
grammes, substantially provide for secondary education, notwithstanding clauses 45-7 of Revised Instructions to Inspectors, 1884. And note especially Mr. Cumin's recent evidence before Royal Commission, 1886. I cannot find that " elementary education " is anywhere denned in English law. See also "Nineteenth Century" (hereaftertermed N.C.), Feb., 1883, art. by Lord Norton on " Middle Class Education" (hereafter termed M. C. E.). For interpretation of term " elementary school" see Code, s. 3. 8 Eng. Act. 1870, sees. 7, 14, and 74, and comparo with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 84, ss. 2. 9 See Parliamentary Return to House of Lords, 15 Jan., 1884, upon religious teaching, &c, in Board schools. 10 See N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 05. 11 Eng. Acts, 1870, s. 74; 1873, ss. 23, 24; 1876, ss. 4-13; and especially 1880, s. 2. Compulsory feature introduced into England in 1870, in Scotland in 1872. No compulsory education in Ireland ; and note illiteracy, S. C, p. 6., and " Ency. Brit.," as above. 1 2 See— (a) Eng. Act, 1870, ss. 17 and 26; 1873, s. 3; 1876, s. 10; and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sec. 84 (6), and (b) " National Education at Homo and Abroad," by Dr. J. H. Rigg; Hazell, Watson, and Viney, London (hereafter termed Dr. R.), p. 16. '» Eng. Act. 1870, s. 5. " Eng. Act, 1870, s. 74, ss. 2, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 89, and s. 84, ss. 2, and s. 83, and 1885 Act, ss. 6-8. Apparently, however, under certain circumstances, attendance obligatory up to 14. See Eng. Act 1876, especially s. 11, ss. 2, and s. 12. In Scotland, however, school age is 5-14. School life does not, as a rule, begin before 6. — G.R. Scot., 1885-86, p. xii. A child under 14 is not allowed to work as a full timer in factories or workshops unless such child has passed the Fifth Standard. 15 Note evidence of Mr. Cumin before the above-mentioned Royal Commission. "We do not stop at the age of 13. If it was explained to us that in consequence of the superior character of the Board schools the children went up to the age of 16, we should immediately call for a fresh provision. Since the code of 1882 age is abolished. As to the persons who want to go to the elementary schools, it does not matter whether they are 16, 17, or 18. In an infant school you can have a boy of 9 or a boy or 10; and in other schools boys up to any age, so long as they have not passed the Seventh Standard." 16 See Eng. Act, 1870, ss. 3 (for interp. of term) and 97, Code, art. 1, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, ss. 4 and 6. For details see S.C.
7
E.—l2.
EEPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Digest. Under the Department there are School Boards elected in, and for, each district ; l and managers 2 of voluntary schools. These Boards somewhat correspond to School Boards and School Committees in the Colony ; 3 and have, subject, however, to the approval of the Department, powers of making by-laws relating to religious teaching, compulsory attendance, 1' &c., and of borrowing money for the providing, or enlarging, &c, of schoolhouses f and, without reference to the Department, the power of requiring payment out of, or levying, rates to cover deficiencies in income. 0 By-laws, however, relating to religious teaching and attendance can only be made subject to the clauses in the Act which protect religious liberty, and prohibit sectarian teaching in Board schools. The powers, excepting the one relating to the raising of money, may be delegated to a body of managers of not less than three persons : 7 and, if a school district be not within the jurisdiction of a Board, there is provision enabling the appointment of a " School Attendance Committee." 8 The system is founded on the principle expressed in section 4 of the 1876 Act, that " it shall be the duty of the parent of every child to cause such child to receive elementary instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic; 9 and if such parent fail to perform such duty, he shall be liable to such orders and penalties as are provided by this Act." 10 The ordinary elementary day schools receiving State aid 11 are of two classes : —■ (1.) Voluntary 13 —controlled by religious denominations, or other managers, 13 but which receive an annual grant from the Government ; 14' and (2.) Board 1" —managed by the Boards ; which receive an annual grant, and also the amount derived from local rates claimed, or levied, by the Boards in their respective districts. 10 The former class comprises nearly seventy-six per cent, of all State-aided elementary day schools in England and Wales : 17 but in order to obtain grants the schools must be conducted in accordance with the conditions required to be fulfilled by all elementary schools in Great Britain receiving State aid. 18 Religious feelings are protected, and a statutory provision called "the conscience clause" applies equally to voluntary State-aided and Board schools : 10 but the former are not fettered
Boards and their by-laws, &c.
Powers of delegation by Boards. School Attendance Committee. System.
Classes of schools.
Religious instruction provisions,
1 See Eng. Act, 1870, ss. 10 and 14-39 (except s.s. 10 of s. 37) and 63-6, and 2nd and 3rd schedules (except 1, 3, and 15 of Ist part of 2nd schedule, and part of clause 6of 3rd part); 1873, ss. G-9, and 2nd and 3rd schedules ; 1876, ss. 41 and 44, and 3rd schedule, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, ss. 13-24, and especially 35, and 1885 Act, ss. 3-5. Note presence of ladies on Boards, recommended G.E., 1882-83, p. 282. The text applies strictly to Sotland; but there are some exceptions in England. ! For interpretation of term see 1870 Act, s. 3, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 98. 8 Compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sees. 35 and 58-78, and 1885 Act, ss. 3-5. 4 Eng. Act, 1870, s. 74. Note, for instance, London by-laws of 17 May, 1879, arrangements for carrying into force, and instructions of 9 Nov., 1882, re enforcement. For other instances see G. E., 1883-84, pp. 97-100, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 84, ss. 2; and ss. 95, 89-94, and 1885 Act, ss. 6-8. 6 (a) Eng. Act, 1873, s. 10, and (6) G.E. 1885-86, p. vii. Up to 1 April, 1880, 6,459 loans had been sanctioned, amounting to £18,452,556 15s. Id. to 1,765 School Boards, by means of which accommodation will be furnished for some 1,489,729 scholars. The estimated cost per child is thus £12 7s. Bd.; but the amount of the loan applied for is generally in excess of the sum eventually spent. G. 8., 1885-86, p. vii. 6 See Eng. Act, 1870, s. 54. For hand-books on Code, note one by Mr. Heller, Bernrose and Son, Lond., and one by Mr. Moss, Cassells, Lond, 1886. ' E. Act, 1870, s. 15. »E. Act, 1876, sees. 7 and 21; and G.R., 1885-86, p. xxvii. 0 See Prof. Max Miiller's remarks, " Times," 23 Sept., 1884 ; and Chief Justice Dobson's Address respecting Tasmania, infra, p. 15, n. 4, and " The Education Act, 1885," sec. 14, Tasmania. 10 E. Act, 1876, sees. 12 and 13. See also Act, 1870, s. 74, ss.
4, and 1873, sees. 23 and 24. Compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, ss. 92-94, and 1885 Act, ss. 6-8. 11 See E. Act, 1870, s. 3, and Code Arts. 3, 4 for definition. 12 See— (a) Eeturn for year ending 31 Aug., 1885. G.E., 1885, p. v. (6) Classification G.8., 1883-84, p. 181, and 1885-BG, p. vi. (c) Official Cat. Health Exh., 1884, Education, pp. xlvii. and 27. (d) " Times," 11 Aug., 1884. (e) G.E., 1882-83, pp. 225, 226, and 1883-84, pp. 323 and 432, and compare N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 88. » Seefa) E. Act, 1870, s. 97, and (b) Classifi. and Offic. Cat. as above. 14 See Code Arts. 87-105, and note N.Z. Act, 1877, s. 88. 15 G.E., 1886-BG, pp. iii.-v. 16 See E. Act, 1870, sees. 53, 54. The London school rate has now reached BJd. in the pound, whilst in some towns the tax has mounted to 2s. See " Board Schools and Criminal Statistics," " Sat. Eeview," 6 Feb., 1886. « G.E., 1885-86, p. v. The figures are 14,600 and 4,295. Compare with — (a) Offic. Cat. as above. (6) N.0., Nov., 1884, art. by Mr. S. Buxton, M.P. (c) Official Year Books of Ch. of Eng. Soc. for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1885 and 1886. In respect of Scotland, however, it should be remembered that it has as a basis the National system, established since the Information, with the Voluntary system grafted upon it; whilst in England the reverse is the case. In Scotland the Voluntary system is practically confined to Eoman Catholics and Episcopalians. Denominational education there is a very minor matter compared with the 76 per cent, in England and Wales. 18 E. Act, 1870, sec. 7, ss. 4, and sees. 96, 97 (except as amended by 1876 Act, ss. 19, £0); and Code, Arts. 1-4, 87-105, and espec. 4 and 88. 13 E. Act, 1870, sees. 7 and 96.
8
E.—l2.
GEE AT BEITAIN.
Digest. by the section that " no religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination shall be taught in the school;" 1 although—appnrently in consideration of such freedom 2 —they are without the power that the Boards for their schools possess, to claim or levy rates to meet deficiencies in income. 3 Both classes charge school fees : but those of Board schools are, as a rule, lower than those of voluntary schools. 4 In addition to fees, voluntary schools derive their income mainly from private contributions, 4 and parliamentary grants; whilst Board institutions receive theirs principally from rates and grants : 5 and mainly on account of the neeessitj' for continued voluntary support, it is anticipated that, at no very distant date, the voluntary schools will become absorbed by transfer into the Board system. 0 In Scotland, especially, the absorption has always been rapid : 7 because the system introduced was simply an extension of that already existing. In a minor degree, the absorption may, perhaps, also be attributed to the greater percentage there of free scholars, 8 and of those who have gained certificates of proficiency, and thereby remission of fees. 9 Indeed, an experienced educationalist, a Canon of the Church, writes : " The voluntary system will die hard ; but, in the long run, it must be beaten by the rival power which holds the purse :" 10 for such power naturally dictates the conditions upon which grants are made. 11 The Board schools are established in accordance with the statutory enactment " that there shall be provided for every school district a sufficient amount of accommodation in | public elementary schools . . . available for all the children resident in such district for whose elementary education efficient and suitable provision is not otherwise made, &c." 13 The Act then shows how the information is to be obtained as to whether sufficient accommodation is provided : and by the instructions issued to Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools, in May, 1871, it is pointed out that the school provision "must accordingly be (1) sufficient in quantity ; (2) efficient in quality; and (3) suitable for the population." The subject is exhaustively dealt with, showing that elementary schools should contain accommodation in England for " one-sixth of the entire population." 17' The Board day schools consist of two' classes,— (a) Those where fees are chargeable, 14 but which, nevertheless, contain many scholars whose pence have been partially remitted on the ground of poverty, or wholly so on that ground 10 or that of proficiency ; lr> and (b) Free schools, provided by reason of the poverty of the inhabitants of some particular place.17
Sources of sch°ol mcome-
Absorption of scno"!^
Provisions for gchocisB
Classes of Board day schools.
1 E. Act, 1870, s. 14, ss. 2. 2 See Arts. " N.C.," Dec, 1882, and Jan. and July, 1883, on "Is the Education Act of 1870 a just law 1" &c, by Cardinal Manning, Canon Gregory, and Rev. Dr. Dale. » E. Act, 1870, sees. 53, 54. * (a) Return for year ending 31st Aug., 1885. G.R., 1885-80, p. v.—9s. 4d. v. 11s. 2|d. (6) G.R., 1884-85, p. 10., 1883-84, p. x., and for scale, p. 211, and 1882-83, pp. 226 and 311. (e) Code, Art. 3. 'See— (a) G.R., 1885-86, p. v. (b) E. Act, 1870, sees. 53, 54, and (c) G.R., 1883-84, pp. xxi». and xxxiv. and 206, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sees. 39, 42, and 80. • See E. Act, 1870, s. 23, and compare G.R., 1885-86, pp. v. and viii., with (a) G.R., 1882-83 and 1883-84, p. xii.; and (b) " N.C." arts, as above, pp. 70 and 326. But contra note — (a) G.R., 1883-84, pp. 250 and 225, 226; (b) Second annual issue of Official Year Book of Church of England, and also 1885 and 1886 issues. ' See also G.R., 1885-86, pp. x. and xi. The editor of Official Year Book of Church of England has this year (1886) published a summary of the contributions during the past quarter of a century, wherein Elementary Education is set down at £21,362,041. " The National Society since 1811 have spent thirty millions on schools, and have provided since 1870 more than a million school places."—"Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 271. 8 See Scotch Act 1872, 8. 69, and 1878, s. 22. a "Times," 7 Aug., 1884, Art. "Primary Education in Scotland."
2—E. 12.
10 " John Bull," London, 5 April, 1884. Again, " That the effect, if not the intention, of introducing the system must be seriously to cripple, if not eventually to crush, the action o£ voluntary and especially of Church schools, was obvious from the beginning, and experience has only too abundantly confirmed the fears entertained on the subject."— " Saturday Review: " "Board Schools and Criminal Statistics," 6 Feb., 1886, p. 187. " E. Act, 1870, s. 97, and Code, Art. 87. " Where the funds are, there also will the policy be."— J. Chamberlain, 1 Aug., 1886. Mr. Cumin's evidence before Royal Commission (1886) is very significant. He holds that not only may Boards drive voluntary schools out of the field, " but that in certain cases they are bound by law to do it." 12 E. Act, 1870, s. 5, see also sees. 6, 8-13, and 18, 19, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sees. 35, 74, 75, and 77, also 58-62. ls Page 2. See also G.8., Scot., 1885-86, p. 12. For recent English statistics see G.R., 1885-86, pp. vii. and ix. 14 E. Act, 1870, s. 17. 16 See (a) E. Act, 1870, s, 17, and 1876, sees. 10 and 40; and (b) G.R., 1885-86, p. xxxv., showing proportion of free scholars 4'ol. 10 E. Act, 1870, s. 18 and first schedule thereto. No such certificates are now issued. "See (a) E. Act, 1870, s. 26; (6) G.R., 1882-83, p. 311; (c) Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) report on Continental Schools, especially pp. 5. and 10. (d) "N.0.," November, 1882, Art. by Mr. Buxton, p. 786.
9
E.—l2.
REPOKT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Digest. The subjects available to be taught in ail the elementary schools 1 are of two kinds— those for which grants may be made ; 2 and those which may, in addition to the above subjects, and including religious subjects, be taken, but without pecuniary State recognition. 3 Again, the grant-earning subjects are divided into —(a) "obligatory," and (b) "optional;" and these latter into («) " class," and (b) " specific." 3 There are code, although not statutory, provisions for infant 4' and evening schools, 5 half-time scholars, 0 and pensions for teachers engaged prior to 9th May, 18G2; 7 and the infant school system is deserving of especial notice. The colleges in England 8 for training teachers are residential; but they are not State institutions, being merely voluntary ones receiving State aid, and charging fees. 9 The colleges in Scotland, which are partially affiliated to the national universities, are reputed to be particularly excellent. 10 Pupil teaching exists, and is said to be the weakest point in the system. 11 There are statutory provisions against the employment of uneducated children, 12 and in Scotland the State requirements in this respect are more stringent. 13 The Royal Commission on Technical Instruction recommended " that the provision at present confined ' o Scotland, which prescribes that children under the age of fourteen shall not be allowed to work as full-timers in factories and workshops, unless they have passed the Fifth Standard, be extended to England and Wales." 14 Scholarships, 10 school libraries, 16 and special training of deaf-mutes 17 are not objects for which State grants are made. The only State provisions made in England and Wales for education, other than elementary, are yearly grants made for the promotion of science, 18 and an annual vote of £10,500 in aid of three colleges in Wales. 10 In addition to children under inspection by the Education Department, there are in England and Wales, according to return quoted at foot hereof, " some 54,681 scholars in schools under the inspection of other departments, viz. : 1,295 between 3 and 13 in naval schools; 20 9,198 on the school books at home stations of army schools; 739 in reformatories; 8,114 in industrial schools; and 35,335 in average daily attendance in the workhouse, separate union, and parochial and distiict schools under the Local Government Board." 21 State education in Scotland differs somewhat; and both the processes and results of public education there are, upon the whole, superior.23 Whether the primary cause of this superiority be to any extent the invigorating climate need not here be discussed. But in estimating the proximate causes, the high aims of the schools and the thoroughness of the teaching should not be overlooked. Indeed, in most parishes there are teachers who are university men. Further, the circumstance should be
Subjects taught in schools.
Code provisions for infant and evening schools, half-time scholars, and pensions. Training colleges.
Pupil teachers. Injurious employment of children.
Scholarships, school libraries, and deaf-mute training. Secondary and higher education.
Special elementary schools.
Differences in Scotch system and its superiority.
T See table p. 17", hereafter; and especially Mr. Cumin's evidence before Royal Commission, 1886; and G.R., 1885-86, p. xiii. 3 Code, Arts. 15 and 16, and G.R., 1885-86, p. xiii., and seq. 8 Art. 17, and G.R., 1885-86, pp. xv. and xvi. But note recent change in Scotland. G.R., 1885-86, Scot., p. xxix. * Code, Arts. 106-108, and 126, and see G.R., 1885-86, pp. xii. and xiii. 5 Arts. 25-29, 31, 32, and 113, and see G.R., 1885-86., p. iv. 6 Arts. 11 and 12, and G.R., 1885-86, p. xiv. 7 Art. 134, and see G.R., 1885-86, p. xxxv. But no new pensions are granted, see Code, s. 134. 6 For definition see Code, Art. 116, and generally see (a) G.R., 1885-80, pp. iv., xviii., and seq.~; 1883-84, p. viii., 121, and 483, 484; (b) Code, Arts. 116, 117, compare with N.Z. Regs. Gazette, 92, 1878. 8 See (a) Code, Arts. 116-133; (b) G.R., 1883-84, pp. xix., xx., and 468-494; (c) 1.E.C., vol. xvi.; (d) "Times," 20 Sept., 1884, reporting Rev. Dr. Crosskey. 10 See Scotch Code, 188G, Arts. 83-105. Seo also 1.E.C., vol. xvi., p. 158, and 15.') and seq., and G.E., Scot., 1885-86, pp. xxiii. and viii. 11 See, for instance, G.R., 1882-83, p. 392 ; and for late statistics, G.R., 1885-86, p. xxii. For interpretation of term see Code, 1886, Art. 33. 12 E. Act, 1876, espec. sees. 5, 6 and 47,48; and 1880, s. 4. 13 Scotch Act, 1883, sees. 6, 7.
11 8.C., vol. 1, p. 537, also pp. 524-5, and see Scotch Rept., 18S3-84, p. xv., and 1885-86, p. xiv. 16 Except in connection with Science and Art Dcpt. 16 But see— (a) 8.C., vol. i., p. 523; and vol. iii. answers 911-1-17, 970, 2,787, 2,788, 2,947, and 2,948. (6) G.E., 1883-84, p. 253. " The fact is that the instruction given at the Board schools may be said to lose half its value unless the desire thus incited to gain knowledge can be gratified by free libraries."—See " Illustrated London News," 24* April, 1886, p. 446. In Scotland, however, there are school libraries in 179 schools.—G.R., Scot., 1885-86, p. xx. On " Pedagogical Libraries " see Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education, No. 1, 1885. " City School Systems in the United States," by the late John D. Philbrick, LL.D, (hereafter termed Dr. Philbrick), p. 182, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1885. See also " Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 229. j " See Special Report herein. ilB See 31st Report and Supplements to 31st and 32nd Repts. of Science and Art Dept., &c. 10 Bangor, Abervstwith, and Cardifi. See also " Times," 28 Mar., 1885. I 20 Report herewith. :i G.R., 1883-84, p. xiii. But see later return published this year (1886), " Pall Mall Budget," 25 March, 1886, p. 27. 22 See also 1.E.C., vol. xv., p. 297, xiii., p. 195. For comparison Eng. and Scotch Systems, see work by Henry Oraik, M.A., LL.D., now See. to Scotch Ed. Dopt. Maomillan and Co., 1884, espec. pp. 143-9 and 159.
10
GEE AT BRITAIN.
E.—l2.
Digest. noticed of children in Scotland remaining, as a rule, longer at school; 1 especially in the rural districts. The superiority is exemplified by— (a) A higher percentage of passes in elementary subjects ; 2 by (b) " Specific subjects," strained after in England, being there taken as a matter oi course, which is considered to have resulted in a higher standard of excellence having been generally attained ;' A and by (c) The Fifth Standard provision already alluded to. 4 In explanation of the " specific subjects " question, the Scotch code provides that the " education given must consist chiefly of elementary instruction," 10 and this negative approval of higher instruction is interpreted liberally. Indeed, the old parochial system for two hundred years led, and at present the Board system leads, immediately up to the universities. And in some districts there are valuable bequests available to supplement the incomes of qualified teachers in the higher subjects. Notwithstanding the superior results achieved, there appear to be no substantial complaints of " over-pressure." The sources of income of primary schools in Scotland, although the same in character, differ very widely in relative proportions from those in England, 5 and the cost of maintenance is greater. This is attributed mainly to the fact that on an average the salaries of masters 6 in Scotland are higher. Evening schools exist both in England and Scotland, but are declining in both countries. 7 Taking, however, equal numbers of the population, the number of evening scholars in Scotland is relatively very much greater than in England.s In secondary education, we find in Scotland a marked divergence : for " the jurisdiction of the Boards extends to certain secondary and higher grade schools; "9 and the Boards, to a certain extent, apply the school fund they receive accordingly. 10 Scotch universities have no large endowments, as in the case of Oxford and Cambridge; and therefore annual grants in their aid are made by the British Parliament. 11 So that both primary and higher education receive in Scotland proportionately more State aid than in England. There are, relatively, fewer infant schools in Scotland than in England. 12 The main features are now treated of more in detail RELIGIOUS TEACHING IN STATE-AIDED SCHOOLS. (1.) Religious teaching is not—so far as the State is concerned—compulsory or, indeed,: encouraged. 13 (2.) On the contrary, it is provided that it is no part of the duty of an inspector "to i inquire into any instruction in religious subjects given at such school, or to examine any
Illustrations of ' superiority.
Other distinctive features of Scotch system.
Religious teaching not compulsory or encouraged.
1 " Scotland, for whatever reason, is the only part of the United Kingdom where the love of learning has penetrated to the lower middle classes, as in Germany," &c—" Edin. Rev.," July, 1886, p. 256. In a Parl. Return recently published for Great Britain respecting " Illiterate Voters," Scotland, where the education standard has long been relatively high, comes best out of the comparison. — " Economist," July, 18S6. Savings banks have been established in 110 Scotch schools."—G.R., Scot., 1885-76, p. xx. But note statistics of illegitimacy, and comments.— " P.M. Budget," 17 June, 1886. 3 Compare Eng. and Scotch Reports, 1885-S6, pp. xi. and xviii. • Compare G.R., 1885-86, p. xvi, and Scot., p. xviii.; 1883-84, pp. xvii. and 220; and G.R., Scot., 1883-84, p. xix.; note Latin for instance. See also "Times," 7 Aug., 1884, Art. on " Primary Education in Sootland." • Note also Code (1886) provisions, for instance, re teachers, <Src, Art. 47, and see Art. 6, subs. (c). 8 Compare G.R., Eng. and Scot., 1883-84, pp. 206 and 88, and G.R., 1885-86, pp. v. and viii; and see " Times," 7 Aug., 1884. Note exps. of adminis. in Scotland, 7 per cent, as against 6.6 in Eng. 6 But not of mistresses. See G.R. Scot., 1883-86, p. xxii. ' See, in addition to other authorities hereafter quoted, Mr. Fitch's evidence, R.C., vol. iii., answers 3,749-57. 8 G.R. and G.R., Scotland, 1885-S6, pp. iv. and viii. See also " Times," 7 Aug., 1884.
9 See (a) Scotch Act, 1872, sees. 62, 63 and 24, 25; (6) R.C., vol. i., pp. 484 and 486 ; (c) Mr. Mundella's Parl. reply, " Times," 1 Nov 1384 ; (d) Education Endowments Act, Scotland, 1882. 10 Also note Scotch Act, 1878, especially ss. 18 and 20; and Circulars dated 12 June, 1885, and 15 Jan., 1886) issued by Scotch Ed. Dept., relative to inspection of higher class schools; and G.H., Scot., 1885-S6, p. xix. '1 Note (a) Dr. L. Wiese's remarks in German letters on Eng. Eduo. William Collins, Son, and Co., London, 1877, p. 79; and (6) 1.E.C., vol. xv., pp. 88, 89, and scq. 12 But see G.R., Scot., 1883-86, pp. xii. and xiv. 13 Note (a) E. Act, 1870, s. 97; and (6) Code, Art. 17; Scotch Code, Arts. 6, 7. It appears to be significant that in March this year (1886) the Congregation at Oxford struck divinity out of the obligatory curriculum. The following remarks of Lord Macaulay in respect of Oxford will be applied, probably, very diversely in this ease : " The glory of being farther behind the age than any other portion of the British people is one which that learned body acquired early, and has never lost."— Essays, &c, 1885, p. 332. See also note 3 on p. 2 of this report.
11
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Beligious Teaching in State-aided Schools. scholar therein in religious knowledge, or in any religious subject or book:" 1 nor is any grant made in respect of religious subjects -.'• and 10 (3.) The control is vested in the respective Boards and managers; subject only, in the case of Boards, to the (a) approval of the by-laws by higher authorities, and (b) the restraining sections of the main Act. 3 It therefore rests entirely with the Boards and managers to order and regulate, or prohibit, religious teaching. The restraining sections are— (a) " The conscience clause," 4 applicable to all elementary schools receiving State 1 aid; (b) The section prohibiting " any religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination," s—which5 —which affects Board schools only ; 6 and (c) The proviso that no by-law can be made preventing the withdrawal of any child from any religious observance, or instruction in religious subjects, or requiring any child to attend school on any day exclusively set apart for religious observance by the religious body to which his parent belongs 7—which, of course, affects Board schools only. The regulations on this subject must be conspicuously put up in every school. 8 In some schools—although comparatively very few—no religious teaching is given.9 The object aimed at by the Legislature has been, apparently, to enact nothing affirmatively, except liberty. But (a) negatively, to permit, in Board schools, such religious teaching as "shall have nothing in it to which any one who professes any religion at all can make any definite objection;" 10 and (b) in any voluntary State-aided schools, such religious teaching as the managers decide. 11 So that the statutory provisions have been a compromise—a concession strangely inconsistent with an established national church. Indeed, as was pointed out at the Church Congress, held in 1884 at Carlisle, the Act of 1870 effected the disestablishment of religion in State elementary schools. 12 The results of the law, so far as I can ascertain, are now given. (1.) By a return made to the House of Lords in 1884, 13 it appears thai— (a) In an overwhelming majority of Board schools in England and Wales religious exercises take place, in most instances, daily ; u and in the very large majority of cases, at the beginning of the morning, or at the close of the afternoon, meeting: whilst in some cases they are practised at the beginning and end of each meeting 15 —indeed, as was said at the Carlisle Congress— " the practices of the Boards are most diverse, ranging from the total exclusion of religion to the use of the full liberty which the Act allows ;" 1G (b) The services generally consist of reading the Bible, with or without comments, prayers and hymns ; and the majority of the Boards have framed their by-laws on the London ones (herewith) : 17 but in some cases the Bible is not read ; 18 and particularly so in Wales : where religious instruction is excluded altogether in far more instances, in proportion, than in England. 13
Boards and managers regulate religious instruction, subject (in case of Boards) to approval of by-laws by superior authorities, and (in all cases) to restraining sections of Acts.
Eegulations must be posted. Some schools give no religious instruction. Object aimed at by legislation.
Practical the low. °
1 E. Act, 1870, sec. 7, ss. 3. But on 24 June, 1886, the London Board resolved that a thorough and detailed examination in Scripture knowledge should bo held in each school once in three years, and conducted by the Board's Inspectors. See "P.M. Budget," 1 July, 188G. 1 E. Act, 1870, sees. 14 and 74. * E. Act, 1870, sees. 7, 14, and 74. ♦ Sec. 7. ' Mr. Cumin's evidence, however, before Royal Commission (1886) should bo noted. He holds that there is nothing to prevent a teacher giving the most definite doctrinal teaching—for instance, note his reply to Mr. Molloy. • Sec. 14, ss. 2. » Sec. 74, ss. 2. « E. Act, 1870, s. 7, and note also s. 74, ss. 2. 8 See Parl. Return of 15 Jan., 1884. 10 See " Times," 3 Oct., 1884, report of Church Congress at Carlisle—" The Eeligious Side of Elementary Education."
In Scotland the Established Church makes small grants towards religious instruction, subject to examination. » See " N.0.," Nov., 1882, p. 788. The religious instruction for the blind at the Normal College, Upper Norwood, is also unsectarian. '2 See " Times," 3 Oct., 1884. '« 15 Jan. 14 Bat for instances of exceptions, see Return, pp. 16,100, and 181. 16 See, for instance, pp. 13, 17, and 178; see also p. 7, and also 17 for further exceptions. 10 See " Times," 3 Oct., 1884. " According to a recent return, the London Board Schoolg provide accommodation for 390,753 children, supplied at a cost, including land, of £6,003,781. For details of last half-yearly report sec " P.M. Budget," 6 Aug., 1880, p. 24. 18 See, for instance, Return, pp. 34 and 119, 120. 19 See Return, pp. 193, 195, 197, and 199 ; and for unusual regulations see pp. 7, 117, 134, 192, and 198. For English instances of exclusion, noto Birmingham, Middleston River, Atwood Bank, and perhaps a iavf others.
12
13
E.—l2
GREAT BRITAIN.
Beligious Teaching in State-aided Schools. (2.) Religious instruction takes place in all voluntary State-aided schools1 during school hours : and it is said that in them " undoubtedly and of necessity the religious teaching ... is more distinctive, thorough, and valuable, beside being given to a greater proportion of the children in attendance." 3 (3.) Virtually few — indeed, the official authorities say no — children are restrained by parents from attending the religious instruction. 0 (4.) The Department is never now pressed with any substantial objection to the present regime* The opinion of the Secretary to the Department is that "to enforce secularity in State education in Great Britain is neither practicable nor desirable. Religious instruction is now regularly given in school hours, and the objection to any children attending- such instruction is one of theory, not of practice. Few are withheld from such instruction—a percentage certainly not worth recording." The Rev. Canon Cromwell, Principal of St. Mark's Training College, Chelsea, agrees with the Secretaiy : and the other officials, with whom I conversed on the subject, spoke similarly. The view of Mr. Matthew Arnold also is to the effect that "the conscience clause" practically disposes in England of the question, and that the course pursued is a fair and advantageous one. 5 On the other hand, Professor Huxley gives me leave to state his opinion to be " that the principle of strict secularity in State education is sound, and must eventually prevail." 6 Thus the situation is that— (1.) Be lege, the English system is — although not compulsorily so yet — essentially secular, notwithstanding, the State recognizes religion as an indispensable element in national life by having an established church ; (2.) De facto, the system is religious, but so far only as the majority of the burgesses, or ratepayers of districts, 7 or the managers of State-aided voluntary schools, determine ; (3.) Where religious exercises are carried out, the feelings of the minority of parents or guardians, in the the case of Board schools, and of the majority or minority, in respect of voluntary schools, are protected, 8 although where religious exercises are not carried out there is no school provision for the wishes of the minority being regarded; (4.) And that—in view of the existing state of thought in England on religious subjects—the law is extensively considered to have proved to be, at all events, a step towards a satisfactory reply in England to the question : " How should religious instruction be treated in a State educational system ?"a The main features therefore are— (a) Local control in respect of religious teaching, with considerable protection of minorities; and (b) Denominational subsidies.
The Secretary's °Pmjon °?- secular education.
Canon Cromwell's opinion. Mr. M. Arnold's opinion. Prof. Huxley'u opinion.
Summary of situation.
1 See also re religions instructionfa) G.8., 1883-84, p. 454 ;" and (b) Offic. Catalogue as above, pp. 2fi, 27. 3 " N.C., :1 p. 783. 7 Nov., 1882, but see next paragraph. a See (a) Secretary's opinion below ; (b) Mr. Mundella's speech on " Eeligious Teaching in Board schools," " Times," 16 July, 18S3; (c) Dr. Dale's testimony in N.C.; (a) The late Mr. Forster's speech in Parl., " Times," 28 July, 1883, stating Roman Catholic average attendance had risen from 90,000 in 1873 to 168,000 in 1883 ; («) Dr. L. Wiese's book, pp. 255, 256, 203-220, ancl 253.
But contra, see— (a) " Times," 14 Sept., 1883, statement by Vicar of Croydon; and (6) " N.C," Nov., 18S2, p. 788. 4 Note Mr. Mundella's evidence, S.C., pp. 74, 75. 5 But Mr. Arnold's comments in his (May, 188G) report on the Continental systems should be carefully perused, especially pp. 8, 12, 14. " See also Dr. Dale's opinion, "N.C." as above. ' See E. Act, 1870, s. 29. 8 See E. Act, 1870, sees. 7, 14, and 74. 3 But see Art. on " The Radical Programme," in " Contemp. Beview," Feb., 1886, by F. Harrison, p. 277.
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
STATE SUPPORT. The same grant regulations apply to both voluntary State-aided and Board schools ■} but the grant paid to the former is less, pro rata, than that to the latter, where the cost per head is greater. 2 The last return issued in May, 188G, 3 shows the proportion which endowments, grants, school pence, voluntary contributions, and rates, &c, bear to the total expenditure on voluntary and Board schools ; and that for the year ending 31st August, 1885, the private contributions to voluntary State-aided schools amounted to £756,828. So that a completely gratuitous system would have additionally cost the State in England and Wales alone («) £756,828, (b) the amount of fees paid by scholars in both classes of schools, 4 and (c) large sums voluntarily contributed by private bodies and persons in the shape of sites 5 for the erection, enlargement, and improvement, of school buildings. The opinion of the Secretary is that " free education is neither practicable nor advisable "G (he refers, of course, especially to Great Britain), "and to make education free would be to make it not only not valued, but a considerable drain on the revenue. Again, if free education were established, the necessary effect would be to destroy a vast number of voluntary schools. The grading of schools according to the means of the population can only be effected by means of a graduated scale of fees;" with which opinion Canon Cromwell concurs. Mr. M. Arnold also expressed himself to the following effect: That he did not at all agree in the necessity, or indeed the advisability, of free education; that there might be extreme cases of poverty, in which case, on representation made, the parents might be exempted from payment of the fees on that ground, but that these should be extreme cases ; 7 that the rule should certainly be that all pay, and on a fixed scale ; that there is a duty on the parent to educate his child, that it is only right that he pay in pursuance of that obligation, and that the State should not be called upon to pay unless the parent is clearly shown to be unable to do so ; 8 that, of course, there is no need for children so exempted to be educated apart from those who pay, and that they should obtain the same information and in the same rooms ; 9 that, as a further argument why parents should pay, he would urge that by paying for the education given they look more keenly after it; and that, according to his views, to make primary education free would be an unnecessary drain on the resources of a country. 10 Professor Huxley's opinion, however, is " that education if compulsory should be free, and the fact of the English system not being wholly free is a mistake. The fees charged are not worth considering as an element of a total cost." 11
Grant regulations apply similarly to Voluntary and Board schools.
Estimated extra of gratuitous education.
The Secretary's gratuitou" education.
Canon Cromwell's opinion. Mr. Arnold's opinion.
Prof. Huxley's opinion.
1 See Code, Arts. 87-105. 3 See G.R., 1885-86, pp. v. and xxxiv., and Scot., 1885-86, p. xxvii. 8 G.R., 1885-86, p. iv., and for comments see " Pall Mall Budget," 25 March, 1886, p. 27. < G.R., 1885-86, p. v. 8 See G.R., 1883-84, p. xi., and 1885-86, p. vii. " The average cost of erecting voluntary schools with residences for the teachers, has been about £5 7s. per scholar. This includes, as a rule, the value of the sites, very often given gratuitously."—G.R., 1885-86, p. vii. 6 Very eminent educational authorities in Scotland assured me of their concurrence in this opinion. One professor, having a long and extensive experience in national education, considered it to be more reasonable than free education, that in respect of elementary instruction, the parents should pay a portion of the cost, the district a portion, and the State a portion; and that in respect of secondary education, although the State should aid, the contributions of the parents should be greater. ' Free scholars 4-01, G.R., 1885-86, p. xxxv. B Noto Inspector Fitch's memo, on Dr. (now Sir) C. Brown's report (hereafter termed Mr. Fitch's memo.), p. 77. (c) 1.8.C., vol. xvi., p. 169 and seq., and espec. pp. 182, 183. (d) "N.C.," Nov., 1885, Art. by Lord Norton on " Free Schools," p. 804 and seq. For instance, Lord Norton writes, " the senseless and popularity-hunting cry of free schools for the people," p. 817, and (e) " Sat. Rev.," 7 Aug., 1886, " Elementary Education pn the Continent," and
(/) See note B. Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) "Reports on certain points connected with Elementary Education in Germany, Switzerland, and France," should be carefully studied, especially pp. 4-10. " Of all feeble folk the feeblest are those who meander about asking to be educated." —" Macm. Mag.," March, ISB6, p. 378. But note Mr. Cumin's evidence (1886) before Royal Commission, and especially reply to Canon Gregory's question, "Is it not a fact that children go in their father's carriages, and have men servants in livery to carry their bocks ? " 9 Note G.E., 1882-83, p. 311. 10 See also— (a) G.8., 1882-83 and 1883-84, pp. 22C, 432, and 392. (&) Paper by Dr. Rigg on " Free Education." " See also " N.0.," Nov., 1882, pp. 784-786; " The Radical Programme," espec. pp. 12, 51, 52, 107, 108, 172, 223, and 225, Chapman and Hall, (Lim.), London, 1885; and Art. in " Macm. Mag.," March, 1880, by Hon. G. C. Brodrick, Warden of Morton College, on " The Socialistic Tendencies of Modern Democracy," p. 392 (in which, p. 395, is a review of the " Rad. Programme) ;" and Art. on the " Rad. Programme," by F. Harrison, " Contemp. Rev.," Feb., 1886, p. 277; " Edin. Rev.," Jan., 1886, p. 276; and " Fee or Free," by G. R. Sims, " P.M. Budget," 5 Aug., 1886; and particularly Dr. Philbrick, p. 104. On the difficulty of working a compromise between compulsion and school-pence, see decision of Croydon Petty Sessions, "Pall Mall Budget," 19 Nov., 1885, p. 23,
14
15
E.—l2
GREAT BRITAIN.
State Support. The reports 1 herewith enable a comparison to be made of the cost on average to the State (including rates), 2 per scholar and per inhabitant, of education as between Great Britain and the Colony. When considering, however, the bearing of the result-figures (which would appear to be startling) it is requisite to remember on the one hand-—■ (a) The existence in Great Britain of voluntary schools, training colleges, and scholars' fees; and (b) The absence there of systematic grants in favour of secondary and higher education (except to Scotland and, to a certain extent, to Wales), scholarships, school libraries, deaf-mute institution, Maori schools, and School Committees' expenses; and on the other hand the additional expense in Great Britain 3 of— (a) The Science and Art Department; (b) Evening elementary schools; and (c) Pensions and gratuities for teachers. Moreover, may not the difference of cost, which is in favour of Great Britain,* be considered to be far greater in reality than it appears, in view of the superior pecuniary and sanitary conditions of the Colony as a whole, and, therefore, in view of the greater ability on average to pay fees and keep children at school ? COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT SCHOOL, 5 AND SCHOOL AGE. Probably on account of "the idea," as publicly expressed by Professor Max Miiller, " that parents could throw off the responsibility of educating and instructing their children, a mistake which pervaded the whole system of education, particularly in England/' 0 the Legislature placed on record the principle upon which compulsory school attendance and fees is founded. 7 (1.) School fees, 8 which in Great Britain form part of the system of compulsory education, are fixed by voluntary school managers for their schools, and provisionally settled by Boards for theirs. They differ in various districts, and even in various schools in the same district. Remission of fees and establishment of free schools are similarly controlled : except that in remitting fees the Boards need not refer to the Department. (2.) Attendance is not enforcable against a child of ten years, or upwards, who has obtained a certificate of proficiency 9 or of previous due attendances at a " certified efficient school" ; 10 or who is employed 11 and attending school in accordance with the Factory Acts, or of any by-law mentioned in the clause of the statute according the exemption. Further, the local authorities may, under certain conditions, temporarily
Comparative e^ation^s between Great Colony.
Principle of e^ation'and fees.
' G.Ks., Eng. and Scot., including 1885-86, and compare with N.Z., 1886, report. ! After debate on the London School Board Budget, a metropolitan schoolrate of B£d. in the pound was carried on 25 Feb., 1886. 3 For percentage of cost of administration in Eng. and Scot., see Mr. Mundella's remarks, " Times," 22 Nov., 1884, and compare with data in N.Z. Beport, 1885. 4 " It is one of the advantages which England secures by having Colonial dependencies that the smaller communities may sometimes be inclined to try social experiments which are at first impracticable on a larger scale. In this respect the majority of Englishmen do not value the Colonies at their true worth."— Prof. Sutherland. " Tasmania was the first part of the British dominions that recognised, and enforced by legal sanction, the principle that it is the duty of the parent to educate the child."—"Tasmania As It Is," by Chief Justice Dobson; " Colonies of India," 14 May, 1886, p. 86 ; and see "The Education Act, 1885," sec. 14, Tasmania. » For origin of compulsory education see Sir P. J. Keonan's address, p. 65. It was established in a modified form in England in 1870, and in Scotland in 1872, p. 66. " Assuredly it was not the poorer classes who clamoured for education to be given to them at the expense of the rich. On the contrary, the movement came from above," &c.—Art. by the Hon. G. C. Brodrick, Warden of Merton College, in " Macm. Mag.," March, 1886,
on "The Socialistic Tendencies of Modern Democracy," p. 392. " Mais tout n'est pas fiui la-bas." Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) report should be carefully studied, especially pp. 21-24. 8 See " Times," 23 Sept., 1884. See also (a) Insp. Pitch's memo., p. 77; and (b) Abbe Martin in " N.C.," 19 Oct., 1882, pp. 545-347. Note Lord Macaulay's remarks on parental duties in this respect, Essays, &c, 1885, p. 476, thus : " Education is the principal end of a parental relation," &c. 7 Note how fees are fixed, S.C., p. 19, and see E. Act, 1870, sees. 17, 74 ; 1873, sees. 23, 24; 1876, sees. 4-12 ; 1880, sec. 2 ; and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sees. 89-95, and 1885, sees. 6-8. There is no compulsory education in Ireland, see S.C. See also Sir P. J. Keenan's address, pp. 64-67, where merits of question are fully discussed. 8 See E. Act, 1870, s. 17, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 84, ss. 6. 8 See (a) E. Act, 1876, s. 5, ss. 2, and s. 47 and first schedule thereto, and 1880, s. 4 ; and (b) G.8., 1885-86, p. xii. ; 1883-84, pp. xvii. and 126-128, and comparo with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 90, ss. 4; and 1885 Act, s. 6-8, N.Z. Standard IV., Kegs, of June, 1885. But note an apparent anomaly. Compare E. Act, 1870, s. 74, with 1876, sees. 48, 4, 11, 12 ; and 1880, s. 4. 10 For interp. read E. Act, 1876, s. 48 with s. 5, and see first schedule, clause 2. But note 8.C., vol. l,p. 537. 11 See E. Act, 1876, s. 9, and K.0., vol. 1, p. 524.
E.—l2
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Compulsory Jttendance at School, and School Age. exempt a child over ciglit years of age " for the necessary operations of hushandry and the ingathering of crops " for a period not exceeding six weeks in a year. 1 (3.) And somewhat similar excuses to those available in the Colony are allowed for other cases of non-attendance, but the terms relating to a certificate of exemption differ. 3 It is not universally admitted that the results of the British compulsory-attendance provisions are satisfactory ; 3 but the opinions of the Secretary and Mr. Arnold are that they do not see that compulsory payment of fees affects the question ;* and that, primary education should be compulsory, 5 whether free or not, for the protection of society. The authorities forwarded herewith enable careful study to be bestowed upon this subject, and also as to what bearing pecuniary6 and sanitary circumstances may have as between Great Britain and the Colony in affecting the average attendance,? especially in respect of children over the age of ten. 8 The holidays for Board schools in England and Wales arc —at Christmas, two weeks ; at Easter, from Good Friday to the Saturday in the following week, both days inclusive ; at Whitsuntide, one week; and in the summer three weeks, to commence on the first Monday in August. In Scotland, one week at Christmas, and six weeks at midsummer. The Saturday holiday prevails throughout Great Britain. 9 There is no express definition in England, by statute, of school age ; 10 but as a rule the attendance of a child (a) under three years old at a day school is not recognized 11 —that is, for return purposes —or (b) of any scholar who has passed in the three elementary subjects in the Seventh Standard, 12 unless the Inspector has previously permitted such scholar to be reexamined in that standard ; (c) or "in an evening school, or (d) for any scholar under fourteen or over twenty-one ; but children under fourteen who are by the Department deemed to be exempt from the legal obligation to attend school are recognized as scholars in an evening schod." The fixing the minimum compulsory age at five has become of trivial importance in view of the general institution of infant schools/ 3 which receive special grants; 14 and a large proportion of the children in average attendance, from the ages of three 15 to seven—and sometimes older —attend there : whilst the significance of the age of thirteen 16 is largely impaired by the proviso whereby a child may leave at ten. 17
Bearing of fees to compulsory education.
Holidays
Sehool age
1 E. Act, 1876, s. 9, ss. 3, and note N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 89, and 1885 Act, s. 6. » See E. Act, 1870, s. 74, and 1876, ss. 5, 11) and 12, and first schedule and Standard IV., and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, ss. 89, 90, and 1885 Act, ss. 6-8, and espec, note the one-year time-limit. In the Highlands in Scotland distances prove such a serious obstacle to attendance that special grants are made for schools ten or fifteen miles apart. Indeed, education there would not otherwise be practicable, seeing that rating in some places is 6s. Bd. in the pound, besides an education rate. Note also G.8., 1885-86, p. xvii., and Scot., 1885-86, p. xxyiii. » Notefa) Mr. Heller's paper, 1.E.C., vol. xiii., pp. 154-168, and discussion thereon. (6) " Times," 3-5 Jan., 1883. \e) G.R., 1882-83, pp. 277, 278, and 296. (d) G.8., 1883-84, pp. 432 and 392, and G.E., 1885-86, p. ix.; " The Inquisition in London."—" P. M. Budget," 30 Sept., p. 9, and 7 Oct., 1666, pp. 16 and 25; and " Punch," 9 Oct., p. 179. (e) G.R., Scotland, 1883-84, espec. pp. xv. and xvi., and 1885-86, p. 12. (/) "Nat. (Primary) Education in Ireland," by J. Ferguson, Pres. of Irish Nat. School Teachers' Assoc. Trans. Nat. Soc. Sc. As., Dublin, 1881, pp. 351, 352. See also working of system in New South Wales and Victoria, " The Colonies and India," 11 Dec, 1885, p. 35; and " Aust. Times and Anglo-N.Z.," 1 Jan., 1886, p. 12. 4 But note Mr. Arnold's (May, 1886) report on Continental Schools, especially pp. 4 and 8. » Note also Mr. Mundella's remarks, " Times," 27 Aug., 1884, and sub-leader " Times," 8 Aug., 1884. But contra, note — (a) Remarks of Bishop of Lincoln, "Times," 8 Oct., 1883. (6) Professor Huxley's opinion as above.
(c) Mr. Heller's paper as above, and discussion thereon. (d) Mr. Buxton's remarks in " N.C." as above. (e) Art. on " The Radical Programme," by F. Harrison, " Contemp. Review," Feb., 1886, p. 277. e Notefa) Authorities repayment of fees ; (6) G.R., 1883-84, p. xvii.; (c) E. Act, 1876, s. 9, ss. 3. ' Compare G.R., 1885-86, p. ix., and G.R., Scotland, 1885-86, p. xii., with N.Z. 1886 report, p. iv. s Compare G.R., 1883-1884, p. xvi., and N.Z. 1885 report, p. ii. 9 Taking London Board as representative, hours are—9 to noon, 2 to 4.30 p.m., making during week 27J hours. But teachers, not finding this sufficient to meet requirements of Code, generally add an hour either before or after regulation time ; making total of 82$ hours. 10 Except English Act, 1876, Act passed for special purpose, see s. 48. But see Revised Instructions to Inspectors, 1884, clause 46. See also G.R., 1882-83, pp. 439, 440; compare N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 83 and reg. 14, N.Z. Gazette, 92, 1878. A Scotch professor of great experience expressed to me his opinion that no child should be taught under the age of seven. Note especially Mr. Cumin's evidence before Royal Commission (1886) on school age, supra, n. 14, p. 7. » G.R., 1885-86, p. xiii. 12 See Code, Art. 13. Attendance over fourteen is apparently not contemplated. See Revised Instructions to Inspectors, 1884, clause 46, and 1886, clause 66. 13 G.R., 1863-84, p. 225. But note 1885-86, pp. ix. and xii. " See Code, Arts. 106 108. is G.R., 1885-86, pp. ix.-xii. 16 But note in Scotland school age 5-14 ; and school life as a rule does not begin before 6.—G.R., Scot., 1885-86, p. xii. " See (a) G.R., 1883-84, p. xvii., and 1885-86, p. xii.; (b) Mr. Heller's paper, as above; and
16
GREAT BRITAIN.
E.—l2
Teachers. There are children—as contemplated by clause 30 of the code—who attend school over thirteen, 1 but their number docs not, apparently, justify special classification in returns. 2 The prohibitions against the injurious employment of children are covered by the authorities referred to. TEACHERS. 3 " The teachers 4 recognized by the department are: (a) pupil teachers, (b) assistant teachers, (c) provisionally certificated teachers, 5 (d) certificated teachers, (e) evening school teachers." 0 " Lay persons alone arc recognized as teachers in day schools," 7 and the supply for both voluntary and Board schools is mainly derived from (a) training colleges ; 8 the other sources being principally those (b) pupil teachers who yearly complete their engagement satisfactorily, but who cannot be admitted to training colleges for want of room ;' J (c) persons who have been appointed as assistant teachers by Boards by virtue of being graduates of a university in the United Kingdom ; 10 (d) women over eighteen years of age who have passed a university examination 11 recognized by the department; (e) and persons who have passed the examination for admission to a training college. 13 The training colleges arc promoted and managed by various denominations 13 or societies, after having been established by them at a cost, to them, of £520,273 3s. 2ad., as against only £114,483 ss. 3d. out of the public purse. 141 The State merely aids 15 and inspects them. 16 There are in England and Wales 42 residential establishments 1 ' and seven in Scotland ; and the complete term of training is two years. 18 They furnish respectively some 1,500 and 430 teachers annually, 11' and the supply of certificated teachers is now sufficient for the demand. 19 The average annual cost per student in England and Wales is £51 9s. Id., including about £1 10s. average cost of instruction in science. 20 Of this amount, however, the State only contributes about £37 3s., 21 whilst of the remainder nearly 9-20ths consist of fees paid by students. 23 In respect of pupil teaching, 23 the llight Hon. A. J. Mundella admitted to me that he^ felt it to be a weak point in the English system, and considered that pupil teachers should' only teach half-time;' 24 and, in reply to a deputation, he subsequently stated that "the Government were confirmed in the opinion that the reduction of the hours of teaching by
Prohibition of injurious employment of children.
Classes of teachers.
Sources of supply of teachers.
Training colleges.
Pupil-teacher system.
(c) Pv.C., vol. 1, pp. 537 and 524. " The age statistics of the census of ISBI show that 23.73 of the total population are between 3 and 13 yeai's of age. On the usual assumption that sixth-sevenths of the population are of the class whoso children ought to attend public elementary schools, it follows that 20.34, or, say, 20 per cent., of the whole population might be found on the register." ' Seo also E. Act, 1876, ss. 11, 12, and 4S, and supra, p. 7, n. 15. 1 Sec G.H., 18S5-86, p. xi. • For latest statistics see G.R., 1885-86, p. xviii. Mr. M. Arnold considers that " the methods of teaching in foreign schools are more gradual, more natural, more rational than in those of Great Britain."—Head his (May, 1880) report, especially pp. 13, 16-21. Note Mr. Mundella'a remarks, Times or Daily News, 25 Feb., 1884. There are very few in Scotland, and such as there are :nainly act as assistants under certificated teachers, till they obtain a certificate as acting teacher, or complete their normal course. 6 In Scotland, at all events, these teachers are usually those who aro the assistants in the day schools. ' Code, Arts. 31, 32, and compare with N.Z. regs., N.Z. Gazette 92, 1878. 8 See (a) G.H-, 1885-86, pp. xviii.-xxvi. and iv., and Scot., 1885-86, p. viii., and compare with N.Z. 1886 rep., pp. xv. and xvi., and regs. dated 5 May, ISBS. (5) Times, 20 Sept., 1884, containing notes of Mr. Davis's paper. (c) Note also Dr. (now Sir) C. Brown's report on " Over-pressure," pp. 48-50. * See G.R., 1885-86, pp. xviii., xxvi. 10 Note also Scotch Code, 1886, Art. 47, giving superior facilities, and G.R. Scot., 1883-84, p. xxiv. " " But these need never have been inside an elementary school," see Mr. Heller's Handbook on Codo. Bemroso and Sous, London. 3—E. 12.
12 See Code, Art. fll, and compare with N.Z. regs. as above. 18 Note ecclesiastical test, and possible denominational warp, Times, 20 Sept., 1881, as above. 14 G.R., 1885-80, p. xviii., and G.E., Scot., 188j-BG, pp. 8 and xxiii. is Code, Arts. 128-133. 10 Seo (a) Code, Arts. 117 and 121; and (b) G.H., 1885-86, pp. iv. ami 18, and compare with N.Z. 1577 Act,s.B,s.s. 3,androgs. as above. •> But see 8.C., vol. 1, p. 526. 18 See Code, Arts. 116-133, and compare as above with regs. 13 Seo G.R., 1885-86, p. xviii., and U.R., Scot., 1885-BG, p. xxiii. See also Times, 20 Sept., 1884, papor by Mr. G. B. Davis. For details relative to examinations, &c, seo G.R., 1885-86, p. x., 1833-84, cspec. pp. 469-482, and seo also 485, 456, 4'J2-4<J7, and 505-599, and G-.R., Scot., 1885-86, p. xvii. 20 See G.R., 1883-84, pp. 490, 491, 488, 489, 493, and xxiii., and compare with N.Z. cost, 1886 report, p. xvi. But see Official Science Directory, p. 2. In Scotland, however, only £45 Is. 7d. for masters, and £41 17s. sd. for mistresses; G.U., Scot., 1885-86, p. 262. 21 See G.R., 1883-84, p. 483, and G.R., 1885-86, Scot., p. 261. 23 See G.R., 1883-84, p. 489. Since the above calculations were made, a later return, as relating to England and Wales, not yet to hand, has been published this year (1886). see P. M. Budget, 25 March, 1886, p. 27. In Scotland, education at normal schools is gratuitous for two years for those who can pass certain examinations. ! :3 See Code, espec. Arts. 33-45, and third, fifth, and sixth schedules, and Arts. 50 and 52, and oompaia with N.Z. regs., especially Gazette 92, 1878. See also Mr. Heller's Handbook. For interp. of term "Pupil Teacher " see Ait. 33, Code. 24 But note Mr. Holler's comment in Handbook on Art. S3, Code
17
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Teachers. female1 pupil teachers was absolutely necessary, and would be glad if still further relief could be given to them."^ The Secretary to the Education Department, Canon Cromwell, and Inspector Fabcr 3 also informed me that they recognize the defect ; 4 but that it is one which, in their opinion, it is not practicable to rectify on the ground of expense. Of assistant teachers, 5 there is nothing distinctive to remark, except that, under certain circumstances, they may be " provisionally certificated teachers " in charge of small schools ; 6 but, after the completion of the twenty-fifth year of their age, " provisionally certificated teachers" cease to be recognized as such. " Provisionally certificated teachers," thus consist of (a) assistant teachers, and of (b) pupil teachers who "have passed satisfactorily the examination for the end of the last year of their engagement, or obtained a place in the first and second class in the examination for admission to a training college, and who are, on the satisfactory completion of their engagement, specially recommended by the Inspector on the ground of their practical skill as teachers." 7 Teachers, in order to become certificated, must be examined, 8 and " undergo probation by actual service in school; "° and, I am informed, that the best ones are trained at schools of about 200 scholars, where they can see everything. For evening scl. :ols "any person over eighteen years of age, approved by the Inspector, may be recognized as teacher," and " teachers of evening schools need not be lay persons." 10 The list of a school's staff, as soon as the Inspector's annual report is received, is settled by the department. 11 Teachers for Board schools arc appointed by the Boards, and hold " office during the pleasure of the Board, who may assign them such salaries, or remuneration (if any), as they think fit, 12 and may, from time to time, remove " them; but, except at the first meeting of a Board, notice in writing must be sent to every member of the Board before any appointment can be made. 13 The remuneration, however, is virtually fixed by the department, being largely dependent upon the reports of the Inspectors. 141 It is called " the payment by results system," and consists of-— (a) A fixed grant 15 for each unit of average attendance ; (b) A merit grant and a grant on examination in class subjects, 1" regulated according to the general excellence of the school; (c) Grants for needlework and singing calculated on average attendance (of girls only in the former case^ unless in the case of such infant schools or classes as where the boys are taught needlework) ; 17 and of
Assistant teachers.
Provisionally certificated teachers.
Certificated teachers.
Evening school teachers.
Appointment of teachers.
Remuneration of teachers.
' On capacity of females to teach, see R.C., vol. 3, answers 3553, 3605-3CG7. 1 London Daily News, 20 March, 1884. 8 Metropolitan district of Finsbury. i Note also Instructions to Inspectors, 1884, clause 70, and 1886, clauses 69 and 70. For authorities pro see— (a) G.R., 1882-83, pp. 449, 392, 314, 375, 271. (b) G.R., 1883-84, pp. 341, 388, 537,429, 317, and 325. (c) Instructions to Inspectors as above, "Pupil Teachers." (d) R.C., vol. 1, p. 520, and vol. 3, " Pupil Teachers," in index. («) Dr. (now Sir) C. Brown's report " Over-pressure,*' 30 April, 1884, pp. 33-48. (/) "N.C.," Nov., 1884, p. 825. (g) Times, 20 Sept., 1884, Mr. Davis's paper and discussion, and note N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 50, and Gazette 92, 1878. (h) " Starving the London Schools," by Mrs, S. A. Barnett, P. M. Budget, 28 Jan., 1886. Contra, see— (a) G.R., 1883-84, p. 355, 336 ; 1885-86, p. xviii, and Scot., 1885-86, p. xxi. (6) 1.E.C., vol. 16, 1-14, 57, 58. (c) Insp. Fitch's memo., pp. 72-76. One of the Scotch professors already referred to, approves of the system generally, but would increase the stringency of the entrance examination. 6 Note G.R., 1882-83, p. 315, and 1885-86, p. xviii. Seo also Code, Arts. 50 and 51. 'Seefa) Code, Arts. 50, 51, and 93. (b) G.R., 1883-84, p. xx. But noto Mr. Heller's remarks in Handbook, and N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 45, and regs. as above
♦ (a) Code, Art. 52. (b) G.li., 1883-84, p. xix., and compare with N.Zi report as above, and see G.R., 1885-86, p. xviii. ) 8 See G.R., 1885-80, p. xviii., footnote, and compare with N.Z. regs. of Sept., 1878, July, 1880, and May, 1885. 9 Code, Art. 55. 10 Code, Arts, 79, 80. " See Code, Art. 82. For details see art. 83 and E. Act, 1870, ss. 1C and 97, and compare with N.Z". 1877 Act, ss. 45, 47, and 50, and regs. as above, and of tho respective Boards in Colony. 12 For average salaries of certificated teachers, see G.R., 1885-80, p. xx., and G.E., Scot., 1885-86, p. xxii., and compare with N.Z. 188G Report, p. ix. " See E. Act, 1870, s. 35, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, ss. 45, 47, and 50. See also Offie. Cat. Health Exh., 1884, 2nd ed. p. xlvi. 14 See Code, Arts. 100-109, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act and regs., as above. See also " N.C.," Nov., 1884, Art. by Mr. Buxton. Noto superior salaries in Scotland of masters, but not of mistresses, and compare Eng. and Scotch returns as above; and see Mr. Mundella's remarks, Times, 22 Nov., 1884. The Victorian Minister of Ed. said this year (1880) thfit the public school teachers in Victoria are bettor paid than those in any other country in the world. For details of Victorian and the other Australasian system see Official Reports, Acts, &c, herewith. 16 Code, Arts. 104, 106 (as), and 109 (a), and Revised Instruc. to Inspec, 1880, Arts. 59-07. 16 Arts. 106 (6) and 109 (6), (/), and Revised Instruc. to Inspec, 1880, Arts. 12, 48-55. '» Code, Art. 10G (c), (d), and 109 (c), (d).
18
GREAT BRITAIN.
E.—l2
Teachers. (d) Special grants on examination in elementary and specific subjects (including cookery), calculated according to the number of subjects in which each scholar on examination passes/ paid to Boards and managers, but ultimately accruing, in most cases, to teachers. This principle, although strongly upheld by the department, 3 and by some other authorities, 3 has been greatly objected to, as substituting results for processes, and encouraging a pernicious system of cram, 4 and lias been accordingly abandoned by the London School Board, and some other Boards. 5 Mr. M. Arnold — even although one of Her Majesty's senior Inspectors—expressed himself to the effect that he thought paying teachers by so-called results tends to " over-pressure," that such a system of payment is a most pernicious one, and that teachers should, as in Germany, be thoroughly trained and paid fixed salaries only. 6 Canon Cromwell also feels most strongly that the practice is simply ruinous to the children ; and knows of no system comparable, in respect of payment of teachers, to the German.'' There is a sum of £6,500 voted annually for pensions, donations, or special gratuities to teachers in Great Britain engaged prior to 9th May, 1862; and the rules which govern distribution are given in the code. 5 The maximum number of pensions receivable at one time is 270—20 of £30 each, 100 of £25 each, and 150 of £20 each=£6,100; the balance (£400) being available for donations or special gratuities." The special points in England relating to teachers therefore are— (1) Voluntary training colleges 10 —(a) aided and inspected, but not directly managed by the State, (b) non-gratuitous, (c) residential, (d) including special training of infant-school teachers, and (e) teaching science ; (2) Only lay persons available, except for evening schools j (3) Examination and probationary actual service in school before certification; (4) Pupil-teacher special regulations respecting certificates, licenses, and hours of employment; (5) Payment by results ; and (6) Pensions and gratuities, 11 although only to the very inadequate extent just mentioned.
Pensions and 6rafc"ltles t0
Summary of touchers 11"8
' See Code, Art. 109 (e), (g), (h). (b) "N.C.,"Nov., 1884, giving details, espec. pp. 800 and 815. But note Insp. Fitch's memo. p. 71, and compare with N.Z. regs., Gazette 89 and 121, 1878. See also regs. of 16 June, 1885. This does not apply to infant schools or classes. * Note, for instance, — (a) Insp. Fitch's defence of it as above, p. 72. (i) Times, 14 April, 1885, parliamentary discussion and leader. « For instance, the Abbe Martin, "N.C.," Oct., 1882, Art. on "The French Ed. System," Sir P. J. Keenan's Address, pp. 02-04, and papers by Dr. Molloy, Rev. R. Rice, Drs. Hime and Laffan, and Mrs. Byers. Transactions, pp. 349, 388, 402, 405, 419, 420. An ex-official in Edinburgh, who has had good opportunities of judging, told me that this system has increased the efficiency of elementary education (i.e., the easy money-earning subjects), and of the easy money-earning specific subjects, to the detriment of high proficiency by a few in university subjects. On the whole, he considers the system worthy of approval, but that the hard money-earning subjects should be more liberally paid for; that the total grant should not be entirely dependent on results, although it should be mainly so ; and that in countries like Scotland, where local circumstances vary so widely, a portion of the grant should be made dependent on amount of local rate. «See— (a) "N.C.," Arts, by Lord Norton, Feb., 1884. (6) Mr. Buxton's Art. as above. (c) St. James' Gazette, 5 Feb., 1884, account of Bradford teachers' meeting. (d) T-imes, 14 Oct., 1884, letter from Lord Brabazon. (e) Dr. Wiese's letters, pp. 263, 264. (/) R.C., vol. 3, index, " Payment on results," and see hereafter " Over-pressure." (g) " Nat. (Primary) Education in Ireland," by J. Ferguson, Pres. Irish Nat. School Teachers' Assoe. Trans. Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, p. 349. (h) " Real schoolwork and cramming are, however, incompatible, and the attempt to carry on both in the same institution is sure to end in failure," C. Dawson, M.P., Trans. Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc. as above, p. 435, and see also p. 430. " The wretched Goyern-
ment system of supporting schools by payment on piecework," Lord Norton, " N.C.," Nov., 1885, Art. on "Free Schools." See also (i) " Medical Press," 1 July, 1886, condemning the system. 5 See Mr. Fitch's memo., p. 70. 8 See also opinions of teachers and others— (a) "N.C.," Nov., 1884, Art. on " Over-pressure," espee. p. 815, and Feb., 1884, Art. by Lord Norton. (6) Dr. R. (c) Times, 19 Sept., 1884, re Mr. Levett's paper. (d) Mr. Goschen's opinions—pamphlet. Kerslake and Co., Bristol, 1879 ; and especially (e) Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before Royal Commission (188G), and his (May, 1886) report on Continental Schools, cspec. pp. 20-22, and comments thereon. "Journal of Ed.," 1 Sept., 1886, p. 354. 7 Note also his paper on Teachers, 1.E.C., vol. 16, pp. 59-67. 8 Code, Art. 134. See also G.R., 1883-84, p. xxxvi.; G.R., 1885-86, p. xxxv.; G.R., Scot., 1885-86, p. xxviii.; and Scotch Code, 1886, Art. 118. No pensions available in Great Britain for teachers engaged since 9 May, 1802. For discussion of this subject see "Nat. (Primary) Ed. in Ireland," by J. Ferguson, as above, p. 356 and seq., espec. p, 366. 9 The recent discussion of the superannuation scheme of and at the London School Board and its results deserve careful attention. See Times, 6 Aug., 1886. 10 As a new and striking departure in English university and teaching life — according to the " Toynbee Journal " —fifty elementary teachers were in August last about to take up their residence in Balliol and Exeter Colleges. They were to occupy undergraduate rooms, dine in common, attend lectures, and submit to the usual college rules. Their term was to extend over three weeks. And see P.M. Budget, Oct., ISB6, p. 26. Note also provisions made by Aberdeen University, G.R., Scot., 1885-86, p. xxiii. 11 Note rather remarkable circumstance re means of Scotch teachers, Mr. Mundella, London Daily News, 25 Feb., 1884. Inspector Arnold advocates their abolition, see evidence before Royal Education Commission in England (1886), answer 5833,
19
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
SUBJECTS OF STUDY, 1 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION, AND "OVER-PRESSURE." The tabular statement (sec Table 17*) affords a eomparison between the subjects of 1 study in the ordinary elementary 2 schools in England, and those in the Colony. The publications, noted at foot hereof, supply some information on the construction and fitting up of school premises.3 1 Technical instruction is provided for by the State in Great Britain by— (1) "Drawing" being made a class subject; 4 {I) Optional "specific subjects;" 3 and by (3) The Science and Art Departmento—to the support of which annual grants arc made, "to promote instruction in science, especially among the industrial classes." Instruction in that department is not gratuitous unless exceptionally; 7 but scholarships, exhibitions, free and semi-free studentships, prizes, medals, and money payments are given;B and Professor Huxley is inclined to think " technical education should be supplied free to the artisan population." In addition to other official publications, the reports of the Royal Commission on ( Technical Instruction afford ample information; 9 and it will h? noticed in them that there is special stress laid upon the impyrtance of teaching drawing 10 and agriculture. 11 The reports have already resulted in drawing being made by the Code a class subject. 1The aid afforded by the Science and Art Department is not confined to schools and classes, but embi'aces the general promotion of scientific knowledge. 13
Comparative tabular statement of subjects taught in England and tils Colony. C jnstruction and fitting up of school premises. Provisions for technical instruction.
Special stress in upon importance of teaching apiculture 1 and a result.
' " The characteristic mark of a thoroughly good scfiool is, that all its pupils in attendance are effectively taught as far as their natural ahility will allow." Address by Head Inspector of Nat. Schools in Ireland, delivered at Nat. Soc. So. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, Trans, p. 478. s But note Mr. Cumin's evidence before Royal Education Commission, 188G (hereafter called R.E.C.), espec. 1010-11, and see particularly 1019 on the working of the Elementary Education Act; thus apparently it is within the province of the department to define elementary education as including algebra, Euclid, mensuration, mechanics, chemistry, physics, physiology, botany, sound, light, heat, magnetism, electricity, Latin, French, German, Greek, and Hebrew ; and if any child came to any elementary school and required to be taught all those subjects the department would, under certain circumstances, sanction the establishment of a school for teaching them. See aUo comments "Journal of Ed.," 1 Oct., 188G, p. 400, and see Mr. Cumin's answers R.E.C., 574 and seq., and 723 and seq. For curriculum of National Schools of Ireland see Sir P. J. Keenan's address, p. 04. For detailed information respecting Standards, in addition to that in Table 17*, see R.E.C., Inspec Stewart, 360G and seq., Inspec. Sharpe, 5008. • (a) 1.E.C., espec. vol. xiii., pp. 25 and 32, and 207-13; and (5) G.lt., 1883-84. pp. 372, 385, and 402; and (c) "School of Architecture and Hygiene," with plans and illustrations, for the use of school trustees in Ontario, Canada.—Printed for Ed, Dept., Toronto, 1885. 4 See also Revised Instructions to Inspectors, ISSG, Art. 44. 8 Sec Code, 109 (17) and table in fourth schedule See also 1 Revised Instruc. to Inspec, 1884, Arts. 45-47. • For details, see— (a) 31st report, and supplements to 31st and 32nd reps. (b) Directory, 1884. (c) Order in Council, 25 Feb., 185G, Act 19 and 20 Viet., c. 11G. (•I) History of Dept. in supplement to 32nd report, and ! in 30th report, pp. xxx-exii., and notice Continental j information, pp. G-36 ; and (e) G.R., ISS3 84, p. xxv.; and (/) S.O. For influence of training, sse— (a) K.0.; espec. vol. 1, pp. 513 and 537. (6) Dr. It., p. 15. (c) Daily News, 24 Jan , 1884; paper by Mr. Carpenter. | (</) Times, 15 Nov., 1884; lecture by Dr. Farrar. whose main work in life his been modern education—" to allure to brighter worlds, and show tho way." For agriculture, see— (e) E.C., rep. espec. vol. 1, pp. 532-53G, and vol. 2 ; (/) Times, 3 Oct., 1884, Mr. Dyer's letter; |
(g) London Globe, 14 Feb., 18S4, article ; and For experiments as to tho most efficient means of promoting agricultural education, as tried in Ireland, where agriculture is a compulsory subject, see Sir P. J. Keenan's address, p. G4. For paper on "The Agriculture of a Nation in its relation to the Property of tho People," by Baghot de la Bero, see Trans. Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, p. 74G. And for best means of imparting instruction in agricui- *"* ture, see paper by J. Ferguson, as above, p. 357, and discussion thereon. ' See Directory, pp. 1 and 2, but note R.C., vol. 1, p. 537. 8 See (a) Directory, xxxii., xxxiv., xxxvi.-xxxviii, lii.-liii., lv., lvi., lxviii.-lxxiv.; and (b) R.C., vol. 1, pp. 52G and 538. 3 Ist report, and vols. 1, 2, and 3, espec. vol. 1., pp. 393--504, and vol. 4, pp. 513, 515, Sl7-*2O, 522, 529, and 536-538 ; and espec. 400, 1884. For definition and comments on reports, see (a) "N.C.," Aug. ISS4, art. by Rev. H. Solly, espoc p. 504, and (6) Address by Mr. Magnus (one of the Commrs.) at opening of Finsbury Technical College, 9 Feb., 1883; Longman and Co., London. Finsbury College, now defunct, seo "Journal of Ed.," 1 Oct., 18SG, p. 403. See also— (a) 1.E.C., vol. 14. (b) Report dated 25 Mar., 1885, of the City and Guilds of London Institute, Gresham College, London, 1885. For what City of London spent in 1885 on education, seo " Public Opinion," 17 Sept., ISBG, p. 37. (c) Daily News, 25 Jan., 1884, address by Mr. A. Morley, M.P.; 20 Mar., 1884, by an ex-Lord Chancellor. (J) Times, G Oct., 18S1, Mr. Magnus, and 25 Nov., ISS+. (e) Dr. R., pp. 15 and IG. (/) Notice, with details, of tho recently established Technical School at Sheffield.— "Birmingham and Sheffield Hardware Manufacturers' Circular," 15 Feb., 188G; and (/) Art. by Lord Brabazon in " Time," May, 1836, p. 549, on "The need of National, Industrial, and Technical Training." "° Espec vol. 1, pp. 517, 519, 520, 524,53G, and 538 ; Times, 19 Dec, 1884 ; resols. Lond. School Board, and noto N.Z. Gazette 92, 1878. 11 Espec. vol. 1, pp. 532-53G, and vol. 2. See also n. 8, above. 13 See Ait. 1G; and compare with N.Z. regs., 1G June, 1885. 13 See Directory, espac. sees, xlii., xlix., 1., Hi. -lvi., lx., lxii., lxviii.-lxxiv. The Senate of Cambridge proposes to admit engineering into its curriculum,
20
E.—l2
TABLE SHOWING THE SUBJECT OF STUDY, COMPARATIVELY, IN THE PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF ENGLAND AND NEW ZEALAND.
17
ENGLAND AND NEW ZEALAND. STANDARD I. STANDARD II. STANDARD III. STANDARD IV. STANDARD V. STANDARD VI. STANDARD VII. READING,— England 1 (Obligatory) Arts. 15 and 109 (e) code 1886. To read a short paragraph from a book, To read a short paragraph from an elenot confined to words of one syllable. mentary reading book. To read a passage from a more advanced reading book, or from stories from English history. To read a few lines from a reading book, or a History of England. To read a passage from some standard author, or from a history of England. To read a passage from one of To read a passage from ShakeShakespeare's historical plays, speare or Milton, or from some or from some other standard other standard author, or from author, or from a history of a history of England. England, New Zealand 1 N.Z. .. (Obligatory) Sentences composed of words of one Sentences containing words of two sylsyllable, and common words of two lables, and easy words of more than two syllables to be read intelligently. syllables, to be read intelligently, and the meanings (not necessarily strict definitions) of the words to be known. Spelling: easy words of one syllable. | Spelling: easy words of two syllables. Easy reading book to be read fluently and intelligently, with knowledge of the meanings of the words, and with due regard to the distinction of paragraphs as well as of sentences. Spelling: from the same book; knowledge of words having the same or nearly the same sound but differing in meaning; dictation of easy sentences from the reading book of a lower standard. Reading and definition. —An easy book of prose and verse. treading and definition.—A book of general information not necessarily excluding matter such as that prescribed by Standard IV. Spelling and dictation : suited to this stage. Standabd VI. A book containing extracts from general literature. Pass-subjects Spelling and dictation: suited to this stage as represented by the reading book in use; the dictation to exhibit a knowledge of the use of capitals and punctuation, but (at inspection) to be confined to prose. Spelling and dictation; suited to this stage. Addit.-subjects Knowledge of subject-matter of the read- Knowledge of subject-matter of reading ing lesson. lessons. Repetition of easy verses. Syllabus and Repetition of verses. Syllabus showing test as for object lessons. progress. Subject-matter of the reading lesson. Recitation. — Additional subject. } Of a higher order than for Standard IV. Recitation.—Additional subject. As for Standard V. Regulations of June 16, 1885, and September, 1878. Repetition of verses. Syllabus showing progress. Recitation.—Additional subject. A list of pieces learnt, and one piece (or more) specially prepared for the examination. WRITING,— England 2 (Obligatory) Arts. 15 and 109 (e) code 1886. Copy in manuscript characters a line of A passage of not more than six lines, from print, and write from dictation not more the same book, slowly read once, and than ten easy words commencing with then dictated word by word, capital letters. Copy-books (large and half-text hand) to Copy-books (large or half-text hand) to be be shown, shown. Six lines from one of the reading books of the Standard slowly read once and then dictated. Copy-books (capitals and figures large and small hand) to be shown. Eight lines of poetry or prose, slowly read once, and then dictated. Copy-books to be shown. Writing from memory the substance of a short story read out twice; spelling, handwriting, and correct expression to be considered. Copy-books to be shown. dictation may, at the discretion 0: A short theme or letter on an easy A theme or letter; composition, subject; spelling, handwriting, spelling, and handwriting to be and composition to be con- considered, sidered. Note-books and exercise-books to Copy-books to be shown. be shown. [N.B.—An exercise i: the Inspector, be substituted for composition.] New Zealand 2 N.Z. (Obligatory) Pass-subject. Regulations of June 16, 1885, and September, 1878. The small letters and the ten figures, on Short words in copy-books, not larger than slate, at dictation. round hand. On slate, Capital letters and transcription from reading book of Standard II. Longer words and sentences, not larger than round hand; transcriptions from the reading book of Standard III., with due regard to punctuation and quotation marks. Good copies in a hand not larger than Small hand copies in a strict forroundhand, and transcription of poetry. mal style; andtexthand; transcription of verse in complicated metres, and of prose exhibiting the niceties of punctuation. Standabd VI. The copying of tabulated matter, showing bold headlines, and marking distinctions such as in letterpress require varieties of type, e.g., the copying of these printed standards, or of a catalogue showing division into groups. arithmeticEngland 3 (Obligatory) Arts. 15 and 109 (e) code 1886. The work of girls will be judged more leniently than that of boys, and as a rule the sums set will be easier. Notation and numeration up to 1000. Notation and numeration up to 100,000. Simple addition and subtraction of The four simple rules to short division, numbers of not more than three figures. The multiplication table, and the pence In addition, not more than five lines to table to 12s. be given. The multiplication table to 6 times 12. The former rules with long division. Addition and subtraction of money. Compound rules (money) and reduction of i Practice ; bills of parcels ; and common weights and measures. single rule of three by the method of unity. Addition and subtraction of proper fractions, with denominators not exceeding ten. Fractions, vulgar and decimal; Compound proportion; averages simple proportion; and simple and percentages, interest. Short exercises in mental arithmetic the work of the may be given in the examination of all Stai next higher Standard (compare with N.Z. I idards. These should not involve large numbers ; should from the first deal wit eg. concerning Standards II. and VI.). See also " Revised Instructions to Insp< ;h concrete as well as abstract qualities, and should be preparatory to ectors, 1886 " (hereafter called R.I.), Arts. 28-31. New Zealand 3 N.Z. (Obligatory) Pass-subject. Regulations of June 16, 1885, and September, 1878. Counting, and oral addition by twos, Numeration and notation of not more threes, fours, and fives, up to 100; mi- than six figures; addition of not more meration and notation to 999 ; addition than six lines, with six figures in a line ; sums of not more than three columns ; short multiplication, and multiplication multiplication of numbers not exceeding by factors not greater than twelve ; sub999 by 2, 3, 4, and 5; relative values traction; division by numbers not exand chief aliquot parts of current Eng- ceeding twelve, by the method of long lish coins; and relative lengths of the division and by the method of short yard, foot, and inch. (Note. —The nu- division ; mental problems adapted to meration must be applied to the addi- this stage of progress; multiplication tion and multiplication, and the multi- tables to 12 times 12; relative values plication known to be a compendious and chief aliquot parts of the ton, hunmothod of addition.) dredweight, quarter, stone, and pound; relative lengths of the mile, furlong, chain, and rod. Numeration and notation generally (one billion being taken as the second power of one million, one trillion the third power, and so on); long multiplication and long division; the four money rules, except long multiplication of money; tables of money, avoirdupois weight, and long measure; and easy money problems in mental arithmetic. Long multiplication of money ; reduction of money, weights, and measures; the compound rules applied to problems in weights and measures; practice and the making out of bills of accounts and receipts ; tables of money, weights, and measures ; mental arithmetic to correspond. The weights and measures of this Standard are avoirdupois weight, troy weight, long measure, square measure, measures of capacity and time, and angular measure. Proportion ; simple interest; the I Standard VI. easier cases of vulgar fractions, I Vulgar and decimal fractions ; interest, and other commercial rules ; and problems involving them ; the metric system of weights and measures, and calculations with mental arithmetic. pound, florin, cent, and mil; square root, and simple cases of mensuration of surfaces ; mental arithmetic generally. NEEDLEWORK,— England 4 (Obligatory for girls in dayschools, arts. 15, 106 (c), and 109 (c): and optional for infant boys.) Below Standabd I. Needle drill.—Position drill.—Strips (18 1. The work of the previous Standard with inches by 2 inches) in simple hemming greater skill. Any garment or other with coloured cotton, in the following useful article as above, order, viz.:—(1) Black; (2) Red; (3) Blue. 1. The work of the previous Standards; stitching and sewing on strings. Garments, a pinafore, shift, or apron. Herring-bone stitch. The stitch only on canvas or flannel. Darning, simple. On canvas. 2. Knitting. Four needles; plain and purled, e.g., mufiatees. 1. The work of the previous Standards ; gathering, setting in button-hole, sewing on button. Garment, a plain nightshirt, nightgown, or petticoat. 2. Marking, simple, on canvas. 3. Darning, plain (as for thin places), in stocking-web material. i. Knitting. Four needles, a sock. 5. Herring-bone, a patch (at least 8 in. square) on coarse flannel. 1. The work of the previous Stan- 1. The work of the previous Standards—whip stitch, and setting-on dards, and the running of a frill. Garment, a baby's nightgown, or child's frock, tuck. Garment as in Standard 2. Darning, plain, on coarse linen. IV. j 3. Patching in print. 2. Knitting. Pour needles, a sock J 4. Knitting. Four needles, a long stocking with heel thickened, or stocking, ribbed or plain. j 5. Cutting out any under-garment for making up in Standard IV. 3. Plain darning of a hole in stock-ing-web material. i. Patching in calico and flannel. 5. Cutting out any garment such j as is required in Standard III. Knitting-pin drill.—A strip knitted (15 | 2. Knitting. Two needles ; plain and inches by 3 inches) in cotton or wool. purled, e.g., muffatees. Standard I. 1. Hemming, seaming, felling. Any garment or other useful article which can be completed by the above stitches, e.g., a child's pinafore, pillow-case, or pocket handkerchief. In small mixed country schools strips (18 inches by 2 inches) of hemming, &c, may be shown, at the discretion of the managers, in place of a garment. 2. Knitting. Two needles, plain, e.g., a strip on which to teach darning in upper Standards, or a comforter. New Zealand I N.Z. (Obligatory for girls in day- j schools where there is a female:teacher. —Addit. subject.) Eegulations of June 16, 1885. Threading needles and hemming. (Illus- As in Standard I., and felling and fixing a tration of work —strips of calico or a hem. (Illustration —a child's pinafore.) plain pocket handkerchief.) I If knitting is learnt it shall be in the following order : a strip of plain knitting and Needlework " in the New Zealai As in Standard II., and stitching, sewing on strings, and fixing all work up to this stage. (A pillow-case, or woman's plain shift, without bands or gathers.) *£Eft^ 5 flfiS«$i PS5i j Cutting out any plain g^?*^ HS^SSlSS?! andfiXinSa SSST* (A »«"-"* F ■> b ' I patching fine diaper. child's sock ; a long-ribbed stocking. N.B.-The subject of " The principles of domestic economy," which is coupled with " Sewing mgst " Specific Subjects." And see Regulation 12 of June 16, 1885, as applying to all Standards. 1 '; knitting mufiatees, ribbed ; a plain knitted nd list, is not in the English list, except ami SPECIAL NOTES EEIATIHG TO "ELEMEITAEY SUBJECTS" (Obligatory). . [For explanation of term "Elementary Subject," see English Code (1886), m. 15 and 109; and compare with New Zealand Regulations of September, 1878, and of 16th June, 1885 and Eighth Annual Report on Educati™«>™ *n3 three are in the same order in the English Code 1 (a)" Readin" with intelligence will be required in all the Stan- the words " Beading and Definition " are used, and the use of Referring to Standard IV.-" The tables to be learned in- Kltl i Si S «k n d 70 and Keg No 10 as in the colonial statute, but that " Needlework " occupies a dards and increased fluency and expression in successive those words is explained in footnote to Standard II. " The elude those weights and measures only which are m ordinary New Zealand 18/7 Ac., ss 84 and ,b, and Keg. JNo. iu. g Jn the New Zealana list than m t i le Eng i lsh one. yelrT Two sets of reading-books must be provided for Stan- reading lessons of this Standard will generally contain some use." For details, see Schedule I. to Code 1886. See also B.I., (6) For statistics see G.B., 1882-83, 1883-84, p. xvli., and 188^-86, pp. (gee Art 15 _ Codej and Nz . 1877 Aot , „ m . dards I and II ■ and three, one of which shouldrelate to Eng- words the children do not use in their own eonversltion. On 1886, Arts. 28-31; and note number 2 (a) as above. xm., xiv., and xvn. ( c ) That the only subjects which are " Optional" in both systems lish history for each Standard above the second. The Inspec- this account ' definition' is here conjoined with reading," &c. Note paper on " How Arithmetic may be simplified," rea<l (c) For severities of syllabus see Times, Nov. 9, 1883, and Daily are « History " and "Physical Training " ; tor may examine from any of the books in use in the Standard. In addition to continuation of footnote to Standard II., seo before Nat. Soc. So. Assoe., Dublin, 1881, by Prof. O'Sullivan. News, Feb. 13,1884. (d) That " Physical Training " is not specified at all as a code subThe intelligence of the reading will be tested partly by ques- footnote 1 to Standards IV., V., and VI., in New Zealand Begu- Trans., pp. 490,491. A very experienced Scotch teacher complained to me of ject in England, and the option in New Zealand is with the tions on the meaning of what is read." Note for further details lations of September, 1878, relating to " Standards."; _ „ _ f 11o inB footnotes— Scotch code in this respect. Boards, and not with the parents ; and that all the other New •'Revised Instructions to Inspectors," (hereafter termed B.I.) 2 (a) " The writing and arithmetic of Standards I. and II. taay be on 3 «•*■ See *o«°™^ footnotes The late Dr Philbrick's remarks on the subject deserve care- Zealand obligatory subjects are m England • Class," with the 1880 Arts 13-24. slates or paper at the discretion of the Managers; m Stand. III. j X st TT ( ' f!i? „?+„„« on'? , <Vbnn^Svstems in the United States," exceptions of "Domestic Economy," which is Specific ■.;' and (6) See a!so B. C, Vol. II., p. 323. it must be on paper." But note B.I.,1886, Arts. [ to |t. II. | Eegulations of September, Jg. l^brick, ppW^W^Sy"on^usuS, P 99 X'n'L^afa code ZfeU^ Traimng ' 1S ™{ s Peclflca»y (c) " English system of spelling was a humbug."—Prof. Mahaffy ({,) gg e jj'c i y o i_ u ; p 333, | to St. IV. f 1878. 4 N 2. See regulations 23 and 12, of June 16,1885. -p or su bjects of study in Scotch schools, see Scotch Code and note Mr. Kane, Transactions, Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 2 N.Z. Sec footnotes 2 and 3 to Standard II. in regulatioas of Sep- SSS'm N B—It will be observed that— (1886), Instructions to Inspectors (1886), Scotch Education 1881, p. 410. "The most preposterous thing in the whole tember, 1878. 2toSt.\I. / £»■»• 1t wm ubuu&.Lrveu iu ,nWientorvin the Colony Department, and G.R., 1885-86, Scot, (all herewith). Further worlds-Prof. Mahaffy, p. 412. 3.. The inspector may examine any scholars in the wdrk of any Ha) Code 1886, Arts. 15, 96(5), 106(c),and 109 (c) and (/) and notes (a) 1^ SfKTSOtSnlwffi regulations in respect of elementary subjects will be found in 1NZ "The reading is to be intelligent," &c. Note footnotes to Standard lower than that in which they are presented " (and in Schedule HI., and E.I., Arts. 7,11, 42 and 4,% and especially 5S\^to^*to^^E^^^^W™SlSfl^Si^r Code, s. 109 (e). Standard I in regulations. In Standards II., III., IV., and V. compare with New Zealand Begulations of 16th June, 1885.) pp. 18 and 19, and also circular and table in G.B., 1883-84, pp. Obligatory in Doth the tngnsn ana new aeauuiu
E.—l2.
TABLE SHOWING THE SUBJECTS OF STUDY, COMPARATIVELY, IN THE PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF ENGLAND AND NEW ZEALAND-continued.
17
STANDAED I. STANDAED II. STANDAED III. STANDAED IV. STANDAED V. STANDAED VI. STANDAED VII. ENGLAND AND NEW ZEALAND. ENGLISH,— England 5 Optional Class-subject.)—See Code 1886, Arts. 15 and 109 (/). To repeat 20 lines of simple verse. To repeat 40 lines of poetry, and to know their meaning. To point out nouna and verbs. To recite with intelligence and expros- i To recite 80 lines of poetry, and to explain To recite 100 lines from some standard sion 60 Iino3 of poetry, and to know i the words and allusions. poet, and to explain the words and allutheir meaning. j To parse easy sentences, and to show by : sions. To point out nouns, verbs, adjectives, ! examples the use of each of the parts of To parse and analyse simple sentences, adverbs, and personal pronouns, and speech. and to know the method of forming Engto form simple sentences containing lish nouns, adjectives, and verbs from them. each othel I Torecitel50 lines from Shakespeare Torecite 150 lines from Shakespeare or Milton, or some other standard or Milton, or some other standard author, and to explain the words author, and to explain the words and allusions. and allusions. To parse and analyse a short complex To analyse sentences, and to know sentence, and to know the mean- prefixes and terminations geneing and use of Latin prefixes in rally, the formation of English words. ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION,— New Zealand 5 N.Z. (Obligatory —Pass-subject.) Regulations of June 16, 1885, and Sept., 1878. The distinguishing of the nouns, adjectives, j fp ne distinguishing of all the parts of speech \ Inflection of the verb ; the parsing (with teS^U^^im^lxercJ^es6^^:, in easy sentences; the inflexion of the j inflections' of all the words in an easy position, to test the pupil's power of putting noun, adjective, and pronoun; letter] sentence ; |a short essay or leiter on a his own thoughts on familiar subjects into writing on prescribed subjects, the ad-j familiar sribject, or the rendering of the words. The more difficult pronouns (asm- dressing of letters and envelopes. sense of a passage of easy verse into ' goodprose; analysis of a simple sentence, but the children should be able to recognise as a pronoun any personal, possessive, or demonstrative pronoun used as a substan-: tive or as an adjective. ' , , ,,.„,.. .,.. m ,, ,. STANDAED VI. j Complete parsing (including syntax) of simple and compound sontences; prefixes and affixes, and a few of the more important Latin and Greek roots, illustrated by a part of the reading book ; essay or letter; analysis of easy complex sentencss. DRAWING,— England 6 (Optional Class-subject.) Arts. 15 and 109 (/) Code 1886. Drawing freehand, and with the ruler of lines, angles, parallels, and the simplest right lined forms, such as some of those given in Dyce's Drawing Book. (To be drawn on slates). ' The same on paper. Freehand drawing of regular forms and j Freehand drawing from the flat and from j The same as I curved figures from the flat. simple rectangular and circular models. ! tion of easi Simple geometrical figures with rulers. I Drawing to scale. Geometrical figures j Plans and elJ with instruments. reetangula Simple sea :en, it will be advisable to teach them to draw as early as possible from actual objects, such as the < Standard IV., with the addir common objects. jvations of plane figures and : solids in simple positions. es. loors and windows, furniture The same as in Standard V., but of greater difficulty. The same as Standard V., with sections. Drawing any common objects, and casts of ornaments in light & shade. The same as Standard VI., but with circular solids and sections. i N.B. —In order to interest the child] md apparatus, of the schoolroom. New Zealand 6 N.Z. .. (Obligatory—Pass-subject.) • Kegulations of June 16, 1885. Straight lines of different lengths, and in different positions. Such lines joined at different p-ngles, and connected to form simple figures and designs. This work is to be done without ruler. Similar work of a more advanced character; but not to bo required as a Pass-subject before 1st Jan., 1887 ; until then a Class-subject. Freehand drawing as in English standard ; but not required as a Passsubject until 1st Jan., 1888; until then a Class-subject. Freehand drawing as above. Drawing to scale simple geometrical figures with ruler and instruments; but not to be required as a Pass-subject before lst Jan., 1889 ; until then a Classsubjeet. _ The same as be require Jan., 1890 in English code, but not to I Standa [ as a Pass-subject before 1st ; The same as Standard V., but of gret until then a Class-subject, j but not to be required as a Pass-sui a Class-subject. .bd VI. a,ter difficulty and including sections ; bject before lst Jan., 1891; until then GEOGRAPHY,— England 7 (Optional Class-subject.) Arts. 16 and 109 (/) Code. To explain a plan of the school and playground The four cardinal points. The meaning and use of a map. The size and shape of the world. Geographical terms simply explained, and illustrated by reference to the map of England. Physical geography of hills and rivers. Physical and political geography of England, with special knowledge of the district in which the school is situated. Physical and political geography of the British Isles, and of British North America or Australasia, with knowledge of their productions. Geography o cal. Lati night. T11 Europe, physical and politi- j Geography of the world generally, The ocean. Currents and tides, ude and longitude. Day and and especially of the British colo- General arrangements of the plane[e seasons. nies and dependencies. Inter- tary system. The phases of the change of productions. Circum- moon. i stances which determine climate. Standards V., VI., and VII., maps and designs may be required to illustrate the answers given. J New Zealand 7 N.Z. (Obligatory Class-subject or Passsubject according to Standard.) Regulations of June 16, 1885, and Sept., 1878. Class-Subject. Knowledge of the meaning of a map ; of the principal geographical terms ; and of the positions of the continents, oceans, and larger seas. Pass-Subject. The names and positions of the chief towns of New Zealand; the principal features of the district in which the school is situated; names and positions of Australian colonies and their capitals ; of the countries and capitals of Europe ; of mountains forming the watershed of continental areas; and of celebrated rivers. Class-Subject. Names and positions of the countries of the world, with their capitals, and of the principal seas, gulfs, mountains, rivers, lakes, capes, straits, islands, and peninsulas on the map of the world; geography of Australia in outlines; and the drawing of rough maps of New Zealand, with sueh one set of principal features (as capes, or towns, or rivers) as the Inspector may require. [In this and the subsequent standards scholars will be expected to know the situation of places mentioned in their reading-books.] Pass-Subject. Names and j ositions of places of political, historical, and commercial importance in New Zealand, in Great Britain, and on the Earopean continent; and the drawing of outline maps of New Zealand, Great Bri am, and Ireland. Physical geography. Distribution of land and water; mbuntaiu and river systems. Mathematical geography; the form of the earth; day and night; the seasons ; the zones j the meridian and parallels ; and climalje in this connection. Stakdabd VI.—Pass-Subject. Names and positions of places of political, historical, and commercial importance in Asia, North America, and the British Possessions. Physical Geography: Atmospheric phenomena, winds, rain, ice; climate as affected by mountain, plain, and sea; distribution of the animals and plants of the greatest value to man ELEMENTARY SCIENCE,— England 8 (Optional Class-subject.) Arts. 15 and 109 (/) Code, 1886. A progressive course of simple lessons on some of the following topics, adapted to cultivate habits of exact observation, statement, and reasoning. Common objects, such as familiar animals, plants, and substam !63 employed in ordinary life. A more advanced knowledge of special groups of common objects, such as, —■ (a) Animals, or plants, with particular reference to agriculture; (6) Substances employed in arts and manu-fa-ctures; (c) The simpler kinds of physical ana mechanical appliances, e.g., the thermometer, barometer, lever, pulley, wheel and axle, spirit level. (a) Animal or (b) The chemi volved in 1 England, d reckoned. (c) The physic volved in t instrumen industrial I plant life; Leal and physical principles inione of the chief industries of jmong which agriculture may be The preceding in fuller detail. The preceding in fuller detail. al and mechanical principles inhe construction of the commoner ts, and of the simpler forms of machinery. New Zealakd 8 N.Z. .. (Obligatory Class-subject.) Eegulations of June 16, 1885. Object and natural history lessons ; Object lessons, and lessons in natural Knowledge of common things. A sylla- The instruction in elementary science for E a syllabus of the vear's work done history, and on manufactures, A bus as for object lessons in the former distribution of the subject over a three-y, to be given to the" Inspector, who syllabus as in Standard I. standards. chemical action as may be imparted by t will elamine the class upon some tlon m elementary mechanics, or in such object selected from the syllabus. 3ect by the Inspector as equiv J J I ! science shall be required for these stando Standards IV., V., and VI. shall bo based 01 ears' course of lessons. The programme mi ;ho proper use of Professor Bickerton's "Mi 1 elementary physiology as may be learnt fr< 'alent to one of these ; provided, however, trds. t a programme, which shall be prepaid Lst include such elementary knowledge ■terials for Lessons in Elementary Sci< >m Mrs. Buckton's "Health in the Ho that, if agricultural chemistry be effi 3d by the head teacher, to show the 3 of physics, and such a conception of ence," and must also include instruc>use," or in botany or some other subLciently taught, no other elementary HISTORY,— England 9 (Optional Class-subject.) Arts. 15 and 109 (/) Code. ;er in London Daily News of 9th September, 1884.^ New Zealand 9N.Z. (Optional Class-subject.) Regulations of June 16, 1885, and Sept., 1878. Inspector will adapt the examination as far as possible to ;the teacher's programme of lessons or other indication of work done. Knowledge of the chronological order in which The succession of Houses ana Sovereigns from The period jfrom 1485 A.D., to 1714 A.D. Standard VI. the following periods stand: Boman, Saxon, 1066 a.d to 14S5 A.p., and the leading events of treated aa the former period is treated The succession of Houses and Sovereigns, and the leading events of each X^^ZiS^^TX in Standard IV. reign from 1485 a.d. to the present (precise dates no! required); also and incidents illustrating the life of the their own character. [Precise dates will not, the elements of social economy ; that is to say, very elementary knowseveral periods. The selection of facts and be required, though a knowledge of them may ledge of such subjects as government, lav?, citizenship, labour, capital, incidents will be left to the teacher; and assist in referring each event to the proper monev and banking the Inspector will adapt the examination reign.] '' 8' as far as possible to the teacher's programme of lessons or other indication of the work done. i „, h,,, 1 „ „, ,, M , SINGING.— England 10 (Op. Class-sub.' STANDARDS I.-VII. IN ENGLAND, AND I.-VI. IN NEW ZEALAND. 119} pp. 173-178 of General Report for 1883-84. See also Code 1886, 107 (d) ana 109 (a), and G.R., 1885-6, pp. xiii. and xv. Details are not given in 1886 Code, but are supplied in the form of Circular (: Art. 15, Code 1886. New Zealand 10 N.Z. .. ., See No. 16 of New Zealand Regulations o£ 16th June, 1885. (Obligatory—Addit, subject.) SPECIAL UOTES BELATIETG TO "CLASS-SUBJECTS." For explanation oi the term " Class " see English Code, 1883, ss. 15 ana 109, ami Sched. II.; also Eevisea Instructions to Inspectors, 1S3G, clauses 32-44; ana compare with New Zealana Regulations of 16th June, 18 5, ana Eighth Annual Beport on Education (1885), p. xvii., ana Ninth (18SG), especially p. vii. . ,,_ . , „. , . . „ _. , trnniioV.. 9 TivB-a-inr.- r ini <int> Miovp «rprial note 5le) ■ eeneral note 13 • ana (/) Note paper read by Dr. Doherty before Nat. Soc. Se. Assoc., (7)) See E.I., Art. 41,1861 and 1880, and 1886, pp. 24-28. "Musical Education in Irish Elementary Schools," by Eev. 5 (a) " The recognized Class-subjects are. 1. Enf «* 2. Drawing C (a See abOTo si'_f"al no to, u(c), ftonci a M me, id, ana U J e^l 3 inore cxtcnderl Gtnd oJ (c) j B c Vol XIII a94 and se p 431 and seq , Jolln JJacMahon , M . A LL . D see Transactions, Nat. Soc. Sc. 3. Geography; 4. Elementary science; 5. History, 6. Singing (6) temMourt who ha "pa^cd the cxaiWnationfo/tl^ Physical Science in Primary and Secondary Schools," Trans- (4 G.R., 1883-84, p. 803 Vnd 1885-86, pp. xiii., xiv., and xv. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, pp. 821 and 842. 7. Needlework for girls (accoidiiig to Code, lbtb.s. IPS (/)), HI LV^^S^n^/JSTJriiia model actions, v 493 (e) On the Galin-Paris-Cheve method ef Sight-singing and its (3) On importance of teaching music, see "Philosophy of Ed" by which it will be noticedare a obl.gatorj-m NewZeaia d toa^uS oTob^d f^t to tCy4a?18M 8 N Z. "In Hu&ary^he Government has ordered every midaieclass value educational see paper read before Educ. Society, Prof. Wckie.-Journal of Ed., June, 188G, p. 257. Y «&& l^SS^ISo^ftSWfittWtf BSg !^tSSBSgtaiffiSS?fc^ llte^ W^ISS^ school to'be Wi.un^e supervision or a man, Attentum, 20th Mk. 18S0; and see Journal of Ed., July, l SS 0, (* Note large percentage taught by ear in Scotland, G.E., Scot., , M Slal SbSSEI Suit bv means of reading ' "* ** '^ " SS «^S (/) In'Ser on " By what means can National Education in Music N.bS&£*. 1 to Schedule II., Code 1886. <6) («) B»B ™,Volir.i.ril.m.espec.-Vol. I., PP. 517-520 and 536, and supply. He has to approve of the table of studies and of the best be promoted," by Sir E. Stewart, Mus. Doc.; and on 10N.Z. See regulations of ICth June, 18S5, No. 21. M -^S«?^l^ff8!2Sffi5^ a school ta (« SSSS inspectors, 1 ? SC, Art. 44. rPT« S^) P°f tW°diViSiOnS-" (F™"tallS 6N-Z- E^0 ?^Sduc^iSSp° £x^in^nl^ 1p^f * S^SK^-SKSE^^M^ ** GENEHAL NOTES BELATIJTG TO WHOLE TABLE. (d) ""No more than three Class-subjects may be taken by either 7 (a) See above note 5 (e), and E.I. under heading "Class-subjects," 9 There is no syllabus provided m the English Code tor the teach- Thg c i ass i n j. a tion of " Elementary," "Class," "Obligatory," and "Optional" subjects is that of the English Code (1886), ss. 15 and 109. division; the same number must be taken throughout the espec. Arts. 32, 34, and 38-40. ing pi mstory, DUt see Tll0 terms «obligatory," " Pass," " Class," and " Additional," are applied to New Zealand in view of the 84th section of " The Eduechool. . (b) B.C.. Vol. I., p. 517, and Vol. II., p. S24; obpeciaJ notes 1 ana &(e). ■ otanfl.rfl V ami cation Act, 1S77," and Eegulatioiis of 10th June, 1885. But note SOth section of Act, ss. (1). For additional explanation of terms see * (e) " If only one Class-subject is taken it must be English, if two (c) I.E.C., Vol.XIII., p. 481, and seq.; and (6)' If History beitajenasJ Class-subject in^Standard V. ana New Zealand Eighth Annual Beport (1885), p. xvii. are taken one must be English, and the second may be, in the (rfi "Geographical Education."—Eeport to Council of Boyal Goo- upwards, a progressive scheme of lessons in it must be sub- 5 *™ '•* lower division drawing geography clementarv science, or ' graphical Society by J. Scott Keltic, the Society's Inspector mitted to the Inspector at his animal visit, and approved by 1 For explanation of the addition of the Seventh Standard in Eng- Arts. 69,70, and p. 20; which compare with regulations in New needlework (for "iris); in the upper division, drawing, geo- of Geographical Education. J. Murray, 1885. him for the ensuing year." land, sea Inspector 1 itch s Memo, on Dr. (now Sir) C. Brown's Zealand Gazette, No. 92,1878. eraphy elementary science, history, or needlework (for girls); On the improvement of geographical education in schools (c) B.I., 1886, espec. Art. 32. Eeport, pp. 02,63. 7 List of publications and apparatus used by London School Board if three be taken one must be English and another drawing, and colleges see Marquis of Lome's Presidential Address to id) I.E.C., Vol. XV., p. 33. 2 As 10 age lit which children should pass the Standards in Eng- forwarded herewith, and compare with N.Z. Orders in Council and the third may be in the lower division, geography, elemen- Eoyal Geographical Soc, 10th Nov., 3685, see their monthly (c) " Our system of education must always seem a failure to me so land, compare above memo, with notes to "Standards" in of 24th Sept., 1878, 9th Sept., 1884, ana 17th Jan., 1885. tarv science or needlework (for girls); in the upper division, record, p. 780; and for latest information on General Edn. see long as history occupies so small a space in it," Prof. Seeley, N.Z. Keg. of Sept., 1878. 8 For latest statistics respecting grants made, see G.E., 1885-86. geography elementary science history, or needlework (for monthly record from time to time. Nineteenth Century, Dec., 1885, art. "Insular Ignorance," p. 3 In judging of the relative severities of requirements of the two 9 For regulations re time-tables, see Code, Art. 4, and clause 56 in girls) Provided that if the scholars in" the 4th Standard are For Exhibition of Appliances as use:! in Geographical Edu- 801, but Eee the whole article; also, as relating to Victoria, see systenjs the following facts may be suggested as among the Eevised Instructions to Inspectors, 1886. placed in the upper division, that division may not take his- cation, see Proceedings Eoyal Geographical Soc., Jan. 1886, Australian Times and Anglo-New Zealander, 2Cth Feb., 1880, elements to be considered:— 10 For New Zealand relating to " Standards of Education and torv If drawing or needlework is taken, it must be taken in and for lectures and discussions " On the Aims and Methods p. 26. (a) The in^int-school system in England; Inspection of Schools," see regulations of lGth June, 1885, and both divisions " (For further rules re needlework see Code, of Geographical Education," Feb., 1SS6, p. 116; and for lee- (/) A circular will shortly be issued (if it bo not already issued) (6) The greater range there of compulsory school age; see N.Z. Eeport, 1885, p. xvii. 1886 109 (/), vi., vii.) tures and discussions on "Geography in its Belation to His- by the Education Department in Victoria with the object of (c) And thfegreater percentage of attendance in the colony at the 11 For studies in Hawaian native, ana other schools see Biennial if) "All'scholarswhoarerequiredtobepresentedforexainination tory," and "On the Scientific Aspects of Geographical Educa- making State-school instruction there more immediately advanced ages. Eeport, Honolulu, 1884, p. 9 and seq., and Statute Law, 1865, in the elementary subjects must be presented for examination tion," March, 1886, p. 193. practical. History is to be taught, poetry is not to bo com- 4 (a) For " Specific Subjects," see Eng. Act, 1870, see. 97, and Arts. sec. 8; and note general provisions for observance and in any Class-subjects that are taken, unless there is a reason- (e) Note action of Scottish Gecg. Soc. to promote teaching gcog. in mitted to memory but understood, composition will bo in- 16, 17, and 109 (3), Code, and for table see Sched. IV. to Code, enforcement of parental and filial duties, Stat. 1865, see. 37, able excuse for their being absent or withheld from the schools.—Proceedings Eoyal Geog. Sot., April, 188G, p. 271. eluded amongst the subjects in the higher classes, the rules and notes thereon, and see E.I., Arts. 45-47,1884 and 1880, and and morality provisions, Stat. 1870, sec. 1. examination." /) Noto notices of Messrs. Johnston's School Atlas of Oceania com- of arithmetic must be applied to the Ordinary affairs of life, G.B., 3885-86, p. xvi. Note "Morals and Manners" in Code, ana stress laid on in) "The scholars examined in the Class-subjects are examined in prising thirteen full coloured maps ot Australian colonies, and elementary instruction will be given in the laws of (b)Note "Domestic Economy ]' included among the "Obligatory" "thoroughness." the classes in which they are taught." ' New Guinea, Fiji, and New Caledonia, and New Zealand, and health, see Australian Times and Anglo-New Zealander, 15th subjects in the N.Z. Stat. is included in English list " Specific 12 Professor Seeley is of opinion that there are too many subjects (70 "The examination is, as a rule, oral in the lower division, a general map of Oceania, issued this year, Australian Times Jan., 1886. Subjects." On"Cookery," Code, 109(70, and Sched. IV. thereto, taught in the English schools at once, " N.C.," Dec, 1885, Art. except in drawing." and Anglo-New Zealander, -20th Nov., 1885, and 15th Jan., 1886. (g) For recent papers on teaching history, see Journal of. Ed., see E.t., 1886, Art. 68. G.E., 1883-84, p. xviii., G.E., 1882-83, p. 185, on " Insular Ignorance," p. 872. (i) " The examination of the scholars varies according to their " Geographical education is much more progressive and May, lfctG, p. 203; June, p. 237; Aug., p. S23; and Sept., pp. 367 I.E.C.. Vol. IV., p. 171 and seq., and note discussion on the 13 Be school books see Pall Mall Budget, 26th Nov., 1885, p. 14; and Standards." The work of each Standard is detailed in 2nd svstematic on the Continent than in England. This general and 372. " Hig!:er Education of Women," Transactions Nat. Soc. Sc. for notice of Vere Foster's drawing-books, see Illustrated Schedule to Code, 1886. superiority applies not merely to the average school instrue- 9N.Z. («) "History" stands before "Drawing" and "Elementary AssoeL Dublin, 1881, pp. 431-433. Note advocacy of excision of London News, 29th May, 1880, p. 572. U) For further notes see Code, 1885, Art. 109 (/); and tion, but involves the accuracy and educational value of Science " in the 1877 Act, but in Eegulations after " Drawing" "Animal Physiology," B.C., Vol. III., 3637. 14 Mr. Cumin's evidence before Eoyal Commission (188C) on the \k) See E.I., 1886, on English, Arts. 36, C7, and generally on "Class- foreign maps and text-books."—Eeport by J. Scott Keltic. J. and before "Elementary Science." (c) No " Specific Subjects" are included in N.Z. list for elementary working of the Elem. Ed. Act, concerning what can be and subjects," Arts. 32-40. Murray, London, 1886. (6) There is no provision in England that "no child is compelled schools except "Domestic Economy." what is taught, should be carefully noted. (0 G.E., 1885-86, p. xv., 1883-84, p. xvi., and 1882-S3, p. xvii. N.Z. Sec footnotes 5 to Stand. II., 4 to Stand. III., 4 to Stand. IV., to be present at the teaching of history whose parents or 5 There are no specific statutory or code regulations in England 15 See noto 1 to Sched. I. to Code, 1886, and also Art. 17 of Code, 1886. (m) Noto paper " On the Teaching of the English Language in 3 to Stand. V., and 3 to Stand. VI., in 5.Z. Eeg. of Sept., 1878; guardians object thereat," see 84th section of N.Z., 1877, Act. respecting drill or physical training; but note latter part of 16 For Scotch schools, see Scotch Code, 188G, Scotch Instructions to Elementary Schools," read before Nat. Hoc. Sc. Assoc. Dublin, and sec Bog., of Juno, 1885, Nos. 11 and 17. (c) See footnotes 5 to Stand. III., 5 to Stand. IV., and 4 to Stands. Code,1886, Art. 10 and Arts. 17 and 12 s.s. (/); and G.E., 1885-86, Inspectors, 1836, and G.E., Scot., 1885-86 (all herewith); and 1S81, by Prof. Joyce, Training Dept., Dub., Trans, p. 491; and 8 (a) See above special note 5 (e), E.I., 1886, Arts. 32-40. V. and VI. in N.Z. Kegulations of Sept., 1878. p. xvii., 18t>;-84, pp. xvii., xviii., and 258 and 314; and G.E., note, in districts where Gaelic is spoken.it may be taught (k) "On Phonetics in its relation to the Teaching of Languages," ib) Noto that elementary science in the English list is placed (d) See also Begs. 11 and 17, loth June, 1885, and Eighth Annual 1882-83, pp. 185, 441, and 473; see also Times, 10thand 14th Oct., Se. Code, Art. 19, which regulation seems somehow to correpaper read before the Educ. Soc, see Atlienceum, SOth Jan. before " History," but in New Zealand it is otherwise. Eeport (1885), p. xvii., and Ninth (168G), p. vii. 1884, and 9th Nov., 18S3. For New Zealand, see Eeg. 12 of 16th spond to the provisions re Welsh, see footnote to Sched. I. 1886. (c) See footnotes to Schedule II. to Code, 1985. 10 (a) Note higher position of " Singing" in the English list of sub- June, 1885. Eng. Code, 1886. (o) See Eevised Instructions to Inspectors, 1886, Art. 26. (d) See G.E., 1882-83 and 1883-84, p. xxv. jects (see Art. 15 of Code) as compared with "Vocal Music" in 6 For information respecting the requirements for the examina- 17 For full information on subiects of study in public schools of 5 N.Z. See footnotes 2 ana 3 to Stand. III., and 3 to Stand. IV. N.Z (e) See B.C., Vol. I., pp. 393, 394, 424, 444, 457, 407, 470, 475. 484, and the colony. But it is not obligatory there, and possibly the tion, &c, of pupil teachers, see Schedules III., V., and VI. of Australia and Tasmania "see Acts regulations and reports Eeg. of 1st Sept., 1878. 517, ana Vol. II., pp. 324 and 327. higher position is of no significance in view of Art 109 (/). English Code, 1886, and E.I., 1886, Arts. 33-45 of Code, 1886, herewith.
E.—l2.
GREAT BRITAIN.
Subjects of Study, Technical Instruction, and " Over-Pressure." To aid judgment on the subject of " over-pressure/' some references arc given below. 1 It will be noticed that the main causes arc alleged to be— (a) want of sufficient piominencc to physical training ; (/;) " payment by results " system; (c) want of proper method in teaching ; (d) overtime and home lessons ;* (e) and need of proper nourishment, and insanitary neglect. The Secretary, in respect of the existence of "over-pressure," said: "There may be rare exceptions, but as a rule no; unless it be in the case of female teachers, who have to teach and learn simultaneously:" and Prof. Huxley is of opinion " that as a rule the present curriculum in England is not too severe." But Mr. M. Arnold considers that there is " ovcr-prcssurc," caused principally by too little attention to physical training in schools, that such instruction should be far more attended to than at present; and that if physical training were adequately attended to it would strengthen and render more healthy the body, which would thereby be enabled to stand a far more severe mental strain than it otherwise could. 3 But at the same time he thought paying teachers by so-called results tends to " over-pressure," &c. I may add that on arrival in England the number of young persons wearing glasses particularly impressed me; and I was informed by oculists and opticians that the number had alarmingly increased since the operation of the Education Act of 1870. * INSPECTION AND EXAMINATION. 0 Inspectors are appointed by Her Majesty, on the recommendation of the department ; and arc independent of Boards, or any local authority. 0 It is by their agency the department is enabled to wield the power which controls the whole machinery. 7 The duty of Inspectors is defined to be "to visit schools, to examine whether the conditions of annual grants have been fulfilled, and to report the result to the department." 8 Indeed, before even any fixed grant is made by the department 9 it has to be satisfied (and its decision is final) that the required preliminary conditions have been fulfilled; and further grants arc
"Over-pressure."
Opinions.
Appointment of Inspectors.
Duties of inspectors.
On the necessity of technical education in India, note tli3 Viceroy's remarks, " The Colonies and India," 16 April, 18SC. Distinction between knowledge and science pointed out in " Journal of Ed.," July, 188G, p. 285. " The distinction consists in the orderliness of the knowledge." 1 (a) Dr. (now Sir) C. Brown's rep., dated 30 April, 1884; and Times letters, 18 and 26 Sept., 6, 13, 30 Oct., 6 and 29 Nov., and 1 Dec., 1884. (b) Mr. Fitch's mem. and Times letter, 20 Sept. and 18 Oct., 1884 (leader). (c) Mr. Mundella's remarks, Times, 26 Mar., 7 April, 7 Nov., 1884; 14 April, 1885. (d) Inspector's reps., G.R., 1883-84, pp. 257, 209, 293, 304, 336, 349, 380, 388, 414, and 464. (e) Instructions to Insp., ISS4, Art. 57. (/) Hesols. of teachers, St. James's Gazette, 5 Feb., 1884; Morning Post, 6 Mar., 1884; P. M. Gazette, 16 Oct., 3884; Times, 10 and 18 Nov., 1 Deo., 1884 ; 9 and 19 Jan., 1885. (g) Medical test.— Daily News, 31 Jan., 1884 (and seo 13 Feb. and 4 Aug., 1884); Lloyd's Weekly, 2 Mar., 1884; Morning Post, 10 Mar., 1884; P. M. Gazette, 27 Mar., 18S4 (and see 27 Sept., 1884, and 5 Feb., 1885); Times, 8 Aug., 17 Sept., 21 Oct., and 29 Nov., 1884 (and see 9 Nov., 1883, London Sc. Board, 14 Oct., and 11 Nov., 1884). (h) "N.C.," Nov., 1884, and July, 1880. Sec also Dr. riiilbrirk, pp. 29 and 30, especially as regards female pupils. (i) "N.C.," July, 1880, Ait. by tho Rev. F. Wills on " Recreative Evening Schools." (;') Sir Spencer Wells's address to Sanitary Congress, 1886. (7c) R.E.C., Inspector Stewart, 3581 and scq. 8 " Now as to the child, at least, I think only a small part of his day ought to be given toldssons." —Prof. Seeley, "N.C.," Dee., 1885, "Insular Ignorance," p. 863. See also pp. 871 and 872. See also R.E.C., Inspector Sharp, 0580 and scq. •Note also R.E.C., 5703; and G.R., ISB3-84, 388, and 1832-83, p. 441; and G.R. Scot., 1885-80, p. xix., re Military as well as Ordinary Drill. The Swedish gymnasium movement should not be overlooked.
4 See Dr. (now Sir) 0. Brown's rep., pp. 31-33, 46, and 50, and other authorities already quoted. See " Journal of Ed.," July, 1880, p. 296. For " Some results of Over-pressure in Scandinavia," see P. M. Budget, 31 Dec, 1885, p. 2\. The Si. James's Gazette recently (1886) said that tho increasing number of spectacled children leads to tho suggestion that the School Board is at fault. 5 For school statistics, see G.R., 1885-80, p. 111, and seq., 1883-84, pp. xiv. and xviii., 204-5, 213, 216-20, -Mi, 228, 240, and index, and compare with N.Z. 1886 rep., p. 1, and seq., 1885-80, Scot., p. vii., and scq., and also re Inspector of Higher Schools, p. xxx. Note superior results in England in Board schools, p. xv., and John Bull, 5 April, 1884. For definition of Inspector, seo Code Art. 5, and E. Act, 1870, s. 3. Note in Continental countries they take no part in examinations for a grant. Sir. Arnold, R.E.C., 5090. P'or purpose of comparison, refer generally to N.Z. regs. of 16 Juno, 1885, and of 17 June, 1884. Under heading of " The Terror of School Exams.," the P.M. Budget of 22 April, 18S6, records two instances of young ladies running away from home after failing to pass; and says those "are not the first cases of tho kind in the district." And see " Germany," infra. See " Bevis. Instruc. to Inspectors," 1886, Art. 1, and seq. ; and for comments thereon, "Journal of Ed.," Sep., 1886, p. 354. On main value of examination, see " Journal of Ed.," 1 July, 1880, p. 271. " See E. Act., 1870, ss. 3 and 35, and Code Art. 18, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 30 (notwithstanding s. 7). In Ireland " all Inspectors are now appointed by competitive examinations." For mode of selection in England, seo Mr. Cumin's evidence, R.E.C., 1870, and seq.; Inspector Sharpe, 4368; Inspector Arnold, 5087, 5574, 5575 and seq. 1 For particulars ie salaries, see Times, 22 Nov., ISS4, Mr. Mundella'a parliamentary reply. 8 Code, Art. 18, and compare with Standards, &c, N.Z. regs., 16 June, 1885. See also E. Act, 1870, s. 9. See also on tho duty of an Inspector, p. 22, n. 18; and Mr. Cumin, 8.E.C., 726 and seq. 0 Code, Arts. 87 and 88-115, and compare with Payment of Grants, &c, Gazette 89 and 121, 1878.
21
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Inspection and Examination. solely dependent on an Inspector's report. 1 Inspectors have also other important functions— e.g., to approve time tables ; 3 and to report to the department on (a) the necessity of schools contemplated or in existence, 3 (b) that premises are in every way fit, 4 (c) on teachers and the necessity for them, 5 (d) on fees/ and (e) on application for pensions,7 &c. Indeed, except where Statutes otherwise provide (as in religious teaching matters), 8 Inspectors are virtually omnipotent in administrative concerns. It would seem to be one of the chief defects in the administration both in England and Scotland that local Boards have little real power; and therefore feel little responsibility. The district Inspector is, as a rule, felt by teachers and Boards to be the only person whose views are deemed worthy of consideration. The regulations 9 respecting casual inspections and examinations call for no special remark, except in respect of the presentation of scholars for examination; and that individual examination has been dispensed with in Scotland in the first two Standards. 10 But the general instructions to Inspectors, especially respecting home lessons and punishments, should not be overlooked. 11 It is noticeable that a much larger percentage of scholars is presented for examination in England than in the Colony. 12 For training colleges 13 special Inspectors are appointed by the department, and "no grant is made to a training college unless the department is satisfied with the premises, management, and staff." There are two classes of examinations held there —viz., those for • admission and for certificates ; u and here again Inspectors' functions are most important. The examinations of evening scholars take place once a year by an Inspector, or by an • assistant approved by the department, on the periodic requests of the managers of the school, provided— (a) It has met forty-five times since the date of the last examination ; 15 and (b) That there are at least twenty scholars presented for examination; for, if there be not twenty scholars presented, the scholars can only be examined at a collective examination, or at the same time with day scholars. There are various restrictions relative to presentation of evening scholars for examination. In addition to a fixed grant, a sum of 2s. for each subject in which a scholar passes is dependent upon the Inspector's report. 10 Inspectors are not changed from district to district except from some special cause. Whilst witnessing an examination by Mr. Faber in one of the London schools, he pointed out the convenience of numbering the pupils by means of tickets. There is provision in the Act for the examination and inspection, including examination in religious subjects, of voluntary schools by other than a Government Inspector. 17 The papers read by Mr. Fitch and others at the conference in 1884, and the discussions thereon upon the subject of inspection, will be found in the reports herewith. 18 The following points, therefore, seem noteworthy : — (1.) Inspectors— (a) Solely appointed and controlled by the department,
Larger percentP^ente'd for" examination an in o ony. Bpectors for training colleges,
Examination of evening scholars.
Inspector of disunles^cxce^Kin 3 ally. Ticketing of pupils during examination.
Summary of points relative to inspection, &c.
l (a) Code, Arts. 106 and 109. (b) E. Act, 1870, s. 97. (c) Revised Instructions, 1884 and 1886. (d) " N.C.," Nov., 1884, Art. by Mr. Buxton. Compare money powers and function of Boards, Eng. Act, 1870, s. 53, N.Z. Act, 1877, s. 35. ' See Arts. 90 and 4, and Revised Instructions, 18S4 and 1886, s. 56. ' E. Act, 1870, s. 98. * Art. 96, and Revised Instructions, 1884. « Arts. 75, 82, and 84, Code. 6 Art. 90, Code, and Revised Instructions, 1886, Arts. 69 and 70. 1 Art. 134, Code. 8 See E. Act, 1870, sec. 7, ss. 4, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, ss. 84 and 97. 8 Code, Arts. 20, 21, and 24, Revised Instructions, 1884 and 1886, and espec. Art. 07, 1884, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sec. 84, ss. 5, and sec. 97, and Gazetted, 1878, and regs. of 16 June, 1885. 10 See also Dr. (now Sir) C. Brown's rep., p. 51, Mr. Fitch's mem. pp. 67 and 68, and G.R., Scot., 1885-86, p. xxix., and Scotch Code, 1886, Art. 19, B. 3 " Revised Instructions to Inspectors, 1886, Arts. 57 and 58. See also on Home Lessons— (a) Sir J. Fayrer's remarks, Daily Neivs, 4 Arg. 1884 ; (1) Dr. (now Sir) C. Brown's rep., pp. 5 and 6.
13 Compare G.li., 1885-1886, p. xi., withN.Z. 1886 report, p. vi., and see regs. of 16 Juno, 1885, relating to " Standards of Education and Inspection of Schools ;" and of 17 June, 1884. " See G.R., 1883-84, pp. 483 and 505-594, and Code, Arts. 117 and 128-133, and compare with N.Z. Gazette 92, 1878, and local regs. " For details see Code, Arts. 118 and 123; G.R., 1885-86, p. iv. ; 1883-84, pp. xxiii.-xxvi., 494, 495, 505-594, 496-504 ; and compare with N.Z. 188G report, p. xv., and appendix, pp. 71, and 83-88, and Gazette 92,1878, and local regs. ™ See Code, Arts. 25-29, and G.R., 1885-86, p. iv. '8 See Code, Art. 113. 17 See E. Act, 1870, s. 76, and see n. 1, p. 12, supra, for new regulation made for London Board Schools. '8 1.E.C., vol. xiii., p. 230, and set}. See also R.C., vol. iii., 3085-3700 and 3071-3679. Also note Mr. Pitch's mem. See also "On the Inspection of Schools," paper read by M. Fitzgerald, A.8., T.C.D., Head Inspector of Nat. Schools in Ireland, before Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, Trans, p. 466. "He would send Inspectors to examine schools which {sic) would perform their duty in a quiet and unostentatious manner."—Address by C. Dawson, M.P., p. 411.
22
8.—12
GEE AT BBITAIN.
Inspection and Examination. (b) Special Inspectors for training colleges, and (c) In all cases their important functions. (2.) The regulations relative to presentation of pupils for examinations. (3.) The percentage, greater than in the Colony, of pupils presented for examinati6n. (4.) The examination of evening scholars; and (5.) The instructions to Inspectors, especially those relative to home lessons and punishments. INFANT SCHOOLS. One of the main features of the English school system is infant schools; 1 which under late codes have received increased encouragement. 2 The opinion of Professor Huxley is that' " a very great feature in our English schools is our infant schools. The value of these cannot i be overrated. I strongly recommend the establishment of infant schools entirely distinct—' although, of course, there is no objection to their being under the same roof—from the ordinary schools; and the Kindergarten system, or something analogous to it, should there' be pursued." Mr. Arnold informed me that he considered Kindergarten schools to bei admirable institutions; which should be established as promoting discipline, and as a pleasant medium of imparting seeds of knowledge when the mind is most impressible. 3 Indeed, the opinion of all educationalists with whom I conversed was that infant schools are indispensable for laying educational base-work, at the most impressible and, therefore, for the educationalist, the most valuable period of life. 4 The Euglish infant schools, '. however, are not separate schools —recognised by Statute as such —but merely distinct ] departments, 5 or classes, of the ordinary schools, 6 having, however—when the scholars number < twenty or more —separate teachers 7 —in the great majority of cases, females—and such' methods of instructions 8 as cannot be conveniently carried on in the same rooms as ordinary school work. 0 Not bein.g recognised by Statute, they are controlled entirely by such regulations of the department made in that behalf as have " lain for not less than one month on the table of both Houses of Parliament." 10 Provided a teacher be over eighteen years of age, and be approved by an Inspector,: such teacher need not be certificated in order to have an infant class of sixty or less; ] which provision, of course, does not accord with the opinion that such teachers should holdi a special certificate from a training college. 11 The Secretary's view is " that junior classes should have the best and most experienced teachers." Canon Cromwell concurs, and Inspector Faber informed me that lie " would put the best teachers to teach children of from two and a half to three and a half years of age." 12 There is no limitation of age, 13 but the youngest age at which children are generally, admitted is three years, 1* and they generally continue there till seven ; 15 the rule being thatJ the infant class is to "be exclusively composed of scholars who are not sufficiently advanced for the First Standard." In an infant school, however, " there may be children of the First " and even, " under special conditions," of the " Second Standard ;" 15> 16 but out of 1,417,798 scholars on the registers of infant schools and classes, there were, according to the last return, but 165,892 17 over seven.
increased encouragement given to infant; schools under late codes. p ro f. Huxley an4 Jlr- Amol|l schools,
Infant schools foTOrtmSSr* or classes of or lnary sc
Defective pro- • of teachers.
Age of "'e1llontatlcm-
1 For details see 1.E.C., vol. 13, papers and discussions on " Infant Training and Teaching." For statistics see Return published March, 1885, pp. 13 and 14. For Scotland see G.R., Scot., 1885-86, pp. xii. and xiv. 'See— (a) G.R., 1885-86, p. x., 1883-84, pp. xiv., 256, 200, 291, 303, 341, 353, 411, and 433; (6) Code, Arts. 106-108 and 126 ; and (c) Revised Instructions, 1884 and 1886, clauses 5-12. • See also an address before Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, by Prof. Mir Aulad AH, Trans, p, 364. But contra, Inspector Stewart, R.E.C., 2422-2424 and 3091, and seq. * See also G.R. 1883-84, pp. 290 and 291, and R.E.C., Inspector Sharpe, 4301, and Inspector Arnold, 5459. But note contra evidence of Rev. J. Stewart, M.A., a senior Inspector, R.E.C., 2267 and seq., and 2374 and seq. * See G.R., 1883-84, p. xiv., and G.R., 1885-86, p. x. « See Code, Art. 10G (a). » See (a) Code, Arts. 106 (a), 108, and 126; (6) G.R., 1883-84, p. xiv. • See, for instance, G.8., 1883-64, p. 353, and 1886-66, p. x.
» See (a) G.8., 1882-83 and 1883-84, p. 14, and 1885-86, p. x. (b) Code, Arts. lOC (6) and (c), and third schedule. 10 E. Act, 1870, s. 97. 11 See (a) Code, Arts. 84, 108, and 12G. (6) G.8., 1883-81, p. 256 ; but note Art. 126. " See also G.R., 1883-84, pp. 290 and 291, and K.E.C., Inspector Stewart, 4090. 13 See (a) Revised Instructions, Art. 6, and compare N.Z., 1877, Act, s. 83 ; but noto form attendance return p. sof regs. Gazette 49, 1878. Note espec. Mr. Cumin's evidence before R.8.C., supra, n. 7, p. 7. 14 But see— (a) Code, Art* 13. (6) G.R., 1882-83, pp. 439-40, and compare with N.Z., 1886, rep., p. v., and note Inspector Stewart's evidence, R.E.C., espec. answer 2267 and seq. 15 See G.R., 1885-86, p. xii. 18 See Revised Instructions, Art.' 6. For distinction between school and class, see— (a) Code, Art. 106 (a), and (6) G.8., 1883-84, p. 411, and 1335-86, p. xii. " G.8., 138&*fi6, pp.. xii. and ix.
23
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Infant Schools. ', The specif feature of the organization is object teaching ■} and the modes of instruction s mainly consist of — (a) Kindergarten exercises, which seem to be now contemplated by the code;' (b) Reading by sound, on the principle explained in Dr. McCullough's Readers, Nos. 1 and 2, 3 used for the purpose ; and (c) Mulhausen's system of writing. > "Home lessons" for infant scholars are very plainly discouraged by the department; as indeed they are for all school children except to the extent of short exercises in the upper classes of good schools. 4 From what I heard from Sub-Inspector McKenzie (who obligingly conducted me through a representative infant school in Gray's Inn Road, London), and from other officials, I conclude that 200 to 300 is considered to be the model number of an infant school, and that in any event it should, where practicable, consist of at least four classes—namely, a babies' class for children of four years and under ; and three other kinds of classes for children of from five to seven; but that if the latter could be arranged with four («s at Gray's Inn Road) or five, the graduation would be much better. The school consists of boys and girls mixed/ but alternately arranged and divided into classes, each in a separate room of, say, forty 0 in a class. Boys as well as girls arc generally taught sewing and knitting. 7 Grants arc computed entirely on average attendance ; 8 but scholars over seven must, as a rule, be examined, 9 and the custom is to examine individually all those over six. 10 Thus the main features seem to be — {a) Distinct departments or classes for (b) Boys and girls mixed (alternately arranged), from three years of age, or in some cases under, until sufficiently advanced for First Standard, but generally under seven years of age ; (c) Separate teachers (when scholars number at least twenty), although not necessarily certificated unless the annual average attendance be more than sixty; but a teacher to have charge of an infant class must always be over eighteen years of age, and approved by the Inspector; (d) Object teaching the speciality ; (c) No "home lessons;" (/) No individual examination till six years of age, and nominally till seven ; and (g) Grants computed only on the basis of average attendance. EVENING SCHOOLS 11 AND HALF-TIME SCHOLARS. The establishment and maintenance, in England, of evening primary schools, are left to the discretion of the local school authorities, subject to the approval of the department; which possesses all real power in the approval of by-laws, grants, appointment of teachers, 13 &c. ' The fees charged arc very low; and prizes arc given for punctual attendance and successful examination. 13 The amount of grant to a school is dependent 14 upon the (a) number of times it has met since the last examination, and (b) the individual proficiency of the scholars. Any, not necessarily a lay, person over eighteen years of age, approved by an Inspector, may be
Object teaching special featuro in infant schools,
General arrange ments of infant schools.
Summary of wain features of infant school system.
Arrangements re anTtheirresults
1 See— (a) R.C., vol. 1, p. 517 ; (6) I E.C., as above ; (c) G.R., 1882-83, p. 440; id) " N.0.," Nov., 1884, Art. by Mr. Buxton ; (e) Revised Instructions, 1884, Art. 10, and 1886, Art. 7. 8 Art. 106 (6). See also Offic. Cat. Health Exhibition, 1884, 2nd cd., p. xlvii. 8 And in Nelson's and Sonnenchein's books, &c. * See Revised Instructions, Art. 57, and compare with N.Z. 6th annual rep., p. xvii. 6 On " Mixed Schools," see Art. in " Victorian Review," Feb., 1884, by J. G. Stewart and R. E. C, Inspector Stewart, 3487 and seq. 8 But note Senior Inspector Sharpe's evidence, R.E.C. 4229, " for the lowest class of the infants you ought not to have more than twenty-five children to one teacher." " See Revised Instructions, iBB4 and 1886, Art. 11. •Seefa) Notwithstanding code, Arts. 106 and 104, Revised Instructions, 1666, Art. 6 ; note, however, Ait. 12;
(b) G.R., 1885-BC, p. xii.; (c) Revised Instructions, 18S4, Art. 5, and 1886, Arts. 5 and 12. 9 See G.8., 1885-BG, p. xii. 10 See G.8., 1883-84, p. 353. Note former practice, Mr. Fitch's mem., p. 02. " On night schools generally, see paper read before Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, by R. Hamilton, Trans., p. 4.89; and R.E.C., Inspector Stewart, 8951 and seq. » See— (a) E. Act, 1870, s. 74; (6) G.R., 1883-84, p. viii., and 1885-80, p. iv., and Scot., pp. viii. and 145 and 146; (c) Revised Instructions, 1884 and 1886, Art. 71, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 86. 13 Code, Arts. 25-29, 31, 79, and 118. See G.R., 1883-84, pp. 465 and 466. 11 See Code, Arts. 25-29 and 113, and compare with sees. 97, 98, and 80, and 4, N.Z. 1877 Act, and Gazette 92, • 1878.
24
GREAT BRITAIN.
Evening Schools and Half-time Scholars. appointed teacher. 1 " The conscience clause " applies to these schools. 3 There is no limit of age. 3 The results in England are not satisfactory, and the schools, although admittedly very useful, are declining, if not dying out. 4 The want of satisfactory results is attributed mainly 5 to (a) the limited time at the teacher's disposal; (b) extreme irregularity of attendance; and (c) ignorance, forgetfulness, and caprice of scholars. 6 The references below relating to evening science teaching deserve careful attention. 7: Half-time scholars 8 are not recognised by Statute, but are provided for by code. 9 Their! number is decreasing. 10 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. 11 The establishment and regulation in England of industrial schools are governed by ( numerous statutes; 12 but, as connected with the elementary school system, those which are; immediately pertinent are the Elementary Education Acts of 1870, 13 1873, 13 1876, 1' 4 and 1879! (Industrial Schools Act). The Act of 1870 lu empowers a School Board under certain circumstances to establish and maintain a certified industrial school, and to contribute money, 10 but a Board has no power to enforce attendance at a Board school of industrial school children, 17 and industrial schools are not under the control, or subject to the inspection, of the Education Department. The distinction between a " day industrial school" and a " certified industrial school" should be noticed. 38 SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 19 The grants, already referred to, made to Scotland, 20 Wales, and the Science and Art Department, represent the Government support to secondary and higher education in Great Britain; and, although there are some graded or higher elementary schools in England 21 maintained by a few School Boards, these are not the subjects of any other than code grants.
Half-time scn°larsprovided
Connection of m?usJ ... schools with elementary soll°ol system.
1 Code, Arts. 79 and 80. ■ Seo Arts. 113, 87, 88, and 4. 3 See— (a) Code, Art. 113, and (b) Revised Instructions, 1884, Art. 71, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 86 : for Eng. statistics, seo (a) Return for year ending 31 Aug., 1884, pub. Mar., 1885, p. 25 ; (6) G.R., 1883-84, p. viii. <Soe— (a) G.E., 1883-84, pp. 289, 304, 316, 389, 408, 465, 4GG, and (b) 1882-83, pp. 227, 251, 2G5, 280, 281, 289, 340, 343, 373, 403, 420, 427, 453, 4G5, 489, and 490 ; (c) R.C., vol. iii., see 3749-3757 ; (d) Times, 25 July, 1884, Mr. Mundella. " In Victoria, after considerable inquiry and consideration, it has been decided not to discontinue night schools/' — Aust. Times and Anglo-Neio Zcalandcr, Jan. 1, 1886, p. 12. " They are decreasing in New South Wales."—See Colonies and India, 11 Dec, 1885, p. 35. 6 G.R., 1883-84, pp. 304, 31G, &c. But see p. 408, and 1882-83, pp. 227-28, and R.C. Ist rep., p. 8. 0 See also Salvation Army cause, G.R., 1882-83, p. 373 ' Sec— (a) R.C, espec. vol. i., p.p. 425, 441, 447, 448, 450, 458, 529, 512; and (b) Times, 25 Jan., 1884, Mr. Carpenter's address; and (c) See Times Art., 11 Aug., 1884. Note schools at Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and Barrow-in-Furness, &c. 8 For definition, see Code, Arts. 11 and 12, and see E. Act, 1876, s. 5, s.s. 2, s. 24, and First Schedule to Act, also 1880 Act, s. 4, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 88, and 9th annual reports, pp. vii., viii. See also Revised Instructions to Inspectors, 1886, Art. 72. " Experience has shown that where, in accordance with the Factory Acts, children attend school regularly as half-timers, they learn much quicker than those who have been undergoing instruction all day."— See paper read by W. F. Bailey before Statistical and Social Inquiry Soc, Dublin, 18 Dec, 1883. E. Ponsonby, Dublin, 1884. Note also discussion of a subject generally at Nat. Soc. Sc Assoc Meeting, Dublin, 1881, Trans., p. 360. 4—E. 12.
9 See— ' (a) G.E., 1885-BG, p. xiv.; 1882-83, pp. 240, 251, 2G7, 299, 300, 312, and 313 ; (b) Code, Arts. 11 and 15 ; and (c) G.E., 1883-84, pp. 171, 172. 10 For statistics and reasons, see— (a) G.R., 1883-84, 1882-83, p. xiii., 312, 313, and pp. 298, 299. But note E.C., vol. 1, p. 475 and 537, " Note(a) Art. in "N.C.," Deo., 1881, by Hon. L. Stanley; and (6) Lectures by Prof. Thompson. Kerslake, Bristol, 1879. 1218CG (2), see espeo. ss. 4, 5, 7, 8, 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1876, 1877, and 1879, and compare with N.Z. statutes and 1885 rep., p. xv. 73 See ss. 27, 28, and read s. 14, 1873 Act. M See ss. 12-17. 11 Sec. 28, and read s. 15, 187G Act. 16 See G.R., 1883-84, p. 91, and for statistics, p. xiii. (footnote), which compare with N.Z. 1886 rep., p. xxi. " Sec. .36, 1870 Act. " See (a) Blem. E. Act, 187G, sees. IG, 17 ; and (6) G.R., 1883-84, p. 371, and 1882-83, p. 297. ' IJ See organization of Intormed. and Higher Ed., 1.E.C., vol. 16., p. 279. At the Inverness High School which I visited, a system is in operation of not changing masters for different subjects, but so arranging that a master retains a class for all subjects, in ordor that the teacher may be made permanently responsible for the conduct of his class in everything; and the head master considers that this system works preferably to the ordinary method. An Edinburgh professor of great authority told me that his opinion was that secondary education should commence at thirteen, when a boy is ripe for it. 50 See (a) Scotch Act, 1872, sees. G2, G3, and 24, 25 ; (b) 8.C., vol. 1, pp. 484 and 48G; (c) Times, 1 Nov., 1884, Mr. Mundella; (d) Scotch Endowments Act, 1882. But also note cost of " Inspection of Higher Class Schools in Scotland." —Circulars issued by Scotch Ed. Depart., dated 12 June, 1885, and 15 Jan., 1886, and G.R. Scot., 1885-86, pp. xxx. and xix. >' See (a) R.C., vol. 1, pp. 425, 467, and 475. But note G. E., 1882-83, pp. 452, 491, and 200, and 1883-84, p. 463.
No Government support given to secondary or higher education, except to Scotland, Wales, and Scienco and Art Department.
25
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Secondary and Higher Education. The State, apparently, does not admit any national obligation to maintain in England an [" organized system of secondary or higlier education, although Mr. Mundella, 1 according to a departmental circular issued, appeared, when in office, to think advanced schools would be no extra expense in England to the ratepayer. 2 Mr. M. Arnold spoke on this subject to me to the following effect : that the State should establish secondary schools and universities, as promoting learning and refinement, but they should be made self-supporting by the fees derived from the scholars; that in the case of deserving scholars in the primary schools, Avho cannot afford to pay fees for higher tuition, a reasonable number of scholarships should be established for the purpose, obtainable by examination; so that if such scholars be deserving of further education the door is thereby opened to them in the secondary schools ; s that, similarly, the same system could be made to apply in secondary schools for admission to the universities, and that State scholarships should be available only for the deserving poor, to enable the further prosecution of educational studies. Professor Huxley's opinion seems greatly to coincide, for he gave as his view that higher and university education " ought to be made accessible to all who show special capacity for intellectual occupations in the elementary schools. Apart from any other reasons, it is to my mind (he said) a chief consideration for political and social stability that able men should have opportunities of taking the positions which nature has fitted them to hold." 4 SCHOLARSHIPS. Certificates of proficiency are not now granted; so that, except scholarships available _ from private grantors, 5 the only aid in the nature of scholarships is that obtainable through Ithe Science and Art Department. On this subject, Mr. Arnold's opinion has just been quoted ;° and in the same direction the conditions iipon which " National " scholarships are given by the Science and Art Department are noteworthy. 7 SUMMARY. The main features of the English system 8 would thus appear to be— (1.) Supremely controlled by Education Department; 9 (2.) Theoretically secular—virtually religious ; 10
State does not recognise obligation to maintain organised system.: Mr. M. Arnold's opinion.
Prof. Huxley's °Pml a-
Not even certificates of proficiency granted. Only Science and Art, and private scholarships. Mr. Arnold's opinion. Conditions of National scholarships noteworthy.
Main features o£ English system. Department supremely controls system. Secular,
1 See (a) Times, 20 Sep., 1884, Mr. Oscar Browning's address. (b) Dr. E. espee., pp. 18 and 19 ; (c) Times, 25 July and 1 Nov., 1884, Mr. Mundella, article 11 Aug., 1884, and 6 Oct., 1884, Mr. Magnus ; (d) G.8., 1882-83, p. 106; (c) Revised Instructions, 1884 and 1880, cl. 45-47. - G.R., 1882-83, p. 106. But " on the report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons recently sitting (May, 1886), on the Endowed Schools Act will mainly depend whether English secondary schools are to bo subject to State inspection." See further, " Journal of Education," 1 May, 1886. 3 See also G.R., 1882-83, pp. 200, 452, 490, and 491. 4 For opinion of an experienced Scotch educationalist, see p. 14, supra; andseeß.E.C,lnspec. Sharpe,64l6,and seq.: " Now that the Legislature has made unlimited provision from rates and taxes for elementary education, the only public aid wanted by the poorer classes is an ample provision of free exhibitions for such clever children to the higher schools." —Lord Norton, " N.C.," Nov., 1885, p. 811. " Free schools ": "If the State provided scholarships for the children who could win them from the public elementary schools, there would be the best possible provision of education for all," p. 812. " All who have studied the subject have concurred in recommending that free education (the writer here refers to education higher than elementary) should everywhere be confined to those who show that they can profit by pushing their own education beyond the limit to which their circumstances would otherwise make it cease; in other words, free education has everywhere been turned into exhibitions," p. 815.
5 For instance, see— (a) R.C., vol. 1, pp. 469 and 472; (b) G.R,, 1882-83, pp. 302 and 303 ; (c) P.M. Gazette, 19 Mar., 1885 ; (d) Dr. Wiese, p. 259. 6 See also G.R., 1882-83, p. 260. '' See Directory, pp. 26 and 16. 8 The first report (herewith) of the Royal Commissioners appointed to inquire into the working of the Elementary Education Acts, especially relating to the existing law, the existing facts, the working of the law, and the efficiency of the present machinery, and which consists of 13,684 questions and answers besides appendices, should be most carefully studied. It indeed teems with most valuable information and data. But it is so voluminous that, although I have incorporated a few references to it, want of space precludes more. For some technical comments on it see "Journal of Education," 1 Oct., 1886, p. 400. For what State education was in 1686, and what well-educated children, a well-educated great lady, and a poor girl were then like see " Evelyn's Diary." The main differences between the English and Scotch systems have already been noticed. 3 In addition to references already made, see "Fifty Years of Popular Education," address by Chairman, London School Board, 1886, P. M. Budget, 14 Oct., 1886, p. 22; and especially Mr. Cumin's evidence, R.E.C. 10 In addition to previous references, see Chairman's Address as above, " Increase Education, Decrease Crime." See also for details re religious instruction given in schools, R.E.C, espec. Inspector Stewart, particularly 3387 and seq., 3753 and seq. ; for difference between moral and religious training, Inspector Arnold, 6068 and seq. ; and for information re schools where no religious instruction is given, in addition to previous references, Inspector Stewart, 3753 and seq.
26
E.—l2.
E.—l2.
GREAT BRITAIN.
Summary. (3.) Compulsory; (4.) Non-gratuitous, 1 but class-books free; (5.) Training colleges 3 — (a) voluntary, (b) managed by denominations, &c., (c) residential, (d) non-gratuitous, (e) receiving State subsidies, (/) subject to State inspection by special Inspectors, and {g) teaching science; (6.) State-supported or aided schools consisting of— 1. Voluntary 3 (about 76 per cent.) — (a) religious, (b) managed by private bodies and supported by private contributions, State subsidies, and fees, (c) denominational teaching allowed, but protection to a great extent of minorities in religious matters, and (d) subject to State inspection and regulation; 2. Board— (a) secular, (b) managed by elected Boards, (c) supported mainly by grants, fees, and rates, the Boards having powers to make by-laws (subject to approval by superior authorities) respecting undenominational religious teaching, 3 with protection to a great extent of minorities, periods of compulsory attendance between ages five and thirteen (subject to certificates of proficiency and temporary exemptions), remission of fees, and penalties for breach of by-laws, and also having powers (subject to approval) to borrow money to build, &c, school-houses, to claim or levy direct local rates for deficiency of income, to fix fees, and to regulate administration of system. (7.) School age 4 —no general definition; (8.) Fees and remissions, and free schools f (9.) Teachers 6 —(a) lay persons only, except in evening schools, (b) pupil-teacher system/ and (c) " payment by results " feature 8 (except in infant schools) ; (10.) Subjects of study—"obligatory" and "optional" ("class" and "specific") ; (11.) Injurious employment of children provided against; (12.) Infant schools — (a) distinct departments or classes, (b) provisions for specially training teachers, and separate teaching, (c) object teaching, (d) grants on average attendance only, (e) no home lessons, (/) no individual examination until at least six 3'ears of age; (13.) Evening elementary schools— (a) under jurisdiction of Boards, (b) "conscience: clause" applies, (c) low fees and prizes, (d) teachers need not be laymen, (e) grants dependent on numbers of meetings and individual proficiency; (14.) Half-time scholars; (15.) Inspectors—(a) appointed and controlled by department, (b) special Inspectors for training colleges, (e) important functions ; (16.) Pensions and gratuities for teachers, to a limited extent; (17.) Scholarships—no general system; (18.) Secondary and higher education—no systematic aid except to— (a) Scotland, (b) Wales to a certain extent, and (c) Science and Art Department; (19.) Technical instruction— (a) in elementary schools —"drawing and specific subjects," (b) Science and Art Department; (20.) School libraries—no grants ; (21.) Deaf-mute special training—no aid. (See special report herewith.)
Compulsory, and non gratuitous.
Training colleges.
Schools.
School age. Fees and free schools. Teachers.
Classification of " Jec. s augl ' against injurious ^Fdre™™* °£ infant schools.
Evening schools.
Half-time scholars. Inspectors.
Pensions, &c, for tcfliCiiers Scholarships. Secondary and higher education.
1 In addition to notes, p. 14, supra, read, as a recent contribution to the controversy, " Free Schools and their Price," P.M. Budget, 14 Oct., 1880, p. 7. Mr. Cumin's evidence, R.E.C, should be carefully studied; for instance, note answer 484 and seq., and Inspector Stewart, 2409. 2 In addition to previous references on p. 17, supra, see R.E.C, Inspector Sharpo, 4234 and seq., and 4503 ; Inspector Arnold, 5485 and seq., and 5527. s For detailed information respecting the difference in the religious instruction between a voluntary and a Board school note Mr. Cumin's evidence, R.E.C, especially 501 and seq., and 529 and seq. 1 Note espec Inspector Oakley's report, G.R., 1885-86, on the elementary schools of the North-west Division, and comments on it, "Journal of Ed.," 1 Oct., 1886, p. 408; and Mr. Cumin's evidence, R.E.C, 705 and seq. "To release a child, as we do, from school at
ten. or eleven, because he can pass the Fifth Standard, would bo thought in Germany absurd and most injurious, " &c. — Mr. Arnold's (May, 1880) report, p. 13. 5 See Mr. Cumin's evidence as above, espec. 570 and seq. 6 In addition to previous references on p. 17, supra, see " Teachers in the Highlands," Art. by Inspector Jolly, " Good Words," Oct., 1886, p. 685 and in continuation of extract from "Toynbee Journal," supra, p. 19, see P.M. Budget, 14 Oct., 1886, p. 26. ' But note especially Mr. M. Arnold's evidence, E.E.C., 5231 and seq., and Inspector Stewart, 2430 and seq., and 3068. 8 In addition to references already made on p. 18, supra, see " Payment for Results," Art. in Saturday Review, 25 Sept., 1886, and R.E.0., Inspector Stewart, 3344 and seq., Arnold, 5676 and seq., and 5753 and seq., and Sharpe, 0836.
27
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Summary. I desire to express my thanks to Mr. Cumin, 1 Secretary to the Education Department of England and Wales, for very many kind attentions; including perusals of this section in 1885, and again very recently: although he must not be identified with comments or conclusions. To Mr. Matthew Arnold, 3 Professors Huxley, Laurie, Mciklejohn, and Mackinnon, the Rev. Canon Cromwell, 3 Inspector Faber, Sub-Inspector Mackenzie, and Mr. James Ross, of Merkinch School, Inverness, I am also indebted for courteous aid.
1 For interesting history of State education, including Acts and Codes, in Great Britain, note evidence R.E.C, p. 1, and also Mr. Cumin's very voluminous testimony generally upon State education in Great Britain, pp. 1-100; especially on tho existing law, the existing facts, and the working of the law.
2 Note valuable information given, particularly relating to continental State education, as compared with the English system, R.E.C, pp. 184-225. 3 Evidence respecting training colleges, in view especially of long experience, should not bo overlooked, R.E.C, pp. 468-479.
28
E.—l2
FRANCE.
FEANCB, 1
INTRODUCTION. The present State system 2, as revised by the laws of the 16th June, 1881, 1' 2*3 and 28th March, 1882, 3 should be a peculiarly interesting study in New Zealand,' 1 as being the most absolute one existing, of gratuitous, secular, and compulsory education. And the enactments just mentioned, which entirely changed the main features of primary education in France, 5 were passed by reason of the views prevailing there that " in France, the preliminary condition of all progress was the secularization of education;" 0' 3 and that the laws in question "would enable France to resume the march onward which was begun by the Revolution of 1789." 3 The great education question which has been agitated in France for some years past has been whether the priesthood, or the great bulk of the people, shall have the dominating influence over popular education. The people have prevailed : and accordingly education in all the national educational establishments is exclusively secular. 5 And by the law passed this year (188G) "in public schools of every description all instruction is to be given exclusively by laymen." 7 Whether this will eventually be profitable has yet to be proved; inasmuch as the legislation is too recent to enable the system to be deemed yet other than as an experiment in France. 8 But meantime the friction is obviously great; and hostile influences bitter and powerful. 9 Religious instruction must not now be given in school-houses; 10 and the issue has been
1 For origin of primary State education in France, and its organisation under Napoleon 1., see Sir P. J. Keonan's address, p. 48, as quoted on p. 7, note 2, supra. 2 See Lois et Reglements en vigueur, enseignement primaire superieur (hereafter termed L. and R.), containing report dated 29th Oct., 1881, by President of Council to President of Republic ; and letter of Cth Nov., 1881, to Prefect; and also — (a) Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) report on (1) free education, (2) quality of education, (3) status, training, and pensioning of teachers, and (4) compulsory attendance and release from school ; and (b) His evidence before the Royal Education Commission, 188G (hereafter termed R.E.C.), pp. 186-225; (c) " French Examiners under the Civil Service," Blackwood's Edin. Mag., June, 1886, Art. by H. E. H. Jerningham, p. 739 ; and (d) Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, for 1883-84, pp. ccii.-ccix. 8 See (a) Remarks of M. Buisson, Inspector-General and Director of Primary Education (hereafter termed M. Buisson), 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 215 ; and note also (b) Arts, in " Nineteenth Century Review " (hereafter termed N.C.), Oct., 1882, by the Abbe Martin on " The French Education System " (hereafter termed " Abbe M."), p. 533; and by the late M. About, " Clerical Education in France," Sept., 1879 (hereafter termed M. About), pp. 447-460; (c) R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5500 and seq.; and (d) London Globe, 4 Mar., 1884 (hereafter termed Globe). " The subject of primary education has been again under discussion in France. The principle of complete secularization was upheld in the Senate." The new law destroys even the last hold of the clergy. For details see "Journal of Ed.," Oct. 1, 1886, " Illustrated London News," 22 March, 188G, and " Sunday at Home," April, 1886. It has also been recently decided that the Hospital of the Enfants Trouves in Paris, which has ever since its foundation been served by Sisters, who lived within its walls, is to be laicised. At the meeting of the National Educational Assoc. of France, held at Tours, April 15-18, 1884, it was agreed " that in a republic the future citizen should be taught a knowledge of his rights, a sense of his duty, and a sentiment of his responsibility." Amer. Commr. Report, 1885, for 1883-84, p. ccix. See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5500. " The Senate on 20th March, 1886, agreed, by 168 votes to 98, to preclude monks and nuns from teaching in municipal schools," P.M. Budget, 26 March, 1886, p. 32. 4 See N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 84, s.s. 6, and 2, 3, and sees. 89-96, but note option in s. 95. See also 1885 Act, sees. 6-8.
5 For previous law see, for instance— (a) British Embassy report on Technical and Primary Education, 17 Dec, 1867 (hereafter termed B.E. rep.), pp. 170-174; (6) " Popular Education of France," &c, 1861, by M. Arnold; (c) R.C. Ist rep. and vol. 1; (d) L. and R., espec. report and letter as above. 6 See (a) Circular dated 17 Nov., 1883, addressed by Minister to teachers (hereafter termed Circular); (b) Regloment d'organisation ptidagogiquo pour les ecoles primaires publiques (hereafter termed reg. d'org. ped.), p. 45, 27 juillet, 1882, &c. (See reference to this, R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, C152); (c) M. Buisson. Abbe M., M. About, and Globe, &c, and compare N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 84, s.s. 2, 3 ;and (d) Reference to system in "N.C.," Jan., 1886, Art. on " Irish Education," by Viscount Powerscourt, p. 130. But observe results of Victorian secular system, " Aust. Times and Anglo-N.Z.," 26 Feb., 1886, p. 26. i See "Journal of Ed.," 1 Oct., 1886, p. 415. a In other words it has to be proved whether the French proverb " A barbe do fou on apprend a raire " is applicable in this case. 3 See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5989 and seq., and 5375. 10 But " morale "is taught. Note R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, espec. 5709 and seq., 5795 and scq., 6153 and seq., and 6095, " The Paris schools are provided by the municipality, and the municipality object to bringing in the name of God, and so it is not introduced in Paris." An anecdote by Mr. Arnold in his recent report (May, 1886, p. 19), apart from its moral, is so charmingly told and so striking an instance that " dans l'art d'interesser consiste Fart d'ecriro," that it should bo itself read. But the pith of it is—a child, asked " to whom do you owe all that you are enjoying here, this fine schoolroom, these pictures, these books, this splendid city, all that gives security, comfort, and pleasure to your life, who gives it all to you? " replied " Eh bien, e'est le pays." " We marvel at the immorality, the scepticism, and the depravation of modern times. Enter any college you may meet; stir up that apparent youth ; call to the surface what lies at the bottom ; analyse that mud ; you will no longer be surprised. The well has long been poisoned, and he who has not been a child never becomes a man," Dumas the younger, in L'Affaire Clemenceau." See also eloquent address of M. Renan, whilst presiding on 15 May, 1886, at annual banquet of the Assoc. Generale des Etudiants de Paris, P.M, Budcjat, 20 May, 1886.
29
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Introduction. described to be " a Godless France, as against a priest-ridden France." Religious instruction, however, is optional in private schools. SPECIAL FEATURES. The special features connected with this system appear to be— (1.) The eager national intention to render it as perfect as possible, as expressed by M. Ferry, then President of the Council and Minister of Public Instruction, in a report, dated 29th October, 1881, addressed to the President of the Republic, on the organisation of primary school teaching, wherein he says — " Apres avoir recu l'enfant des le plus jeunc age, utilise tous ses instincts, eveille ses facultes, developpe son intelligence, cultive son sline, il s'imposera le devoir de le suivre jusqu'a l'entree do la vie pratique ;" 1 (2.) In pursuance of that intention, the munificent, indeed, the lavish, expenditure upon education ; 2 (3.) The absence of any religious feature, but the system purports to be absolutely neutral in, and not hostile to, religion; (4.) The special attention paid to the promotion of industrial training, by means of gratuitous schools, classes, and lectures, and especially the grafting of such training upon ordinary primary school education ; (5.) The organisation of, and provision for, teaching and inspection in infant schools, and classes ; and (6.) The remarkable percentage of attendances at the primary schools. The State, far more absolutely than in the Colony, controls the complete education of the people ; s from and including the infant schools or classes, up to and including the highest class of institutions for superior education. CLASSES OF SCHOOLS. The machinery consists of — (1.) Primary schools,* including infant schools (" ecoles maternclles") and classes ("classes enfantines"), elementary primary schools ("ecoles primaires elementaircs"), and superior primary schools ("ecoles primaires superieures " J) ; (2.) Secondary schools—consisting of communal colleges (" Colleges ") and Lyceums (" Lyces." G) (3.) Higher educational institutions—as described by M. Dumont (member of the Institute and Director of Higher Education in France) in a paper read at the International Conference, 1884;''' and (4.) Those special and technical schools (including evening and Sunday schools and classes, for adults, and children of both sexes) and lectures, which have been instituted expressly for the promotion of industrial and scientific knowledge.
Primary schools
Secondary schools.
Higher institutions.
Special and technical schools.
1 L. and E., p. 5, and note also B.C. Ist rep., pp. 6 and 28-30. 2 See — (a) " Notes on Higher Education in Prance," by M. Dumont (hereafter termed M. Dumont)' 1.E.C., vol. 15, pp. 167-168, and espee. 172; (5) M. Buisson, 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 214; and hi3 recent estimate that the State now spends annually over eighty millions of francs on primary instruction. — Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept. p. 16; (c) E.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5369 ; (d) 8.C., Ist rep., pp. 9 and 11, and Ist appendix, and vol. 1, pp. 18 and 29; (e) For comparison of expenditure with other European States see American Commer. Ecp., 1882-83, p. ccxxxi. Note also rep., 1885, p. 1883-84, p. cciv. 8 See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5504 and 5957, and Mr. Arnold's (May, 188G) rept., p. 10. For subsidiary management, see R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5205 and seq. " The French peasant does not think." —George Sand in " Jeanne." * According to " Statistique do 1' instruction primaire pour 1' annee scolaire, 1881-82 " (published in June, 1884), there were in 1882, 75,635 primary schools of all kinds (maternal schools excepted), with 24,965
teachers, and 5,341,211 children, without counting 644,384 in maternal schools. In 1882-83 the number of children increased. 5 At close of 1883, 570 with 30,000 pupils. 0« i n Franco we see the perfection of centralization and identity in the lyceums and colleges; in Germany, on the contrary, we witness the full development of the ancient collegiato idea of the University, twentyseven different and independent University systems of education existing among forty millions of Germans, each University differing from the other, and each possessing its peculiar type of excellence to attract its students." —C. Dawson, M.P., Trans. Nat. Sc. Assoc, Dub., 1881, p. 430. Soe also further comparison of the two systems by Prof. Richey, p. 462, and by Mr. A. W. Quill, p. 4G3. 1 See vol. 15, pp. 129-91. It is curious to note that " the first time, perhaps, that the term ' University' in relation to a seat of learning appeared in an official document was in 1209, when Pope Innocent 111. included the whole corporation of teachers and students, and the style taken by that University in 1221 was ' We, the University of the masters and scholars of Paris.' " —C. Dawson, M.P. " University Education in Ireland," Trans. Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881.
30
E.—l2
FRANCE.
GRATUITOUS, SECULAR, AND COMPULSORY PHASES. The new laws have, as in other respects, effected great changes in respect of gratuitous' education. 1 Instruction in all primary, including infant schools, is now gratuitous. School necessaries also arc provided without charge ; and in Paris penny dinners are provided by the Municipality, which dinners, in the case of really poor children, are gratuitous. 2 There are no separate free schools as in England. The secular feature has already been noticed : and of the compulsory phase it may be said that it is an innovation. Compulsory attendance now applies to all children from the age of six complete to that of thirteen complete. 3 If, however, they are receiving instruction at home, 4 or at a private school, or obtain a " certificat d'etudes "" (which it is possible to obtain at eleven, and is often obtained at twelve), they are exempt. In respect of this certificate, Mr. Matthew Arnold says : " The boy who gets a ' certificat d'etudes ' has, I think, been better trained, and has more to show for his schooling than the boy who has gone through his Standards ;" whilst the Royal Commissioners for Technical Instruction (whom I hereafter designate as "the Commissioners") state that the examination "will probably not be considered more difficult than that of the children in our English schools who pass the Fifth Standard, and have taken up one or more of the special subjects." 6 The only other excuses allowed are — (a) One applicable to half-time scholars —viz., that a School Board may, subject to the consent of the Departmental Council, exempt children employed in trades or agriculture from one of the two daily attendances—so " that children can only be employed as half-timers in trades or agriculture, under the age of thirteen, by the joint consent of the communes and of the department, unless at or above the age of eleven they have obtained the certificat d'etudes;"? (/;) " Illness of the child ■" (c) " Death of a member of the family ;" or (d) " Hindrances resulting from accidental difficulty of access to the school." " And all other excuses will have to be judged by the Scholastic Commission, a body constituted for the purpose of enforcing regular school attendance." 8 Owing probably, however, not only to the public desire for education in France, but to the strict supervision exercised by the authorities, and the punishments imposabk: in case of irregularity in attendance, 9 the school attendance is excellent, especially in the cities ; and it is computed that " 10 per cent, is the maximum absence for any school iu Paris, while in a very large number of schools the total average of attendance exceeds 95 per cent." J0 Children arc protected by law against premature employment, but the law does not seem to be, in some of the departments, efficiently carried out. 11 Proper books recording the attendance at both public and private schools have to be kept, and absences reported ; and even private head-masters neglecting to do this are liable to be reprimanded or suspended. 12
Gratuitous
Compulsory law,
' See— {a) Beg. d'org. peel.; (6) L. and E. (c) K.C., Ist rep., p. 26, and sea, L'idee democratiquc, although the main, "is not the only principle behind free schools in France. The undenominational idea is equally operative. Clericalism is the enemy, and free schools form one of the weapons with which it is attacked." — See also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) report, pp. 9, 10. s This has, in contrast to certain expenditure in England, suggested whether there may not " be a good many grains of truth after all in that exaggerated saying of Heine's, ' I am firmly persuaded that o, blaspheming Frenchman is a more pleasing object in the sight of God than a, praying Englishman."—See Pall Kail Gazette, 3 Aug., 188C, p. 2. For some interesting figures quoted to the Bourdeaux Congress, Sept., 1886, relative to the schools of Paris, see " Journal of Education," 1 Oct., 1886, p. 415. Note very interesting article on "State Education and Socialism," Journal des Debate, 8 Sep., 1886. In the communal schools of Paris the most deserving school children are given treats annually by the District Municipal Councils. They consist of a tour amongst old towns or pictures and scenery of France in the month of August. 3 Law of Mar., 1882, Art. 4.
4 See also R.E.C, Mr. M. Arnold, 5100 and seq. • For condition see Appendix iii. R.C Ist rep., and for proportion of passes seo Ist rep., p. 23 ; and compare with N.Z. requirements for certificate of exemption— see N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 90, s.s. 4, and 1885 Act, sees. 0, 7, and B—Gazette 92, 1878, s. 13. 6 R.E.C, Mr. M. Arnold, 5890 and seq., and 8.C., Ist rep., p. 23. Note also opinion of Hon. L. Stanley.—See " French Elementary Education," "N.C," March, 1883 (hereafter termed tho Hon. L. Stanley), p. 405. ' See R.C. Ist rep., footnote, p. 28 ; and p. 27; and Mr. M. Arnold's (May 1866) rep., p. 23. 8 Compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sec. 90; and 1885 Acts, sees. 0, 7, and 8 ; but note Mr. M. Arnold's remarks in his (May, 1880) rep., p. 23. ' See R.C, Ist rep., p. 28; and compare with N.Z. Act 1877, sees. 92 and 93. 10 See Hon. L. Stanley and R.E.C, Mr. M. Arnold, espec. 5175 and 5372, 5373. But note his May, 1880, rep,, p. 239. Compare with N.Z. 1885 rep., p. ii. 11 For particulars see R.C Ist rep., pp. 23, 24. 12 For conditions re private tuition, see— («■) R.C. Ist rep., pp. 27, 28 ; and (b) Hon. L. Stanley. But note " brevet de capacite " referred to by Mr. Stanley in case of private teachers is not enforced if the teacher, on Ist January, 1881, was of a certain age, and had had experience for a certain number of years,
31
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
SCHOOL AGE. There is no definition of school age, or any law respecting it, except that relating to compulsory attendance. The " ecoles maternelles " admit children from two years of age/ and from M. Ferry's report to the President on the organization of superior primary schools, 3 coupled with the facilities provided by the State for the promotion of adult education, it is evident that it is against the policy of France to impose any limit of age. 3 INFANT SCHOOLS AND CLASSES. 4 The infant class, or the maternal school, is the initial, although not, as applying to any Tinder school age (six), a compulsory stage. Of infant schools, or classes, the following points seem worth consideration : —■ («) The object of, and method adopted in, the " ecoles maternelles," and " classes enfantines," including the adoption in great part of the method of Frobel; (b) The addition of an infant class to a primary school when a separate school is impracticable; (c) The limitation of numbers for each teacher f and (d) The fact that infant schools and classes are not only taught exclusively by females (who must be, however, of a certain age, and qualified), but also inspected by " Departmental Lady Inspectors " and " General Lady Inspectors," nominated by the Minister. It should, however, be added that the appointments of "Departmental Lady Inspectors" are not yet regularly and generally established, by reason of the expense; although it is hoped that it will be possible to perfect the organization in a few years. Private infant schools arc subject to supervision similarly to other private schools. ELEMENTARY PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The next grade is the primary school proper ("ecole primairc elemcntaire"), where instruction is always understood to be, whatever may be the number of pupils and classes, divided into three courses 8 of two years each —■ (a) Elementary (cours elementaire) from 7 to 9 years of age; (b) Intermediate (cours moyen), from 9 to 11; and (c) Superior (cours superieur), from 11 to 13. An additional course (complementairo d'ensignement primairc superieur) of one year is provided under certain circumstances ; but this course, although annexed to the elementary schools, is ranked in the category of superior primary education. 7 In all the above-mentioned courses industrial work ("travaux manuels "), or, at all events, what may be deemed to be practical preparation for it, is in the programmes both for boys and girls ; 8 and, indeed, in many primary schools, including a considerable number of those in the Municipality of Paris, instmction is given in handicrafts. <J The ordinary number of scholars in an elementary primary school, at least in Paris, is from 300 to 100 ; 10 and the average size of the classes ranges from forty to fifty pupils, and must not exceed fifty. 11
Lady Inspectors.
Private infant schools.
1 See— (a) "Ecoles Maternelles, 1881-82 (Legislation, Beglements, programme, &o.); and (b) "Infant Schools in Prance," by Madame Dillon, 1.E.0., and vol. 13, pp. 139-143. 2 See L. and B. 3 Note N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 83; and see 1885 Act, sees. 6, 7, 8. 4 " In France the infant schools, called maternal schools, a name which seems peculiarly felicitous, are perhaps more thoroughly and systematically provided for than in any other country. By a recent report of Mdllc. Loizillon, a general inspectress of these schools, it appears there were comprised in this system 4870 maternal schools, with 7451 teachers, and 621,177 children." " Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education," No. 1, 1885, "City School Systems in the United States " (hereafter termed Dr. Philbrick.) Washington Government Printing Office, 1885. 5 For details, see— (a) Beg. d'org. ped., espeo. p. 3, Art. 2.
(b) " Ecoles M." (c) L. and E. (including rep.), and (d) 1.E.C., vol. 13, pp. 13G-143. See also B.C. Ist rep., p. 9. 15 See Beg. d'org. ped., pp. 3 and 4, and also 8.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5905 and seq. • See ibid, and L. and B. espec, p. 11, 8 See (a) " Ecoles M.," p. 38 and seq., and p. 8, Art. 22; (b) Beg. d'org. ped., p. 14, &c.; and (c) 8.C., Ist rep., pp. 14 and 15. 9 See also R.C., Ist rep., 14. ie See Beg. d'org. ped., p. 52. 11 Note the same p. 53, Art. 17. But see Mr. M. Arnold's May, 1886, report, and his evidence B.E.C. 5211, 5592, 5593, 5914, and 5969. Mr. Arnold advocates 25 ; Senior Inspector Sharpe, " never exceed 40, and for highest class or " lowest class infants not more than 25." E.E.C., 5591 and 4429. See also Senior Inspector Stewart, 4071, and seq.
32
E.—l2
FRANCE.
Elementary Primary Schools. In every primary school there is a liall—" preau," where there are lavatories and moveable tables whereon the children can take at noon their dinner meal, and near to there are culinary arrangements for preparing, or warming-up, the children's food. Where there is not a special hall for the teaching of gymnastics, the children can march or perform gymnastic exercises in the preau, or have recreation there in rainy weather; and in such case a part of it will be devoted for the deposit of the children's clothing. 1 The play-grounds are, as a rule, small; although they arc considered indispensable for a primary school. 2 Both Mr. Matthew Arnold, and a prominent member of the London School Board, consider that the French elementary schools arc in advance of the English; 3 and the Commissioners state that the ordinary schools of France (primary and secondary) excel the English ones, as a preparation for the technical schools, in the manner pointed out in their report. 4 SUPERIOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The next step is the superior primary school ("ecole primaire superieure"), 5 an institution entirely distinct from the elementary primary school; and here the course comprises at least two years of studies, and here also manual instruction 6 is pursued; although there arc also schools established mainly for apprenticeship instruction purposes (ecoles manuelles d J apprentissage") . 6 Superior primary schools include also higher elementary technical schools. 7 The object of the establishment of superior primary schools will be found stated in the report of 29th October, 1881, already mentioned; and their organization in a letter from M. Ferry to the Prefect, dated Gth November, 1881. There are no " Optional " subjects. 8 Special masters attend to teach music, 0 gymnastics, 10 and sometimes drawing, 11 which is said to be more advanced than in English schools. 13 The ordinary school hours are from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m., one hour and a half interval at noon, and one hour from 4 to 5 p.m. for gymnastics. 13 The income 11' available for expenditure on primary schools is derived mainly from the State and the communes. The State supremely controls, in the case of all primary schools, through the Minister of Public Instruction. 15 SECONDARY AND HIGHER SCHOOLS. In respect of the secondary and higher educational establishments, 10 attention is invited to the following facts :—
' Seo also reg. d'org. peel., p. 56, Arts. 30-32, and reference to preau. —Dr. Philbriek, pp. 176 and 177. 3 Seo rtg. d'org. ped., p. 56, and for construction of schools see pp. 51-58. Note elaborate and recent official publication (herewith) on " School Architecture and Hygiene, with Plan and Illustrations for the use of School Trustees in Ontario, Canada." Printed for the Toronto Ed. Dep., 1885 ; and Dr. Philbriek, p. 171, and espec. pp. 170 and 177, on " Requirements of the Modern School-room." 3 See E.E.C., 5512 and 5913, and Hon. L. Stanley, also a member of E.E.C., 188G. * Vol. 1, p. 19. Industrial schools, " established by the law of 1880," are. henceforth, by virtue of the law passed this year, to " lank as elementary schools of the first class." "Journal of Ed.," Oct., 1886, p. 415. 5 See (a) L. and B. (b) Lois etreglements and statistique; (c) Decret et arrete du 27 juillet, 1885, relatifs aux etablissements primaire superieure subventionnes par l'Etat; (rf) Paper by Hon. L. Stanley, I.E.C., vol. 16., pp. 365 and 366. 8 See (a) Mem. from Ministry, p. 32 ; (6) Above official references ; (c) E.C., vol. 1, p. 18 and seq. ' See, for instance, E.G., vol. 1, p. 70 and seq. 8 For subjects of study, see tabular summary, ivfra. "See address of M. Guilhot on "Music in French Schools," I.E.C., vol. 13, pp. 449-453. Singing is taught with an instrumental accompaniment.
5—E. 12.
10 See (a) reg. d'org. ped., p. 7; and (b) E.G., 1st rep., p. 13. " Sec also E.G., 1st rep., p. 13. 12 See (a) Hon. L. Stanley, p. 465 ; and also (6) E.C., 1st rep., p. 29. 13 Number of hours calculated to bo about the same as in England and Germany. 14 For full particulars, see— (a) E.C., 1st rep., pp. 7, 25 and 26; and (b) L. and E. rep., p. 5, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 42. But note Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) report, pp. 9 and 10. 16 Technical schools are under the control of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce. See also E.C., 1st rep., pp. 23 and 24. For system of subsidiary management, see R.C., 1st rep., p. 13. 16 See— (a) " Programmes," 1882. r (b) " Nouveau Plan d'Etudes des Lycees." " Plan d'Etudes des Lycees, Annee Scolaire 1885-86. Paris: Delalain Frerea." " Programmes de l'Enseignement Secondaire Special. Paris: Imprimerie Kationale, 1886." And " Amits portant Reglement pour les Lycees des Jeunes Fillep. Paris : Imprimerie Nationalc, juillet, 1884." (c) Address by M. Liard. Eector Academy Caen, I.E.C., vol. 16., pp. 399-403', and see 201 and 202. (d) " Intermediate Education for Girls in France," paper read by T. J. East, Inspecteur of Acade-' mie Perigueux, I.E.G., vol. 15., pp. 383-388,
33
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Secondary and Higher Schools. (1.) Substantial public money aid is givenl by grants and in scholarships (" bourses "), which latter are provided for Colleges, Lyceums, and Faculties, as well as for superior primary schools, and the aid is contributed respectively by the State, the departments, and the communes, and is very munificent j (2.) Instruction is not gratuitous, but the fees payable by scholars, as regulated by public officers, are very much less than in similar establishments in England or the Colony, owing not only to the grants, but to the low salaries paid to professors and teachers of all grades in France; (3.) The admission of young children into the lower divisions of both the communal Colleges and Lyceums, for special elementary preparation; and (4.) Modern languages and science have been largely substituted in the secondary schools for Latin and Greek. 2 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 3 The subjects of technical instruction and half-time scholars can be amply studied in the voluminous reports of the Commissioners, 4 and the other publications forwarded herewith.
espec. p. 386, and see pp. 395 and 403, and vol. 16, pp. 346-348, "Enseignement Secondaire des Jeunes Filles, Programmes. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1882;" and "Documents relatifs a l'Enseignemont Secondairo des Jeunes Filles Etablisscments Ecole Normals. Paris : Delalain, octobre, 1881." (e) " Dons et Legs en faveur des Facultes et Ecoles d'Enseignement Superieur, Rapport au President, et Decrets, 25 juillet, 1885." (/) " Circulaire relative a l'execution du decret du 28 decembre, 1885, sur Porganization des Facultes et des Ecolcs l'Enscignement Superieur; Rapport au President, and Decret, 28. deeembre, 1885, and interesting annexes. Paris: Imprimerie Nationalo, Janvier, 1886." (g) " Statistique de l'Enseignement Secondaire en 1876 (p. 470). Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1878," recently (Nov. 1886) received by me from the Minister of Public Instruction, and, therefore, I presume the latest statistics on the subject officially published. (7i) R.C. rep., vol. 3, pp. 190 and 191; and (i) M.C.E. See also— (a) B.E. rep., espec. pp. 175, 176, 426-442; and (6) " A French Eton, or Middle-class Education and the State," and " Schools and Universities on the Continent," both by M. Arnold. Be Higher Education see— (a) M. Dumont, and discussion, 1.E.C., vol. 15., pp. 129--19 1; and seo also pp. 259, 395, and 403 ; (b) " On the Faculties of Theology in the University of France," paper by Prof. D. Bonet-Maury, and discussion, 1.E.G., vol. 15, pp. 44-58, and address, p. 201 ; (c) " On the Paris Free School of Political Science," paper by M. Emile Boutmy, of the Instituto of France, 1.E.C., vol. 15, pp. 409-414; (d) Lordßeay'saddress,l.E.C.,vol.l3,pp, 11 and 13; and (e) " Schools and Universities," as above. On " Higher Education of Women," see paper by Mrs. Byers, Principal of Ladies' College, Belfast, Transactions Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, p. 415, and subsequent discussion ; and articles and letters by and on Mrs. Lynn Linton and Mrs. Fawcett in P. M. Budget, espec. 21 and 28 Oct., 1880, and infra, p. 212. " The so-called University of France, if we admit that it is a University, is the largest in the world. It consists of a central examining and degree-con-ferring Board, located at Paris, with affiliated academies and faculties in every department of the Republic, and comprises 421 instructors and 14,572 students. If, however, we take the word in its more usually accepted sense, the University of Berlin is the largest. According to tho latest statistics it comprises 264 professors and teachers, and 4,154 students, divided as follows: theology, 503 ; jurisprudence, 964 ; medicine, 924 ; philosophy, 1,763. 1 See also R.C. Ist rep., pp. 9-12, and Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. ccvi. 2 On " The Battle of the Ancients and the Moderns," "La Question du Latin," par Raoul Frary (Paris,
Leopold Cerf), already run through three editions, as relating especially to classical education in France, should not be overlooked. " Secondary education in England has not yet heen organized ; in Prance it is just being reorganized. The following is the revised time table for secondary schools in Prance which the Education Commission has drawn up. The figures represent the hours of " class work " to bo devoted to the several subjects per week: — "Su i!§ [ 3 S \ 3 tso j£ >* \r* fH i» |M r s iis j g g French .. ..7754442 Philosopliy .. 4 Modern Languages ..7554333 History and Geography 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 Mathematics ..3344466 Jurisprudence and Political Economy 1 1 1 Physics and Chemistry .... 2 4 4 4 4 Natural History .... 2 1 .. .. 1 1 Book-keeping 1 1 20 20 20 20 19 21 23" Further on classical education see "Journal of Ed.," June, 1886, p. 234. 3 An International Conference of Technical, Commercial, and Industrial Education was organized by the Socicte Philomathique of Bordeaux, and took place at Bordeaux during the month of September last (188G), under the patronage of the Ministers of Commerce and of Public Instruction. For details see " Journal of Ed.," 1 Oct., 1886. Note especially that an unanimous resolution was passed " That it is desirable that manual labour in primary schools of all grades, already established by French law, should be imposed by the Legislatures of other countries." « Seefa) First rep., espec. pp. 8-11, 14, 17-26, and 28-30; (b) Vol. 1, espec. pp. 18, 28-39, 48-50, 70-81, 84, 103, 107, 114, 115, 121-124, 166-169, 176-185, 219, 280--231, and 509-511; and (c) Vol. 3, rep. on Agriculture, pp. 94-161. See also for instance espec.— (o) " Instruction Speciale sur L'Enseignoment du Travail Manuel dans les ecoles Normales d'lnstituteurs et les Ecoles Primaires, Elemontaires, et Superieures. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1886;" (b) 1.E.C., "Technical Teaching," vol. 14, for instance pp. 6-8, 11, and 567-570 ; (c) R.E. rep., espec. pp. iv.-vi.,94,169-180, 42G andsej., bearing in mind alteration in laws since ; and (d) " Loi sur les ecoles manuelles d'apprentissage 11 dec. 1880," &c. For notice of first attempt to establish a National School of Agriculture in France, see Sir P. J. Keenan's address, p. 42.
34
8.—12.
Technical Instruction. No pains are spared, especially to develop tlie manual genius of the artisan classes. This is done not only by the blending of industrial theory and practice into the primary school course of study/ and by evening/ Sunday/ apprentice, 4 and continuation schools 5 and classes, but by science and art schools for adults and others; and by lectures of all kinds : all which instruction is gratuitous, except in some cases a nominal fee for admission to lectures. Of the evening instruction especially, the Commissioners report that " the system . . . is one of the most striking features of the present condition of educational effort in France." The following memorandum has been courteously supplied to me from the Ministry of Public Instruction :— " Enseignembnt Professionnel. " Des cours d'enseignement professionnel out ete annexes au programme de plusieurs ecoles primaires superieures. " Cet cuseignement est distribue ainsi. " Pour les enfants dc 7a 10 ans, tous les jours une lecon d'une heure ; pour les enfants de 11 a 12 ans la lecon est de deux heures. " Pour les enfants de 7 ct 8 ans, le travail consiste dans des exercises de dessin, de decoupage, d'assemblage de tresses pour la petite vannerie dans le modelage et la reproduction de solides geometriques et d'objets simples. "Pour les enfants de 9 et 10 ans, merncs exercices un peu plus compliques, en vannerie la confection de petits ouvrages, des travaux en fil de fer, des cages, du treillage, des chaines, et en modelage des ornements d'architecture. "Pour les enfants de 11 et 12 aus, dessin des coupes, etude des outils, fer et bois, le rabotage et le sciage des bois, la confection de boites, etude du tour a bois, exercices de lime, ebarbage et finissage d'objets bruts de forge et venus de fonte. " II existe aussi des ecoles manuelles d'apprentissage assimilees aux ecoles primaires superieures, mais placees sous la direction du Ministere du Commerce et dont les cours sont en general de 3 ans. " Dans ccs etablissements, unc part plus large est faite aux travaux manuels qui occupent les eleves deux heures par jour pour la premiere annee, trois heures dans la seconde annee et enfin pour la troisieme annee cinq heures pendant le premier semestre et sept heures pendant lc second. " Ces cours sont donnes aux enfants de douze ans au moins et qui ont fini leurs premieres etudes primaires. " Les travaux vont jusqu' a la fabrication des outils (bois et fer), des ouvrages au tour et au burin, ete. " Le personnel charge de l'enseignement professionnel est nomme par le Prefet si l'ecole est departementale, et par lc maire si l'ecole est communale. Dans les deux cas les nominations sont faites sur la proposition de la commission de surveillance et de perfectionnement institute aupres de l'etablissement par lc Conseil General ou par le Conseil Municipal. " Dans les ecoles libres le personnel est choisi par les fondateurs." 6 PHYSICAL TRAINING AND OVER-PRESSURE. Physical training occupies a prominent position in the school programmes. It is provided that even the infant schools and classes shall be exercised in gymnastics, graduated to favour the physical development of the child, 7 whilst in reciting in the regulations of primary schools
Physical training.
l See also Art. by Lord Brabazon. in " Time," May, 1880, pp. 547-549; R.E.C, Mr. M. Arnold, 5897; andintroduction of workshops, for instance, see— (a) Above report, including I.E.C, vol. 14, p. 0 ; (6) Dr. Philbrick, containing account of Tournefort Street School, Paris, p. 79; and " Journal of Ed." of Oct., 18S0, p. 415, containing account of resolutions passed'bPy Bordeaux Congress of Sept., 1886. But note opinions against the system, and reasons, Dr. Philbrick, p. 81. (c) R.E.C, Mr. M. Arnold, 0932 and seq. The progress of the Sloyd movement in Germany, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland should not be overlooked, see P.M. Budget, 23 Sept., 1886. 2" One must go to Paris or Vienna for an example of
what can and should be provided in a great city in this department of industrial education," Dr. Philbrick, p. 40. s Most of the adult schools in France, Belgium, and Germany are Sunday schools. av_ +„„(.•„ t„ n u L , .., ~ . . 4 * °r testimony to the excellent character of the Munig^nme s°ee Dr Pl \sd*% 85 *"^ °£ . T P^g^mmo, see JJr. 1 niltuick, p. Ho. " Note advocacy of the continuation school by Mr. W. Besant in " Contemp. Rev.," Mar., 1880, Art. " From Thirteen to Seventeen." 6 For sample programme of Polytechnic Assoc, see Dr, Philbrick, Appendix A. j i Ecoles Maternelles 8, art. 24.
35
FRANCE.
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Physical Training and Over-pressure. the triple object of education, physical education is placed before either of the two other objects/ and it is provided that in addition to evolutions and exercises, which can accompany the movements of the class, gymnastic exercises arc to be taught every day, or at least every two days, in the course of the afternoon.' 2 In the communal Colleges and Lyceums, the exercises occupy four lessons per week, of half-an-hour's duration each. 3 The elaborate (pp. 221) official publication herewith on the teaching of gymnastics in the University further shows the stress laid upon, and the exhaustive attention paid to, the subject. 4 "Over-pressure" as relating to secondary schools formed the theme last year of an article in the "Matin" by M. Jules Simon; when that distinguished cx-professor approved a curtailment in the hours of study lately made by the Minister, and also advocated a reduction of the programme. 5 PRIVATE SCHOOLS. 6 Private schools (" ecoles libres ") are not under general State control, yet they are subject to State supervision, in respect of (a) morality, (b) sanitary arrangements, (c) the keeping a register of, and reporting, absences, 7 and (d) so that the books used be not such as are contrary to the actual Constitution, or principles of government. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT AND HOME LESSONS. Corporal punishment in all schools is forbidden by law, and any breach would be punished by dismissal of the teacher, or infliction of a severe penalty : but home lessons, which, I fear, in most cases are more injurious, 8 are insisted upon, at least as regards primary schools, to a far greater extent than in the Colony, or England. 9 TEACHERS. The " brevet de capacite " requirement of the law of 16th June, 1881, and the further provisions of the law passed this year (188G), 10 render the proper qualification of teachers indispensable. 11 The subject of normal schools, therefore, has become, not only to the State, but to the teacher, an especially important one; and in all the departments there are excellent State normal schools for the training of masters (" ecoles normales d'instituteurs ") and in many for mistresses ("ecoles normales d'institutrices "). 13 Examinations are held for
Over-pressure.
Qualification. Normal schools,
''See reg. d'org. ped., pp. 5 and 11. « See ibid, p. 7. 8 On subject generally, see also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, ■(5058, and 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 161, and note N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 85. The prominence recently accorded to physical culture . in the French system is possibly attributable to the physical and tactical superiority of the Germans as exhibited markedly in tho Franco-Prussian war, jast as the Austrians apparently learnt from Sadowa, see Dr. Philbrick, p. 101. Indeed, even a casual visitor ■ to Germany and France, if impartial, must be impressed with tho superiority of German physique and solid intelligence. See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5502-3. But note remarks by H. E. H. Jerningham, " Blackwood's Magazine," June, 1886, " French Examiners under the Civil Service," p. 739, thus: — " Leisure hours in French schools are too much devoted to profitless chatter, and those bodily exercises which purify the blood and quicken it are not sufficiently encouraged." ' " Enseignement de la Gymnastique dans la l'Universite. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1878," has been recently received by mo (Nov., 1886) from the Ministry of Public Instruction, and is therefore, I presume, the latest official publication on the subject. 6. On " Over-pressure " note R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 6058 -;: and seq. The absence of complaints both in Germany and France may fairly, I think, be attributable in large measure, not merely to superior educational system in other respects, but also to the attention paid to the antithesis of mental strain —muscular exercise. • See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5739 and seq., 5604 and seq., and 5,998; and R.C. Ist rep., p. 27. 7 See note 6 above. 8 " Now, as to tho child at least, I think that only a small part of his day ought to be given to lessons."—Prof. Seeley, " Insular Ignorance," "N.C.," Dec, 1885, p. 863 ; see also 871 and 872.
9 See also— (a) M.G., E.,p. 230; (A) Hon. L. Stanley ; and je) E.E.0., Mr. M. Arnold, 5935. 10 Bee also Decret relatif aux litre de capacite pour l'onsignemonfc primaire et arrete, 20 decembre, 1884. 11 "In 1877 there were 417,112 uncertificated; in 1882, 26,677 ; in 1883 there were only 21,781 without such brevet. Since Oct., 1884, when the term of grace expired, no teachers without certificates are employed, unless in certain cases, where age and term of service are taken into consideration." —Amer. Commr. Report, 1885, p. ociv. The text applies to teachers of private schools also, except in certain cases of age and experience. The instruction is better in foreign popular schools than in ours, because the teachers are better trained."—M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., p. 15. Again, " the methods of teaching . . . aro more gradual, more natural, more rational, than in ours," &c, p. 13. And see R.E.0., Mr. M. Arnold, espec. 5276, 5512, 5827 and seq., and 5839. ' 2 See— (a) " Reglements et Programmes d'Etudes. Paris: Imprimerie N&tionale, 1886," and " Documents relatifs a l'Enseigncment Secondaire des Jeunes Pilles. Paris: Delalain, 1881." (b) Reglementation 1884, and compare with N.Z. Gazette 92, 1878. See also R.C., Ist rep., p. 8. Mr. M. Arnold, in his May, 1886, report, says (p. 19), " In the training schools the good effects of the present zeal and liberal expenditure for improved popular instruction are especially visible. I saw no school institution on the Continent better than the training school for masters at Anteuil. I doubt whether I saw any so good, certainly I saw none so interesting, as tho training school at Fontenay-aux-Roses for directresses and teachers of training schools for schoolmistresses," &c. Mr. Arnold eulogises (p. 19) the system of students at colleges coming into contact —
36
E.—l2
FRANCE.
Teachers. admission. Pupils enter about eighteen. The course of study is for three years. A primary school, in which pupils are exercised, is annexed to each normal school, and near outside is a maternal school. The institutions are boarding schools, 1 although a certain number of half-boarders and day scholars are received; but instruction and board are given gratuitously. There is no religious teaching. There are also two superior normal schools ("ecoles normales superieures"), one at Fontenay-aux-Roses for girls, 2 and one at St. Cloud for boys, for the purpose of training teachers to superintend teaching in normal schools. 3 Applicants for admission must be at least (a) twenty years of age; (b) possess the superior certificate granted to teachers ; and (c) succeed in an admission examination which comprehends written and oral proofs of capacity, including the practice of teaching.^ Both classes of establishments are national institutions, non ecclesiastical, and mainly residential in character. Teachers for primary schools must be exclusively laymen, and are nominated 1 on the proposition of the departmental Inspector (" Inspecteur d'Academie," who represents the University of France and the Minister of Public Instruction), by the Prefect of the Department, who, as chief of the departmental administration, is nominated by the Minister of the Interior; but he refers to the Minister of Public Instruction on all scholastic affairs. 5 The Inspector, however, " always acts in concert with, and takes the opinion of, the rural municipality before naming the teacher." The pupil-teacher system is virtually defunct in France, 0 the former system of monitors, which somewhat corresponded to our pupil-teacher arrangements, having become substantially a thing of the past. Women are much more fully employed as teachers than in Germany or Switzerland. Professors and teachers of all grades are very poorly paid; and if Victor Hugo's definition be correct that the schoolmaster in France is the highest functionary of the State, 7 they certainly do not pay their highest State functionaries adequately. The following data gives an idea of the salaries paid, which are always "fixed."
Superior normal sc 00 3"
Salaries of teachers.
as they do in Prance—with University instruction of the highest class. For further details see his May, 188G, rep. pp. 18 and 19; R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5274 and seq. ; and Amcr. Gommr. Rep., 1885, for 1883-84, p. coviii. "Generally, the director of a normal school ; has been an elementary teacher. The best work is conducted by specialists who visit the colleges."— R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5111 and 5288 and 5289. See Decret et arreto du 28 juillet, 1885, relatifs aux > examens pour l'obtention du certiflcat d'aptitude au professor at des ecolcs normales. 1 See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5131. 2a „ j. in or bee note 14, p. db. . _ 3 See note 12, p. 3G. See also M. Damont, p. 152; and R.C., Ist rep., p. 8. I 4 " By recent law passed this year (188G), woman are adrnitted as teachers in schools at the age of seventeen,
| but men not until eighteen."—See " Journal of Ed." I Oct. 188G, p. 415. 5 For exclusion of monks and nuns from teaching inmunicipal schools, see P. M. Budget, 25 March, 188G, p. 32. 6 See — ; (a) Hon. L. Stanley, and , (b) 8.C., Ist rep., p. 13, and compare N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 50, and Gazette 92, 1878. 7 See also Luther's extolment of the office of schoolmaster, Franz Noir, Pad Aphorismen. 8 See also— (a) R-C Ist rep., p. 7 ; {") *J- an<l "■< PP' 7-13 ; and Mr M _ ArnoUVs ( MaV) 1886 ) roport> p . 2 1, and his ' evidence, R.E.C., 5295 and 5296, and 5532 and seq. t S ee also B.E. rep., pp. 438 and 439. | No such element as payment by results exists, but note ; advocacy of it—" Abbe M."
37
Number of Teachers. Class of School. Amount of Salary. 'rimary Schools 8 2,487 19,058 5,326 13,746 7,426 22,355 5,969 2,260 1,364 786 579 £24 and under £26 £26-32 £32 to £36 £36 to £40 £40 to £52 £52 to £64 £64 to £76 £76 to £88 £88 to £104 above £104 81,356 iyceums 9 ... The salaries in Paris range from £84 to £330; in the Departments £230.
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Teachers. Every teacher lias a right to a pension after twenty-five years' service.l It is calculated at the rate of one-half of the highest salary earned during the last six years of office. Towards the pension fund deductions are made from salaries. 3 Gratuities are given, INSPECTION. 3 The inspection is excellent, although there is no very special feature, except that of lady Inspectors for infant schools. All Inspectors —chief, departmental ("Inspectcurs d'Acadunic" under the supervision of the chief Inspectors), and primary {" Inspecteurs primaircs " under the order of the departmental Inspectors)—arc nominated by the Minister; and " are recruited from amongst the masters of elementary schools." In each Department there is a departmental Inspector, and as many primary ones as there are divisions, or ridings ("arrondissements"). The Inspectors relatively to the teachci'3 are well paid. 4 For instance, it is reported that " there are Inspectors in Paris who, with one thing or another, are getting about 9,000 francs ." J " The National Educational Association of France ('Ligue francaise de l'ensignement'), which held its fourth annual Congress at Tours, April 15-18, 188-1, agreed that regular medical inspection should be made in every school to avoid epidemic or contagious diseases and injury to eyesight." 6 SCHOLARSHIPS. The following memorandum has been considerately furniscd to me from the Ministry of Public Instruction :— " Bourses. " LVllltat entretient des boursiers dans Penseignement primaire superieur, dans les lycees ct colleges, et dans les Facultes. " Le nombre des bourses attributes aux ecoles primaires superieures s'cleve au lr emars, 1881, a 1,407; divisees ainsi: garcons, 1,061 ; fillcs, 346. " Les bourses d'enseignement primaire superieur sont donnees au concours. II suffit d'avoir 12 ans et lc certificat d'etudes elementaires pour etre admis a ce concours. " Les bourses sont de 500 francs pour l'internat complct. "11 y a ainsi des bourses familiales, e'est ;\ dire pour entretenir les enfants dans uue famille a defaut d'ecole ou de pensionnat. " Le credit affecte a cettc depense est de 774,000 francs pour l'annee, 1884. " Dans les lycees et colleges, l'Etat entretient 4,500 boursiers (chiffrc rond) ; le credit y affecte est de 2,600,000 francs pour 1884. " Dans les Facultes, il existe 315 boursiers de licence, 213 boursiers d'agregation, et 48 boursiers pour la medeciue et la pharmacie. Pour couvrir cet depense une sommc dc 720,000 francs est inscrite au budget de 1884." The comparative smallness of the amounts, especially of those available for superior primary schools, is noticeable.' Last year (1885) a law was passed "providing for education (after examination) for one child in every family which numbered more than six."s
Pensions and gra ui les.
Inspection.
Scholarships.
1 See also E.E.0., Mr. M. Arnold, espec. 5124-5127 and 555'J. » See also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886), rep., p. 21. 3 Note also opinions of Mr. M. Arnold and Dr. Philbrick --D. Philbrick, p. 56 ; and R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, cspec. 5090-5097. Observe selection made, some from same class as in England, many more from schoolmaster class, 5094, 5567 and seq. Inspection less mechanical in Fiance than in England, 5095. For duties, E.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5089 and 5279. * See also E.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5280. 5 8.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5280 and seq. ; hut see 5294. 6 Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, for 1883-84, p. ccix. ; and note notice of " Ligue," E.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5609. ' For further details, see— {a) L. and R., p. 10.
(6) Knseignemcnt primaire suporicur, lois et reglernents et statistique, pp. 27, 28, and 29-39. (c) M. Dumont, vol. 15, 1.E.C., p. 259. id) 1.E.C., vol. 15., pp. 146 and 173. (e) R.0., Ist rep., pp. 9-12, and Appendix No. 1. (/) B.E. rep., p. 441, and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, ss. 51-53. " Up to March of this year, 189 of these scholarships have heen awarded to hoys, and twenty-four to girls. It is instructive to note that only two of the boys, and none of the girls, came from Paris. So far the results of the law are interesting only as an indication of the existing size of French families. It will be stiil more interesting, in a few years' time, to sec whether the French succeed in increasing their population by Act of Parliament." — P.M. Budget, 11 March, 1886, p. 2. For further comments on this curious law see " Not at Home," " N.C.," Oct., 1880, p. 561.
38
FBANCB.
E.—l2
CONCLUSION.
As yet there has not been time, since the enacting of the new laws, to justify any com- conclusion, parison between France and other countries, such as Germany and Switzerland, where there have been opportunities to detect and rectify errors and supply deficiencies. 1 But the will and the resources are present in France; and it only remains to be seen whether the principles, especially of universal secularity ordained by the State, 2 and of less local educational government than in Germany 3 or Switzerland, 3 will, with the administrative machinery in France, prove to be a success. 4' My special thanks ai'e due to Professor Morel, late Chef du Cabinet 5 at the Ministry of Public Instruction, especially for his kindness in perusing the statement of facts in this section in 1885, and again very lately (in 188C5) j but, of course, he must not be identified with remarks or inferences.
1 See also 1.E.0., vol. 13, p. 195, and 8.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold. " The schools [in Germany] have been for so long, and are still, in my opinion, better than the French schools," 5913. 2 Seo references, Ist page of this section. Suicide has been steadily increasing in France. The Francais attributes it to secular education, and says, " Another ten years of Atheist teaching in our schools, and the number of suicides will be ten times as large." Other journals connect it with different causes. Note also effect of secular system in Victoria. Austral. Times and Anglo-N.Z., 2G Feb., 188G, p. 2G. The Roman Catholics, at the present moment, support, through voluntary efforts alone, one-third of the school children of Paris. Sec Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., p. 9. " An eminent pedagogue and savant of France (Michel
Breal, member of the Institut) in tho'Dictionnaire de Pedagogic,' finds one of the principal causes of the supremacy of Germany in the matter of popular education in the exceptional division of the nation into so many independent sovran ties. A sort of emulation was created among them, and thus the improvements realized at any one point were gradually adopted by the entire nation. The same emulation continues to this day."—Dr. Philbrick, p. 7. It would seem that these remarks are also specially applicable to Switzerland. * For statistical information, see three vols. of report on primary education, published by a French Commission of leading educators. The 3rd vol. (Statistique de 1' instruction priinairo pour l'annee scolaire, 1881-82) was published in June, 1884. And see Amor. Commr. Rept., 1885, for 1883-84, pp. ceii-ccix. 3 He retired from that office on the fall of the Ferry Administration, but is now an Inspector.
39
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
SWITZERLAND. 1
INTRODUCTION. Being aware, on reaching Switzerland, that the Swiss primary school system had the reputation of being the best extant/ or, at least, one of the best, 3 and that the schools are reported to excel in modern languages* and science, 5 I endeavoured to ascertain whether there were reasons why such results should be expected, and whether they existed. No good purpose could be served here by commenting upon the effects of climate, and of physical characteristics of the country —matters beyond control. I, therefore, confine myself to near causes of excellence, and their results. It is necessary to remember that Switzerland is a republic where there are no universal sympathies of race, language, or religion.o The Swiss, apparently, have concluded— (1.) That the existence of such a republic, unless all its citizens are sufficiently educated, is an impossibility ; 7 and (2.) That to ensure such universal 8 and sufficient education— (a) Compulsory-attendance laws and gratuitous instruction are necessary; (b) Religion must be admitted as the basis of education, 9 but consideration must be shown for the religious feelings of all •, (c) There must be local government in all matters primarily affecting localities; (d) Gymnastic exercise must be taught; and (e) The young must be protected against injurious employment. 11 The Confederation has laid down certain principles of vital importance to the nation, as a nation, including delegation to the cantons of local self-government; and the cantons under that delegation regulate all educational matters in the respective cantons, 12 except such as concern the Zurich Polytechnic School. And by that means such universality and thoroughness in detail, thrift, and adaptation to local circumstances, are secured as would not probably otherwise be practicable. So that although, in one at least of the twenty-five cantons — Appenzell Inner Rhoden 13 —there are probably not more children attending school than are on the register of some one of the city schools in the colony, yet the canton has as fully recognized a right as any nation in Europe — (a) To enact its own educational laws in respect of religious teaching, taxation, expenditure, and otherwise; and (b) To carry them out; 14 subject only to the principles already mentioned, and to the ultimate control reserved to the Confederation. 15
Reported excellence of
Principles laid down by
1 See Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) report on (1) free education ; (2) quality of education ; (8) status, training, and pensioning of teachers; and (4) compulsory attendance and release from school; also his evidence before Royal Education Commission, 1886 (hereafter termed E.E.C.). Likewise note " Switzerland " in " Report of the Commr. of Educ. for the U.S.A., 1885, for years 1883-84," pp. ccxxxiv.-ccxxxvii. " Switzerland is certainly the El Dorado of the schoolmasters. In the district of Saanen, in Canton Berne, there is hardly any political or communal office which is not occupied by a schoolmaster," &c. — P.M. Budget, 21 Oct., 1886. 1 For instance, — (a) Lord Norton, M.C.E., p. 231. (6) Mr. Mundella, 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 215. (c) Mr. M. Arnold's evidence, R.E.C., espec. ans. 5105. 3 For instance, — (a) Mr. Mundella, 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 195. (6) R.C., vol. 1, p. 511. 4 See, for instance, 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 215. 5 See, for instance, R.C., vol. 1, pp. 187-191, and espec. 292 and 293. 0 1,160,782 Roman Catholics alone out of a total popula-
tion in 1880 of 2,846,102. Statistik iiber das Unterrichts wesen in der Sehweiz im Jahr 1881, &c. C. Grob, Zurich (hereafter termed "Stat."). See also British Legation Rept, dated 15 Jan., 1868, p. 8 (hereafter called B.L. rep.), pp. 123-126. i See also Mr. M. Arnold's evidence R.E.C., espee. ans. 5433; and "Statement of Theory of Ed. in U.S." Govt. Printing Office, Washington, 1874, p. 6. Remark note 3, p. 39, supra, which seems especially applicable to Switzerland, " C'est dans le gouvernment republicain qu' Ton a besoin de toute la puissance de l'education."—Montesquieu. 8 See also " R.C.," vol. 1, p. 511. 9 Religious instruction, however, is not obligatory for all, or everywhere—for instance, in Jura Bernois there is no such teaching. See Stat., Art. 49. 10 See, for instance, B.L. Rep., pp. 123-126. " See Stat., espec. pp. 1-5, 22, 230, 241-257, and 277-280. 12 Stat., p. 1. See also 1.E.C., vol. 16, p. 181. 73 See Stat., espec. p. 8. 14 See Stat., espec. p. 1. See also, for instance, loi 11 mai, 1870, Art. 85, Berne. '« See Stat., p. 1.
40
E.—l2
SWITZERLAND.
Introduction. Excellence in modern languages arises in Switzerland also from necessity. 1 Owing to diverse nationalities 2 three at least 3 distinct languages are authoritatively used—so much so that, even in the Federal Parliament, it is allowable for each representative to speak the language current in his canton. Moreover, from the geographical position of Switzerland in the highway of Europe, and from its own attractions for all nations, facility in the use of foreign languages for a large proportion of its industrial, as well as its official, population, becomes indispensable. So with a cause for excellence in scientific knowledge; for it is not at Zurich that we 1 find in the Polytechnic School a remarkable technical university of the very highest order ?* ] In order to present a comprehensive view of the whole system, I will stale the— («) General principles somewhat in detail; the (b) Features which are recognized by all the cantons; and, in order to illustrate how the cantons carry out the trusts reposed in them, (c) Will select a fairly representative canton for more detailed comment. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. (1.) Primary education is, according to cantonal regulations— (a) Compulsory, 5 ( (b) Gratuitous/1 and, in most places, 7 I (c) Religious. But public schools must be so conducted that they may be frequented i by members of all religions, without any intrusion on liberty of creed or conscience. 8 The Articles of the Confederation state 9 that— («) Liberty of creed and conscience is inviolable ; (b) No one can be obliged to take part in a religious association, or in religious I instruction; (c) Nobody can be obliged to do any religious act; or (rf) Be punished in any way for religious opinion ; and (e) In the sense of these principles the father, or guardian, disposes of the religious education of children until they have reached their sixteenth year; (/) The execution of civil or political rights must not be limited by any principles or conditions of a clerical or religious nature; and (ff) No one is obliged to pay taxes which are fixed, especially for the clerical purposes of a religious body to which he does not belong. Whilst on the other hand— (tf) Religious opinions afford no claim to the performance of civil duties ; (b) The order of the Jesuits, and the societies affiliated to it, are not tolerated in any part of Switzerland, and the members are forbidden to take any active part in church or school; 10 (c) The last-mentioned prohibition can, by a special decree of the Confederation, be extended to other clerical orders, whose action is dangerous to the State, or a trouble to the peace which exist between other denominations j 11 and— (if) It is not allowed to establish new, or to re-establish suppressed, monasteries, or religious orders. 13
Excellence in languages
Excellence in knowledge.
Compulsory, and'rehgious features.
Beligious feature.
1 See also Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., 5865. 2 See also B.L. rep., p. 131, and footnote. 8 For the purposes of the text no notice is taken of a fourth race, speaking a fourth language—ltomaneseh or Komanese —prevalent in the largest of all the cantons, (Jraubiinden. See also " Lectures on the Science of Language," &c., by Max Miiller. Charles Scribner and Co., New York, 1871, pp. 195, 19G. • See also — (a) 8.C., vol. 1, pp. 292, 293, and 187-191; (b) Stat., p. 277; and (c) B.L. rep., pp. 115, 116, and 121. Perhaps the best evidence of its world-wide reputation is the varied nationality of its students. K.C., vol. 1, p. 189. 6 Seo Stat., p. 1, Art. 27. Note also 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 189. " The Constitution of 29 May, 1874, Art. 27, provides that " primary instruction is obligatory, and in the public schools gratuitous." 6—E. 12.
It is said in Switzerland, " Free schooling gives us powers of compulsion that we can enforce with greater stringency ;wo say,' You have nothing to pay, you must come to school.' " See Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before 8.E.C., 5300 and 59G0 and seq. This is given as the main reason why instruction was rnado gratuitous. For the drawbacks note 59G1, viz., that " children who could pay had better pay, and that their parents would valuo the schooling more." See (a) Stat., p. 1 ; and (6) 1.E.C., vol. IG, pp. 180, 181. ' But see note 10, p. 40. 8 See Stat., pp. 1, 2. Note also Mr. Arnold's (May, 188G) report, p. 8. 9 See Art. 49. 10 This exception, it is inferred, is male on political grounds only ; see Art. 51. " Seo Stat., p. 2, Art. 51, >» Art. 52,
41
E—l2.
REPORT UPON STMT. EDUCATION.
General Principles. To estimate the due importance of these provisions, it must l)c remembered that— («) Some cantons—such as Tessin, i'or instance—are inhabited almost wholly by Roman Catholics; 1 (b) In others—such as Vaud—the Protestants largely predominate ;" (c) In the total of all the cantons, the Roman Catholics form a very large proportion of the population ; and (d) In the case of all the cantons education is supported primarily and mainly 3 by direct local taxation 4 —taxation which, by reason oi' its directness and localness, is felt, and not merely talked of vaguely. The subsidiary cantonal regulations relating to religious exercises in public schools in a canton such as Tessin naturally differ very widely from those in such a one as Vaud ;■' but in the cases of primary and secondary schools the teaching of religion has the first place, as a rule, on the programme. 0 Primary education is only gratuitous during the compulsory period, and the regulating of the period being one of the powers left to the cantons — («) Differs according to localities; and (/;) Again, in localities, is not the same all the year round -^ because — (a) Field industry interferes somewhat in summer, 8 and (b) Although probably sometimes in certain places the weather affects attendance in winter, yet there is then far more time available, and availed of, for study. The average compulsory age period, however, is, so far as years arc to be reckoned, from the age of six and a quarter to that of nearly fourteen and a half. 9 (a) There arc over 90 per cent, of the children on the registers in average daily attendance ; 10 (6) Enforcement by proceedings at law has seldom to be resorted to; 11 (c) The excuses legitimately available for absences differ according to the regulations of the several cantons (of which the P>crnesc school laws 1- are a fair example) ; and (d) It is competent for parents to claim exemption for children from compulsory attendance by either sending their children to a private school, or by retaining them at home for private tuition. 13 In such latter case, however, they must submit to the annual examination in the school of the commune in which they live, whilst private schools are—■ (a) Under inspection by the cantonal Inspectors, 14 and (b) Are subjected to annual public examination by the official authorities. In either case, if the result of any examination be unsatisfactory, the children have to be sent to a public school.
Gratuitous feature.
Compulsory feature.
1 According to census of 1880, 130,017 Roman Catholics; whilst there were only 358 Protestants, and 402 of other religions ; see Stat., p. 8. 2 In 1880, Protestants, 219,427; Roman Catholics, 18,170; other religionists, 1,133; see Stat., p. 8. For further notice of Valid, see evidence of Mr. M. Arnold before R.E.C., 5430. 2 For component parts of school income, see— (a) Stat., for instance, Zurich, p. 30; Berne, p. 42 and seq. ; and Lucerne, p. s(">. (b) 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 189. (c) B.L. rep., pp. 120-122. (d) School law of Canton Aargau, for instance, Arts. 88 and 89, B.L. rep., p. 512. (c) Loi sur les ecoles primaires publiques du Canton de Berne, 11 mai, 1870, Arts 18-35. 4 For explanation of system of taxation, see R.C., vol. 1, pp. 291 and 292, and other references as above. 5 For all the cantons, see Stat., pp. 13-28, and note Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) report, p. 8. 6 See, for instance— la) Loi 11 mai, 1870, Art. 1, and (fc) Loi 26 juin, 1856, avec modification du 2 septembre, 18G7, sur les ecoles secondaires du Canton de Berne, Art. 11. But see note 9on p. 40. ' See also— (a) B.L. rep., p. 128, and (6) 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 189. 8 See also Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., espec. 5545 and 5584.
9 But for laws and regs. in force in each canton see— (a) Stat., pp. 23-28. (b) B.L. rep., pp. 127 and 188. (c) Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 188G) report, p. 7, and hia evidence before R.E.C., espec. 5121 and 5543. Note also— («) 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 189; (b) 11.C, vol. 1, p. 19, relating to Ziirich ; and (c) Loi 11 mai, 1870, Berne, Art. 8; and id) Aargau, B.L. rep., p. 507. "> See also— (a) 1.E.G., vol. 13, p. 180. (6) R.C., vol. 1, p. 290, re Ziirich. (c) Mr. jr. Arnold's (May, 188G) report, pp. 22 and 23, and his evidence before R.E.C., espec. 5213, 5540 and seq. Berne does not supply a good illustration ; sec rapport du Canton de Berne (hereafter termed B. rep.). Compare statistics with figures in N.Z. rep., p. ii. 1885. 11 See also B.L. rep., p. 119, and Mr, M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., espee. 5365. But note B. rep. 12 See (a) Arts. 7-10, .and (b) Stat., pp. 41-55. Note also Stat., pp. 28-40 and SG-230, for laws of other cantons. And see Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before E.E.C., espec. 5545, 5554 and seq. 13 See Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., 516C and seq. u See for instance, Art. 57, loi 11 mai, 1870, Berne.
42
E.—l2
SWITZERLAND.
General Principles. There is no law in Switzerland fixing any time-limit (luring which a child may attend school. The practice (although by no means universal) is— («) To send children at about the age of six to an ordinary primary school, cither direct from home, or from an infant school; and (b) For them to remain there not longer than the compulsory age-limit, or until they pass the examination which relieves them from further attendance; and (c) Then to go into a secondary school, or into practical life and attend a supplementary school.' Pupils generally leave .secondary schools about the age of fifteen." (2.) The cantons must act in educational matters, and the Confederation will take tlie ' steps necessary against those that do not perform their duties. 8 (3.) The Federal State is entitled to establish a university, and other high institutions, i and to support such institutions, 4 besides the Polytechnic School: although to the cantons] the right is reserved to make the practice of any scientific profession (such as that of ai barrister, physician, professor, or teacher) depend on proof of capability for such; buttcstimonials obtained in one canton maintain their value throughout the whole Confcdera-1 tion. (4.) The Federal State is entitled to establish decrees concerning the engagement of i children in industrial establishments ■:' and it is enacted— («) That children under fourteen years of age are not allowed to work in industrial i establishments; ' (li) Children who have begun their fifteenth and have not finished their sixteenth year, must not work in school and in the industrial establishments for more, altogether, than eleven hours per day •/' (c) The instruction in school and in religion must not be intruded upon by the work in the industrial establishments ; 7 (fl) Young people under eighteen arc not allowed to work on Sundays, or at night in industrial establishments; (c) The Confederation is entitled to point out those branches of industry for which children are not allowed to work at all; (/) A proprietor of an industrial establishment is not allowed to excuse himself with having ignored the age or the duty of a boy to go to school if he be under age ; s and (y) Punishments are provided for those who break these laws. 8 (5.) It is the duty of the cantons to see that— («) The male youth from the tenth year, until the period of leaving the primary < school, arc prepared for military service by an apt instructor in gymnastics, 0' and the teacher who gives the instruction must have acquired the qualification to do so in a normal school, and in the School of Military Recruits ; and (/>) Gymnastic instruction, preparatory for the military service, must be given to all youths (who have left the school) till the twentieth year of their age. 10 The Confederation, moreover, has issued decrees concerning—■ (a) The introduction of gymnastic exercises for male children from ten to fifteen years of age; (6) The preparing of teachers for giving gymnastic instruction; and (c) The cases of dispensation from gymnastic exercises. The foregoing statements include the most important of the constitutional laws, as representing the national principles upon which education has to be conducted by the cantons.
school age.
Cantons must
Confederation foun^'wijer* educational Bu ' t cantons regulate practices of professions. Confederation regulates industrial employment o£ dliklren'
Cantons have °^stics
1 See also Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before E.E.C., 5184 ; and for effect of this, COBO. 1 See Stat., p. 1, Art. 27. '■> See Stat., p. 1. 4 See Stat., p. 1, Art. 33. s Art. 34.
6 See (a) Stat., pp. 5 ancl 6, Art. 16, and (6) 8.C., vol. 1, p. 20. 7 See Stat., pp. 5 and 0. 8 See last ref., and for factory scheme relating to employment of children, B.L. rep., p. 292. ■' See Stat., pp. i and 5. 10 See Stat. Art. 81, and for Berne, see B. rep.
43
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
FEATURES COMMON TO ALL CANTONS. Each canton is divided into communes, and the communes mainly support the schools; and it is only the normal schools which are the peculiar care of the cantons. 1 All public schools, therefore, except the Polytechnic School, and normal schools, are cither communal or municipal. The positions which the cantons assume are by no means, in all cases, the same : inasmuch as (a) The educational principles upon which they act, in many cases, differ; and (ti) Their laws and modes of administration. Indeed, sometimes even a town or village assumes an independent attitude towards its cantonal government in respect of its educational institutions, which arises mainly from historical reasons. 2 But there are certain general features which are recognized by all the cantons. 3 (1.) Primary schools* are the basis of education for all inhabitants, and such schools, with the supplementary schools (in the case of children who do not attend a secondary school), supply the only education which those children (after attending an infant school, if they do so attend) receive who cannot afford to remain at school, other than at a primary one during the compulsory period. Infant schools 3 do not necessarily exist in all the cantons, and attendance at them is only voluntary. Children, however, largely frequent them, from the age of three up to that of six; but, although encouraged by the cantonal governments, these schools do not seem to be a speciality so much as in other countries. 6 I was informed that the Bernese schools are fairly representative ; but I neither saw nor heard anything respecting them which impressed me as calling for special notice. The hours for teaching arc from Bto 11 a.m., and 12 to 4 p.m.; and the time is mainly occupied by Kindergarten exercises. Education at these schools is not gratuitous, except for the poor. (2.) In order to fix more solidly primary education, schools for repetition, or further instruction, exist—viz., evening, or continuation schools (Ergaenzungsschulen). 7 These, " which arc numerous and important, supplement the teaching of the primary school, and even carry intelligent pupils a few steps onward, and instruct them in the best methods of applying the knowledge gained during childhood to the practical duties of life; " and thereby prepare for certain industrial pursuits, or afford fit preparation (if education is to be pursued) for a technical school. Attendance is compulsory for a term, on leaving the primary school, for those who do not then attend a secondary one. These schools, however, are entirely distinct from certain apprenticeship-schools which exist, but which are exclusively devoted to technical instruction in certain industries, such as watchmaking, &c. 8 (3.) Above the primary schools stands the secondary 9 (higher elementary), which prepare for the high schools; and attendance at these is optional. Instruction at most of them is (virtually) gratuitous, and everywhere for those scholars who arc unable to pay. (4.) The next higher degree of schools consists of high schools 10 for the learned and technical professions, where tuition is often free. 11 They arc called colleges, and consist of " Industrieschulen" and " Gymnasien." The " Industrieschulcn," or trade schools, arc
Subdivisional cantonal arrangements.
Infant and primary schools.
Supplementary schools.
Secondary schools.
Colleges.
1 See (a) Stat. for details, pp. 240-257 ; and (6) 8.L., rep., p. 129. J For details see Stat., espec. pp, 7 and 12-28. 3 See also Stat., p. 22. * See also Stat., pp. 22-28. » See Stat., pp. 103, 108, 190, and 229. 6 See also Stat., p. 103. ' See also— (a) Stat., pp. 22-28; (6) 8.C., vol. 1, pp. 19, 20, and 39 ; (c) B. rep.i pp. 131 and 105; and (d) Mr. SI. Arnold's evidence before 8.E.C., 5184 ; and for effect of these schools, GOBG. Notice also Agricultural Schools, p. 131. For their origin in Switzerland see Transactions of Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, p. 3C2. For instance of a recent programme see M. Grob's work, 1886 (p. 144), referred to infra, p. 48. 6 See also— (a) R.C., vol. 1, p. 50 ;
(6) 8.L., rep., pp. 104, 105, and 114-117. 0 Seefa) Stat., pp. 22-28. (b) R.C., vol. 1, pp. 19 and 20. (c) 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 189. id) B.L. rep., pp. 105 and 512. (e) Loi 26 juin, 1856, and 2 septembre, 1867: Berne. (/) Plan d'etudes pour les ecoles secondairos, les Progymnases et les Gymnases du Canton de Berne, 7 mars, 1879. The secondary schools for girls are analogous to tho Imlustrieschulen for boys. E.G., vol. 1, p. 21. Note also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 188G) report, p. 7. 10 See—(a) Stat., pp. 22-28, 261-270 ; (6) K.C., vol. 1, pp. 19-21, 89, 90; (c) B.L. rep., pp. 105, 513-516 ; and (d) B. rep. 11 Thus, in Canton Lucerne tuition is universally free ; in Canton Zurich the secondary school is free, but the higher schools charge fees. .
44
SWITZERLAND.
E.—l2
Features common to all Cantons. intended "to give those who wish to devote themselves to industry, commerce, or the technical professions, in addition to mere general culture, the special knowledge and skill required for these careers, and for admission into the Polytechnic School;" whilst the " Gymnasien," or classical schools, are considered the preparatory schools for the highest institutions—viz.— (5.) The universities 1 (Berne, Zurich, Basle, Geneva, and Lausanne-), or the Polytechnic School. (6.) Switzerland is a poor country, and the Swiss a frugal people, yet education is the one thing in which—whilst they are thrifty in seeing that the money is wisely spent —they are exceedingly liberal in their expenditure; so much so that, in some cantons, one-third at least of the public moneys collected is spent upon it. 3 The two noteworthy features in the financial educational policy appear to be direct local: taxation and expenditure by locally-elected authorities, and that scholarships arc only given to pupils who pass the requisite examination, and who require them in order to pursue their studies. They are, moreover, small, even in view of cheap living in Switzerland. 1 (7.) The following points, relative to teachers, seem worthy of remark'—(a) No pupil-teacher system exists in Switzerland ■/' (b) No one is allowed to teach 7 except after having obtained a qualification from a normal school/ or otherwise in accordance with cantonal regulations ; 9 (c) The length of term (three or four years) at the normal school, and the facilities there for practical study; (</) Teachers are trained at the normal schools 10 entirely at the public expense ; (e) The appointment of a headmaster is, at all events in some cantons, 11 for a certain term; (/) Headmasters sit on the cantonal Boards of Inspection ;'- -(ff) Only fixed salaries are paid, 13 and they are comparatively very small) 1* and (Ji) Pensions are provided for in Berne, 16 and in some other cantons. 16 The special features calling for notice in respect of inspection 17 appear to be — ]
Universities and £° n y 0 t O O,° lmic School support.
Noteworthy financial policy.
Teachers.
Inspection.
i Seefa) Stat., pp. 270-277 ; (b) R.C., vol. 1, p. 215; (c) Loi sui l'etablisscment d'une university a Berne, 1834; (<() Reglemcnt iiber die Ertheilung der Doktorwiirdo Bern, 1883 ; and (c) S. and U.C., pp. 285-256. For higher education of women, see also Amur. Commrs. Rep., 1884 for 18.82-83, p. 186; Dr. Withers-Moore's recent Presidential Address before Brit. Medical Assoc. (188G), Eng. ; Mrs. Lynn Linton's art. thereon in " Fortnightly Review," Oct., 188G ; and comments in "Journal of Ed.," Sept., 188G, p. 350. - Not, however, a complete university, only academic. 3 See, for details— (a) R.C., vol. 1, pp. 21, 289-292, and 515 ; (6) 8.L., rep., pp. 119-123, and 512. 4 See also— (a.) Stat., pp. 28-230; and (b) B. rep., p. 21. 8 See, for detail— (a) Stat., pp. 240-257 ; (6) B. rep., pp. 17 and 18 ; and (c) 8.L., rep., p. 129, and compare with N.Z. regs., Gazette No. 92, 1878. Mr. M. Arnold designates Switzerland " the most efficient country as to school staff," evidence before 8.E.C., 5105. r' See also 1.E.G., vol. 13, p. 190. For the part that women take in teaching sec Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., 5672 and teg., and 5903. ' See also— (a) Loi du 24 juin, ISSG, sur de l'instruotion publique (Art. 29 et 30), et la loi du 18 juillet, 1875, sur les ecolos normales, reglements du Canton de Berne, 28 novembre, 1872, et 11 aout, 1883 ; and Mr. JI. Arnold's evidence before R.E.0., cspec. 5117 and scq., and 5973, &c. " The instruction is better in foreign popular schools than in ours, because the teachers are better trained." M. Arnold's (May, 1880) rep., p. 15. "The methods of teaching . . . are more gradual, more natural, more rational than in ours," &c, p. 13.
6 The most recently published programmes of studies for Swiss normal schools for masters and mistresses respectively are herewith, viz., "Programme d'Etudes de l'Ecole Normalo des instituteurs du Jura Bernois. Delemont, Imprimerio Boechat, 1885;" and "Programme de l'Ecolc Normalo des institutrices du Jura Bernois a Delemont. Delemont: Imprimeric Boechat, 1585." 9 Vide, for instance, " Reglement BUE les cxameus des aspirants au brevet de capacity pour I'enseignement primaire (2 avril, 1855). Berne," herewith, and espec. note Art. 1. 10 For some further details see Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., espec. 5133 and scq., and 5149 and seq. 11 Canton Aargau, for instance, B.L. rep., p. 504. And see Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., 5973, which goes even further. 12 See also 1.E.C., vol. 13, pp. 189 and 190. " In Germany, the examined confers and cooperates with the teacher, and is regarded by him as a counsellor and fellow-worker, not an excise officer or a detective."—"Journal of Ed.," 20 July, 188G, p. 271. Note also the third resolution of the Congress of over 1,000 elementary teachers, held at Hanover on 15 June, 188G, " Journal of Ed.," 1 Aug., 1880, p. 320. 1:1 Note its effect—Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., 0083. 11 Wee also — B.L. rep., p. 511; Pop. Ed. in France, as above, p. 187 ; and Loi 11 mai, 1870, Arts. 36-50, Berne. 15 See (a) Art. 55, loi 11 mai, 1870, and (6) B. rep., p. 7. Deductions from salaries are made towards a pension fund. 16 Note— (a) Remarks of Canon Cromwell, 1.E.G., vol. 16, p. 07; and (6) B.L. rep., p. 505. For some details relating to Zurich, see Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) report, p. 21; and note his evidence before R.E.C., espec. 5125, 5557, and seif. 17 For details see—■ (a) Stat., p. 10; (b) 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 190 ; (t) Loi 11 mai, 1870, and B. rep.;
45
E.—l2.
EEPOfiT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Features common to all Cantons. («) That Inspectors arc .Tppoiutcd for a limited term; (b) Their jurisdiction over private as well as public schools; and (c) The share which headmasters have in cantonal inspection. Each canton lias power to make regulations in respect of private schools as well as public; and cantonal education is managed by a Board of Education. 1 CANTON BERNE. I will now treat of one canton more in detail —Bernc,^ chosen as containing the capital, as the most populous,'' and as a fairly representative one. 4 It is, naturally, outside the scope of a report, covering so large a subject as several national systems of education, to enter upon the technical minutise of a particular school •;' and, therefore, all that is here stated, especially in view of the authorities referred to which suppty ample information, is the main impressions made upon me as the results of my visits to schools in Berne. The visits were made in company with a gentleman connected with the Education Board, M. Bcrchten, with whom I saw examples of infant-, primary-, and secondary-schools. I noticed especially the — (a) Excellent discipline everywhere manifest, 0 the (b) Thorough method in which all instruction seemed to be imparted, the (c) Searching manner in which scholars were tested in knowledge, their (d) Healthful-looking hardiness and vigour, and their (e) Neatness and general cleanly appearance. Everything seemed done in accordance with strict discipline, and thoroughly.' The buildings were commodious, playgrounds ample, and the fittings suitable for the purpose. 8 The schools visited were Protestant, where the religious exercises consisted principally of reading the Bible with comments; but although Berne is a Protestant canton," Roman Catholic schools have also been established there by the school authorities." J Any reformed pupils (eleves reformes) in the Roman Catholic schools, and Roman Catholic pupils (eleves catholiques) in the reformed schools, are relieved from frequenting religious teaching; and so with children who do not belong to cither of the two national confessions. 11 The subjects of instruction are not the same in all cantons ;'- but the Bernese courses, both in primary 13 and secondary 11' schools, are fairly illustrative. It will be remembered that gymnastics is an obligatory subject everywhere in Switzerland. Attendance in the Canton Berne at the primary schools is compulsory from the clay of the opening of the summer session of the year, in which by the 31st March a child
Noteworthy features of Bernese schools.
Religious exercises.
Subjects of instruction.
Compulsory attendance.
(d) Reglement du Canton de Berne du 5 Janvier, 1871; (c) Reglcment dans lo Canton de Berne, 15 decembre, 1882, and 15 mai, 1883; and ( f) Reglement Berne du 10 Janvier, 1873, and ordonnance du 22 Janvier, 1880. Note duties of Inspectors—Mr. SI. Arnold's exam, before R.8.C., 5089; and how they are chosen, 5094. 1 See also B.L. rep., p. 131. 3 For detailed information as to others, sec Stat. « See Stat., p. 8. 4 For Zurich, seeto) R.C., vol. 1., pp. 18-21, 39, 120, 127, 180-191, 208-279, 292, 293 ; and (b) S. and U.0., pp. 235-256. For satisfactory results the cantons which stand first are Bale, Geneve, Thurgau, Zurich, Vaud, &o. For extracts from Aargau and Ncufohatel cantonal laws, see B.L. rep., pp. 504-516. 0 But see " Hours in a Swiss Class-room," by an English Schoolmaster. Bickers and Son, London, 1870 (hereafter termed H.S.C.R.) • See also Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., espec. 5213. t See H.S.C.R. 8 See loi 11 mai, 1870, Berne, Art. 18, and reglement 5 Janvier, 1871, Berne, Arts. 0 and 16. For hints as to construction of school-desks, see 1.E.G., vol. 13, p. 40; and see espec. Report of Commissioner of Ed. for the U.S.A., 1885, for 1888-84, p. 230,
9 See Stat., p. 8. In Berne, in 1830, 163,168 Protestants ; 65,828 Roman Catholics. 10 In Lucerne, where the Roman. Catholics prevail, "regular religious instruction is given to Catholic children in tho school, and to the Protestants out of school, and out of school hours." 11 See also loi 11 mai, 1870, Art. 11. 12 Seefa) Stat. 6) S. and U.C., pp. 235-256; and (c) Pop. Ed. in France, see tabular statement at end of volume. ' s For details, see — (a) Loi 11 mai, 1870, Art. 1; (b) Plan d'enseigtiement 1878, and compare with N.Z. reg. Gazette 92, 1878 ; and (c) Infra table. Instruction in needlework in all the cantons is given either m primary schools, or in special schools for the purpose. 11 For details, see— (a) Loi 26 juin, 1885, avec modification due 2 sop., 1807, Art. 11; and (b) Plan d'etudes, 1879. See also (a) R.C., vol. 1, pp. 19-21 ; (b) Stat., pp. 41-55 ; (c) H.5.0.E., and (d) B.L. rep., pp. 510 and 514.
46
SWITZERLAND.
E.—l2.
Canton Berne. has attained the age of six years, 1 and the obligation then continues for nine years, unless the child previously proves proficiency. But the duration of the semi-annual courses of study should not be overlooked. 3 There are from eight to ten weeks holidays in the year. ', The hours of attendance in ordinary primary and secondary schools are from 7 a.m. to: 11 a.m., and 2 to 4 p.m. in summer; and from 8 a.m. to noon, and 2 to 4 p.m. in winter/1 with a short interval during the hours mentioned. 8 The numbers which arc allowed to be in a class arc limited.' 1' i As in most of the other cantons, school necessaries have to be provided by the parents; or their representatives] and if not so provided, are supplied at their expense, except in 1 cases of poverty. The Canton of Berne, as do the other cantons, supplements communal support/' andi the taxes leviable for the purposes, arc very heavy." The secondary schools in the City of Berne are, in most cases, virtually gratuitous ; si and where otherwise, the fees are very small, and in cases of need tuition is free. At the supplementary schools (except for boys unable to pay) a small charge is made. There are private schools in Berne, but only perhaps 2 or 3 per cent, of the children; during the compulsory age attend them ; 9 and in any case attandancc can only be at a recognized one. 10 Contributions of books are made by the canton to school libraries, u and this is done! annually, cither in the form of books or money, by some other cantons. I could hear nothing of "Over-pressure" in Switzerland. ' ZURICH POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. I made a special journey to Zurich to see the Polytechnic School; and, in consequence of a letter of introduction from the Minister of the Interior, had an instructive interview with the President, Dr. Kappeler, saw the establishment in working array, and received a compendium of information respecting it. 12 But the subject has been so thoroughly treated of lately by the " Royal Commission on Technical Instruction," 13 that I could not hope to add anything valuable ; and the same remark applies to the supplementary and technical schools. 14 SUMMARY. The circumstances connected with Swiss education which seem for practical purposes especially worthy of remark, are— (1.) The compulsory, gratuitous, and religious features ; i (2.) Local government in the respective cantons by locally-elected authorities, whoj thereby act (subject only to the general principles laid down by the Confederation) in alii matters affecting— (a) Religious teaching, (Ij) Income (including direct local taxation for the purpose), (c) Expenditure, and (d) General administrative details.
Holidays.
Hours of attendance and intervals.
Class numbers.
School necesaries-
Canton supplements communal support. Secondary schools.
Private schools,
School libraries.
Over-pressure.
Compulsory, gratuitous, and features. Local selfgovernment,
1 See loi 11 mai, 1870, Art. 3. j 2 See Art. 4 and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 89 ; and i 1885 Act, 586 and 587. ■"■ See also loi 11 mai, 1870, Arts. 2-11. In supplementary schools time varies ; but at Zurich, for instance, see , E.G., vol. 1, p. 89. Note also Mr. 11. Arnold's (May, 188G) rept., p. 11, * Sec also loi 11 mai, 1870, Art. 17; and Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before R.E.C., ospec. 5105. 5 See also loi 11 mai, 1870, Art. 19, and Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept., p. 7. For abolition of slates to pre- j vent myopia, see Keport of Commissioner of Ed. for the U.S.A. 1885, for the year 1883-84, p. 286, 6 See, for instance, B. rep. 1 See, as an example, loi 11 mai, 1870, Art. 34. 8 See (a) Art. 13, loi 26 juin, 185G, avec modif 2 septembre, i 18C7; and (ft) 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 189. See also law Canton Aargau, B.L. rep., p. 514.
8 See also R.G., vol. 1, p. 20. 10 See loi 11 mai, 1870, Art. 2. 11 See B. rep., p. 6, and compare with N.Z. rep., 1886, p. 25. 12 See (a) Loi Fedoralo 7 few, 1854 ; (b) Abiinderungen des reglements 14 juli, 1873 ; (c) Rapport 1878; ((/) Reglement 24 novombro, 1881; (c) Reglement 23 mars to 2o avril, 1881; If) Programm 1883-84 and 1884; and (V) Stat., pp. 277-280. 1« See espee. vol. 1, pp. 187-191, and 29-2, 293. Note also 8.L., rep., pp. 115, 116, 121, and 104. " See espec. vol. 1, pp. 19, 20, 39, 50, 89, 90, 12G, 127, 215, 268-27G, 289-293. See also — (a) Stat., pp. 257-269 ; (6) B,L. rep., espec. pp. 104, 105, 114-117, 290-292; (c) S. and U.C., pp. 235, 23(5.
47
E.—l2.
Summary. (.3.) Protection of children against injurious employment. (4.) Teachers— (a) Gratuitous instruction at normal schools, (6) The term there, and the (c) Facilities afforded there for practising teaching, (d) Strict qualifications required before appointment, (e) Fixed salaries, and (/) Pensions. (5.) Gymnastic exercises recognised by the Confederation to be a matter of such national importance as to be reserved from the cantons. (0.) Scholarships—conditions and amounts. (7.) Supplementary school system; and (8.) " Over-pressure " results—not known to exist. I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to the public authorities at Berne for their willing attention and elucidation of the subject of Swiss education; and specially express my thanks to M. Lauener, Secretary of the Board of Education, Berne, for having courteously examined into the correctness of my statements concerning Swiss education. Since this section was revised I have received a very courteous letter from the Minister of the Interior (Dr. Schenk) covering the latest official publications. But am not advised, or aware, that any statement in this section needs correction. The publications are as follow, and are herewith : — 1. " Unterrichtsplan fur das dcutsche Lehrer-seminar des Kantons Bern. Biel : Buchdruckerei Albert Schuler, 1884." 2. " Rcglement fur die Patent priifungen der Primar-lehrer und -lehrerinnen des Kantons Bern. 2 April, 1885." 3. " Reglement sur les examens des aspirants au brevet de capacite pour l'enseignement primaire. 2 avril, 1885. (Berne.)" 4. " Seminar-ordnung fur das deutschc Lehrer-seminar des Kantons Bern. Bern : Buchdruckerei Gebr. Fischer. 1885." 5. "Programme d'Ktudes de l'Kcole Normale des instituteurs du Jura Bernois. Delemont : Imprimeric Boechat, 1885." 6. " Programme de l'Ecole Normale des institutrices du Jura Bernois a Delemont. Delemont: Imprimcrie Boechat, 1885." 7. " Verwaltungsbericht der Erzicliungs-Direktion des Kantons Bern fiir das Schuljahr 1885-86. Bern : Stampfli'sche Buchdruckerei, 1880." 8. " Programme de l'Ecole Cantonale de Porrentruy, 1885—80. Imprimeric Albert Schuler, Bicnne, 1880." 9. " Jahresbericht über die Miidchen-sekundarschule der Stadt, Bern, 1886. Bern : Stampfli'sche Buchdruckerei, 1886." 10. " Jahrenbericht iiber das stadtische Gymnasium in Bern, 1886. Bern : Stampfli'sche Buchdruckerei, 1886." 11. " Sammlung neuer Gesetzc und Verordnungen nebst statisehen Uebersichten iiber das gesamte Unterrichtsvesen in der Schweiz in den Jahren 1883—85. Zusammengestellt von C. Grob : Zurich, 1880." The work by C. Grob, published on the 30th July last, and towards the publication of which a subsidy was granted by the Confederation, is intended to be a sequel to the " Statistik," 1881, so often quoted herein; and is a most valuable compendium of recent information relative to all the cantons.
Protection of children. Teachers.
Gymnastic exercises.
Scholarships.
Supplementary education. Over-pressure.
48
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION
E.—l2.
ITALY
ITALY. 1
INTRODUCTION. !t\ia is progressing rapidly in State education: and the official statistics, published in 188 i, arc surprising, as even the few following figures 3 show : —
But State education in Italy is not, as yet, in that matured condition 3 which warrants looking to it for profitable example. 4 ' Its present organisation is too recent ;" the change too sudden ; 6 the antagonistic forces at work too powerful. 7 For these reasons I only availed myself of private letters that I held to certain high dignitaries of the Roman Catholic Church, to learn whether they were satisfied with the present State system; and, if not, what, if any, amendments would make it welcome to them. MAIN FEATURES. The stage which national education has reached is that primary instruction 8 is— (a) Gratuitous, 0 (b) (Nominally) compulsory, 10 and (c) (Perhaps) religious. 11 That is to say (nominally) compulsory at State schools from the age of six for a period of five years (unless the authorities are satisfied with the education received elsewhere), so far as the condition of the country allows : for, owing to the sparsity of population in some districts, 12 schools arc not yet available for all. Its religious feature consists in the lay head-masters conducting once a week, on Saturdays, a religious exercise 13 in the great majority of schools; although there are some exceptions where this is entirely left out of the programme. 11 ' But even religious instruction is only given to those children whose parents express a wish for it : la and all the children may be exempt from it by going to school one hour later than ordinarily. 10 Nor does
Statistical returns.
Gratuitous, compulsory, and religious features.
Religious feature'
1 For " Education in Spain," see " Journal of Ed.," 1 Aug., 1886, p. 315. 2 Compare with " L'lnstruction Publiquo en Italic," par C. Hippeau. Didicr ct f!io., Paris, 1875 (hereafter termed " Hipp."); figures 1873-74, pp, 126-131. See also Eeport of Amer. Commr. on Educat. for 1882-83, p. 230, and 1883-84, p. 227. 3 Note, for instance, uneducated factory children ; (a) " R. C," vol. 1, pp. 389, 390 ; (6) I. E. C, vol. 13, p. 195 ; and (c) Amer. Commr. Rep. for 1882-88, p. 233. 4 Except in respect of deaf-mute institutions, see Special Report herewith. 6 See also— (a) " Deux Mois de Mission en Italic," par F. Pecaut. Hachette, Paris, 1880 (hereafter termed "Pec"), p. 201; (b) Hipp., pp. 41, 43, and 126. 0 See also Pec, p. 87. ' See also Pec, pp. 111-112. 8 For full details, see Hipp. 7—E. 12.
9 Soo also Hipp., pp. 38, G4, and seq., and 81. 10 See also —■ (a) B. 0., vol. 1, pp. 27 and 385-300, and cspec. 390; (6) Hipp., p. 73 and seq. ; (c) "School-life in the Apennines," "Journal of Ed.," 1 Oct., 188G, p. 414; and (d) Amer. Oommr. Eep. on Education, 1885, for 1883-84, p. 227. 11 Note law of 15 July, 1877, and also that of 1859. Pee., pp. 88 and 104. 12 Every commune of 4,000 must have a primary school. 13 See also Pec, pp. 88 and 106; and for effects, pp. 114-118. 1' At Bologna, for instance, and Florence; but in the latter case note special provision. See Pec, pp. 105 and 24G. 15 See (a) Pec, pp. 96 and 98 ; and (6) Hipp., pp. 59-63, 88 and 96. 10 See Pec, p. 88. It is said, however, to bo very rare that families refuse religious instruction; nearly everywhere Jews, with a few Protestants, are the only ones to absent themselves. See Pec, pp. 96 and 108.
49
1871. 1883. Educational vote ... 16,300,000 frcs. 30,400,000 frcs. 1861. 1881. Schools 21,353 42,510 Pupils 1,008,674. 1,928,700.
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Main Features. religion form a necessary part of the school examination, or proficiency in it aid class promotion •} but at Rome, at all events, whilst liberty of conscience is safeguarded, equal care is taken that no colour of irreligion is given to the school. 3 Compulsory primary instruction consists of a course of one year in an infant school, 3 and courses amounting to four in an ordinary day school —two inferior courses of one year each, and two superior of the same duration. 4 There are schools in the evenings and on Sundays for workmen ; 5 but a main want seems to be schools for continuing the work of the primary institutions between boyhood and manhood j 6 and this is the more needed as the compulsory-age period ends in Italy comparatively early. The want, too, of some provision against the employment of uneducated children, and children under a certain age, seems urgent.'
Compulsory
Evening and Sunday schools.
SCHOOLS. The following table supplies some particulars respecting schools other than primary :—
' For details, see Pec, pp. 85-90, 95-99, 104-118, and espec. 89 and 105. - See Pec, p. 107. 3 Naples municipality decided Kindergarten should be the first degree of education, see Hipp., p. 121. * See Pec, pp. 85 and 109. For hours of instruction, and homo lessons, infra. Note interesting estimate of the attention possible to be given by a child at different ages, furnished in Hipp., p. 20. "If salles d'asilo could bo opened, where little folks could have proper care, there would be an increase of school attendance." '•> See also — (a) R. C, vol. 1, p. 47; and (6) Pec, p. 90. " A permanent commission has been established in connection with the Ministry of Agriculture. It is to have a general oversight of industrial museums, schools of art as applied to industries, schools of design for working men; in fact of all institutions which have to do with industries as taught to the working classes." —Amor. Commr. Rep., 1885, for 1883-84, p. 227. 6 See also Pec, p. 90; but note exception at Florence, pp. 249, 250; and "pupils graduating from the third
grade are expected to attend an evening school for a year."—See Arner. Commr. Rep., 1885, for 1883-84, p. 227. " See, for instance, R. C, vol. 1, pp. 383-391. s Bearding schools. Their organisation has better reputation than that of primary schools. See also— (a) S. and U. C, pp. 109-159; (b) Pec, 98-103, 113 and 200 ; for girls, pp. 169-174 ; (c) Hipp., pp. 41, 174, and seq. ; (d) Amcr. Commr. Reps., 1882-83, p. 233, and 1883-84, p. 227 ; 11 But note mode procedure, Hipp., pp., 170, 231, and scj. 10 Note how professors are trained, Pec, pp. 121-122. 11 See also— (a) Pec, pp. 118-12G, and 200-204 ; (6) Hipp., p. 284 and seq. ; (c) S. and U. C, pp. 130-150; (d) Amer. Commr. Rep., 1882-83, p. 233. 12 See also— (a) R. C., vol. 1, pp. 27, 47, GG, 353-392, 507, 511, and espec. 148 and 156; and vol. 3, cspec p. 193, and ans. 4308-4321; (6) Pec, pp. 136-159; (c) Hipp., pp. 132-174.
50
Class of Schools. Number of Schools. Number of Professors. Number of Scholars. Terms. Age of Entry. Subjects. Secondaby," 1883. Gymnasia 701 - a 3,074 41,124 5 years (5 courses of 1 year each) 10 or 11. But preliminary exam, required on entry, and on promotion from one class to another. Greek, Latin, history, geography, and arithmetic. No religious instruction in secondary schools, except in Royal colleges for girls.' Lyceums 10 or Colleges (leading to a University) 298 l,G01 11,133 3 years. Admission only gained on presenting satisfactory certificate of license from Gymnasium. Same subjects, with philosophy, chemistry, and natural history. Other High Schools In other high there were in schools 1883 also ng instructed. 1,948 scholars hei Jniveesities. 11 In 1881 there these, the t important he at Turin, 1 dents, and t at Naples, 2 least four urj are free. were at jwo most :ing—one ,G51 stublio other 1,851. At livcrsitics 10,592 Applicants for admission must produce a certificate from a Lyceum, and undergo a preliminary examination. Theology is not taught. 'Technical. 12 In 1883 383 22,120 3 years. No religious instruction. * These are specially intended for those who, on leaving p irimary schools, aro destined for a coimnci •cial or industrial career.
E.—l2
ITALY
Schools. Although the supply of primary schools, and also any provision for children leaving the primary schools and not able to study further, seem defective, yet for others who are able, there appear to be excellent arrangements for ensuring proficiency in higher studies; and the condition that each institution, or class, has to do its own proper work before a pupil can advance, is especially good. 1 NORMAL SCHOOLS. There are normal schools, for the training of teachers, maintained by the Government/ where the course of study is three years, and gratuitous. ART SCHOOLS. Art schools are plentiful, and reputedly superior. MANAGEMENT OF STATE EDUCATION. The whole machinery of State education is supremely controlled 3 by a Minister of Public Instruction. In each province there is a School Board under the presidency of the Prefect, which Board has the supervision of private 4* as well as public primary and secondary schools in respect of sanitary and moral matters. EXCELLENCE OF DEAF-MUTE INSTITUTIONS. There is only one main point in which Italy in educational matters excels all other countries in Europe, and that is in respect of its deaf-mute institutions. (Sec Special Report.) ROMAN CATHOLIC SCHOOLS. In addition to State-aided and private schools, there exist numerous primary and secondary schools 5 established by the Roman Catholic Church, which are gratuitous, well attended, well conducted, and carried on under the presidency of the clergy. There, of course, religious instruction is a main feature. ROMAN CATHOLIC OPINION OF STATE SCHOOLS. From the conversations that I had with the dignitaries alluded to, I ascertained — (1.) That the Roman Catholic authorities are not at all satisfied with the system of State education in Italy—hence they have felt compelled to carry on their own free schools ; and (2.) That the principal grounds o£ their dissatisfaction are— (a) That religious instruction is not, in State schools, the basis of education; (b) And, when given, is not conducted as they approve : which defects are considered to have a most depraving effect upon the morale of the school. One, at least, of the highest authorities on education at Rome expresses to me his opinion— (a) That there are far too many subjects taught in the State schools;
Excellent ?m^j Iments1ments education.
1 See Pec, p. 101; and re promotion and examination, pp. 101 and 251. On the subject generally, see remarks of Dr. Philbrick in "Circulars of Information of the Bureavi of Education," No. 1, 1885, and "City School System in the United States," p. 142 and seq. Washington Government Printing Office, 1885. 2 See {a) Pec, pp. 185-195, 215-240, and 264-297 ; (6) Hipp., pp., 40, 83, 84, and 102-112. For qualifications of teachers, see Hipp., pp. 38, 39; for
salaries, p. 39; and Pec, pp., 87, 95, 111, 112; but note pp. 105, 106. For pensions by private associations, seo p. 91 and seq. 3 Seo Hipp., pp. 1-86. 4 But note functions of municipalities ; sec— (a) Pec, pp. 85, 86, and 200, 201; and (6) Hipp., p. 23. 5 See also Pec, pp. 86, 87.
51
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Roman Catholic Opinion of State Schools. (b) That it would be infinitely preferable to have a few simple subjects taught thoroughly; and (c) That education should not be compulsory, 1 but left to parental discretion.
There are more items of information given in the general tabular summary contained in this report; but no attempt is made to give full data, especially as the publications herewith are exhaustive. 3
1 Note also opinion of Rev. D. J. Stewart, M.A., a Senior Inspector in England, as expressed before the 8.E.G., 1886—viz., that compulsion is unjustifiable ; and he doubts its efficacy. See espec. 2554, 2696, 2736. For comments on Inspector Stewart's evidence, see " Journal of Ed.," 1 Oct., 18G6, p. 407. 2See— (a) " Manuale di Legislazione Scliolastica Vigente ovvero Baccolta di Leggi, Regolamenti, Oircolari e Programmi Sulla Publica Instruzione," Roma, vol. 1, 1880 ; vol. 2, 1883 ;
(b) R.C, espec vol. 1, pp. 27, 47, 400, 383-392, 507, and 511; vol. 3, answers 4, 303-321; (c) Hipp., containing a history and details ; and note budget at end of vol. ; (d) Pec. ; (e) "Schools and Universities on tho Continent," by M. Arnold ; (/) " School Life in the Apennines," Journal of Ed., 1 Oct, 1880, p. 412 ; and (g) Report of the Commissioner of Education for tho U.S.A., 1835, for 1883-84, p. 227.
52
E.—l2
GERMANY.
GEEMANY. 1
INTRODUCTION. So much lias been written concerning education in Germany by those who have had exceptional opportunities of studying it that, even Mere it requisite, a merely casual visitor cannot hope to add anything material in detail, or in comments upon its immediate effects. I, therefore, do not attempt it. But one who has been long resident in a country remote from the near influence of German atmosphere and system, and who, on visiting Germany for the first time, views everything with a freshness not possible for others living there or near, may perchance be able to present some of the distinctive features in a new light. I therefore purpose only to mention the opportunities I have had for making inquiries; the result of those inquiries; and the general features of German education; with a notice of some material differences between the systems of the different States—differences caused by their having complete control over their respective educational matters. 3 OPPORTUNITIES FOR INQUIRIES. The sources of information which have been availed of by me in making inquiries have been the late Lord Ampthill, recently British Ambassador at Berlin (to whom I was accredited by the Foreign Office, and who gave me his views upon German education), and many high educational authorities, amongst whom I may mention the following : Dr. Ludwig Bcrthold, 3 a school Inspector at Berlin, with whom I saw there infant- (Kindergarten), primary-, and secondary-schools; Dr. Zupitza, Professor of English Language and Literature at Berlin University ; Mr. John L. Bashford, M.A., Trill. Col., Cam., one of the lecturers at Berlin University, and author of "Elementary Education in Saxony;" Professor Heinze, then Rector Magnificus of Leipsic 4 University, and Dr. WiAlker, Professor of English Language and Literature there; Professor Haeckel/ of Jena G (the renowned pupil of Darwin); the late Dr. Stoy, then lecturing professor and principal of the training college at the University of Jena (pupil of Pestalozzi, 7 and friend of Froebel); "s Professor Napier, then of the University of
Scope of remarks.
1 See also— (a) Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886), Special Eeport on— (1) Free education ; (2) Quality of education ; (8) Status, training and pensioning of teachers ; and (4) Compulsory attendance, and release from, in Germany, Switzerland, and Franco ; (b) First report of the Eoyal Commission appointed to inquire into the working of the Elem. Ed. Acts, Eng. and Wales (hereafter termed E.E.C.), espec. Mr. M. Arnold's evidence ; and (c) Amer. Commr. Eopt., 1885, for 1883-84, pp. 210-212. Dr. Eigg (one of the above Commission) designates Germany " the pattern country of the Continent in respect of education." " In educational as in military organization she is unrivalled."—Dr. E., pp. 11 and 13. Note remarks in the " Edin. Eeview," July, 1886, p. 257, respecting the love of learning having penetrated in Germany to the lower- and middle-classes. For preliminary results of German Census taken 1 Dec, 1885, see Proceedings Eoyal Geog. Soc, April, 1886, p. 270. 2 " An eminent pedagogue and savant of France (Michel Breal, member of the Institute) in the ' Dictionnaire de Pedagogic,' finds one of the principal causes of the supremacy of Germany in the matter of popular education in the exceptional division of the nation into so many independent sovranties. A sort of emulation was created among them, and thus the improvements realized at any one point were gradually adopted by the entire nation. The same emulation continues to this day."—Dr. Philbrick, p. 7. ■"■ Author of " Katalog von Jugend.schrif ton fur die Obcrstufe der Beliner Gemcmdeschulen, &c. Berlin, 1882." 4 Note remarks by Mr. Mundclla on Saxon education, 1.E.C., vol. 13, 200 and 195.
Per details of Saxon system, see— (a) Mr. Bashford's book. Sampson, Low, and Co., London, 1881; (b) " Technical Education in a Saxon Town," by H. 11. Felkin. Kegan, Paul, and Co., London, 1881; (c) " Technical Education in Saxony," " Fortnightly Review," 1881, pp. 91-97 ; and (d) E.C., vol. 1, p. 23, and Appendix 5 of vol. 5. 5 See P. M. Budget, 27 May, 188G ; and curious reference to him in "The New Abelard," by E. Buchanan, p. 83. Chatto and Windus, London, 1885. c " The Battle cf Jena, which deprived Frederick William the Third of half his dominions, had the effect of turning his mind to the true source of a nation's power —the right education of its people."—" Journal of Ed., 1 July, 1880, p. 282. ? For recent biog. notices, see " Journal of Ed.," 1880, May, p. 193 ; June, p. 230; July, p. 277; and Aug., p. 327. " Pichte, in his Address to the German people in 1807, declared, in speaking of education, that Pestalozzi's plan was the only one to be followed in reforming public instruction."—"Journal of Ed.," July, 1880, p. 282. " The great secret of his success was his loving presence amongst them (the children) from morning to night, and night to morning : he never left them," p. 278. Note curious discussion of Pestalozzian doctrines at Congress of over 1,000 elementary teachers, held at Hanover on 15 Juno, 1886." — "Journal of Ed.," 1 Aug., 1880, p. 320. 8 Delegate from Germany (Saxe Weimar) at Int. Ed. Conf., see— (a) Vol. 16, pp. 81 and 82, paper on "The Training of Teachers ; " and (6) PP. 296 and 297, address on " Modern Schools in Germany; " and sec also— (c) P. 133.
53
E.—l2.
54
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Opportunities for Inquiries. Gottingcn, now of Oxford; and Herr Rcichardt, founder and honorary secretary of the German Teachers' Association in London. In addition, I need hardly state that I availed myself of the opportunities freely accorded in the many places visited to acquaint myself with the practical working of the various educational establishments. RESULT OF INVESTIGATIONS. The results of what I have heard, seen, and read induce me to believe— (1.) That the Germans, in pursuance of a policy to become the strongest of all nations, by excelling- in civil as in military affairs, have concluded that, in order to secure the most successful results possible from national education, thorough discipline of mind and body is indispensable; and to facilitate this that there must be at least — («) Consideration for the feelings of (virtually) all in religious matters ■} (6) Local government,"' including regulation of religious instruction (subject to the protection of minorities), of direct local taxation, of expenditure, and of administrative details; (c) Religion (subject to certain conscience-clause provisions3) considered as the basis of instruction, 4' and therefore placed as the primary subject on elementary school programmes; (d) Compulsory attendance laws ; (e) Thorovgh qualification of all teachers for private as well as for public schools •;' (/) And recognition of the great importance of gymnastic exercises. 0 So that in Germany, as in Switzerland, we find friction between the State and the citizens in religious matters provided against; religion, universality, thoroughness in detail, thrift 7 and adaptation to local circumstances provided for by local government and compulsoryattendance laws; physical strength and vigour promoted by gymnastic exercises; and discipline established and maintained, and correct information imparted, in the most systematic mode possible, by thoroughly qualified teachers. The consequence is education —not merely instruction —is carried out under most favourable circumstances, with no thwarting undercurrent of religious or local influences. (2.) That pre-eminent attention is paid to scientific knowledge in all the higher institutions, 8 and to the studv of philosophy in the universities ; 9 and —■ (3.) That extreme exactness and minuteness are insisted upon. 10
Thorough discipline deemed indispensable.
Measures adopted for securing discipline
Results of adopting disciplinary measures.
Pre-eminent attention paid to scientific knowledge and philosophy. Extreme exactness and minuteness.
1 For instance, note in art. xxiv. of Prussian Constitution of 31 Jan., 1850, in the " organisation of public schools for the people as much regard as is possible is to bo had to the circumstances of different creeds." British Embassy rep. (hereafter termed B.E. report), 1 July, 1868, p. 536, and see p. 535. For Berlin, sec— (a) Official pamphlet, dated 1879, containing instructions relative to imparting religious instruction in primary Protestant schools; (b) Official pamphlet, dated also 1879, containing particulars of religious matter for commitment to memory in same schools ; (c) Official pamphlet, dated 1873, containing regulations and plans of studies, including particulars of religious instruction to bo imparted, and providing that at Berlin even the comparatively small number of Jewish pupils in primary schools are to be supplied with Jewish teachers for religion. This, surely, is liberal in a country where Luther said, " Burn their synagogues and schools, break into and destroy their houses. Forbid their Rabbins, on pain of death, to teach," &c.; and where the proverb for some centuries prevailed " Felix est civitas, in qua non est Abraham, Nimrod, et Naaman." See also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., p. 8; and R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5311. For Saxony, see Mr. Bashford's book, espoc. pp. 6-8, 12, 15, 10, 26-30, and 51-58. But see R.E.0., Mr. M. Arnold, 5804 and seq. 2 See also E.G., vol. 1, p. 515. Observe also note 2 on preceding page swpra, 3 But note R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5804 and seq. 4 For instance, see Mr. Bashford's book, p. G. Before leaving school, children in Lutheran schools have to be confirmed if they have attended religious instruction.
And see (a) E.C., vol. 3, 13G3 ; (6) B.E. rep. 107. 5 See— (a) 1.E.0., vol. 16., pp. 81, 82, and see also pp. 00, Gl, 118, 119, and 297. (b) Official Regulations respecting the examination of teachers for Gymnasia and Real Schools at the University of Jena, pamphlet dated 1874 ; and (c) " Higher Schools and Universities in Germany," by M. Arnold, pp. 186-213 (for recent review of second edition of Mr. Arnold's work, see " Edin. Review," July, 1886). But see 1.E.C., vol. 10, p. 97. In fact, the Germans have a science of pedagogy. G Obligatory in secondary as well as in primary schools. For details, see— (a) Plans of study in the various schools, and (b) 1.E.C., vol. 18, pp. 339, 340, 347, and vol. 10, p. 43. Masters have to be expressly qualified, and girls are drilled by specially-trained mistresses. See Official Begs., dated 1875, for Prussia, relating to the examination of female (gymnastic) teachers. 7 ;F or " Thrift in Public Schools," see art. in" Nineteenth Cent. Review," April, 188G. 8 See also 8.C., vol 1, p. 214. 9 Note also remarks by Dr. Zerrfi, 1.E.C., vol. 15, p. 185; and " University system was the most complete system of higher university education which Europe had yet seen."—Prof. Crombie, 1.E.G., vol. 15, p. 29. Herewith is " Index Lectionem for Winter Somcstre " Oct., 1886, to March, 1886, at Berlin University. 10 The late Lord Ampthill told me " students not unfrequently commit suicido in despair at not passing an examination." See also Amer. CJommr. Rep., 18S4, for 1882-83, on overwork in Germany, pp. 122-125. But see R.E.0., Mr. M. Arnold, 6058." On " The Terror of School Exams.," espec. for girls, see P. M. Bzidget, 22 April, 1880; notwithstanding the
E.—l2.
GERMANY.
Result of Investigations. These three points require a few more comments. Consideration in religions matters is granted under peculiar circumstances, viz., (a) as in Switzerland, there are differing nation-1 alities 1 and languages; (b) districts in which the majority are devoted to a particular religion 21 other than that of the greatest number of the nation; and (c) amongst the learned classes— the thinkers, and therefore the rulers of national action 3 —an almost universal spirit of scepticism in matters pertaining to Christianity. We, however, find the learned classes not tyrannically enforcing or insisting upon their own tenets, but exemplifying (a) that whatever conclusions they may have arrived at ought not to be arbitrarily imposed upon others; (b) that tyrannical action in matters of religion is not only unjust and impolitic if the utmost limits of asccrtainablc truth are to be reached, but death to national peace, and hence to national happiness; (c) that the only policy worthy of a great nation in religious matters is not merely toleration, but consideration for the present feelings of (virtually) all; (d) that such universal and thorough disciplinary processes, by means of local machinery and otherwise, should be provided as will enable each person to obtain the discipline and knowledge requisite to form just conclusions on religious and all other truth and error ; 4' and (e) that in order to attain that object there should be no friction, no religious bitterness, no chafing or undue interference with liberty of thought or action in matters of individual or primarily local concern, and a removal, as far as practicable, of all influences which may, by being irritating, prove hostile or obstructive to the grand aim in view—training a naturally hardy people to sound views and able and vigorous action. The discipline secured by thorough training of teachers is very apparent. 0 It isrecog-l nised as enabling (a) a wider range of subjects to be covered, 6 and (b) a thorough mastery of j them, and (c) such a digesting of what is taught as would not otherwise be possible. 7 1 Indeed, discipline, ensuring the estimating of everything at its exact value, seems to be a pre-eminently excelling feature of German education —a feature more real in Germany, in my opinion, even than in Switzerland. There is liberal expenditure in the promotion of gymnastics. 8 It is recognised that] without such physical exercises the extreme severity of the examinations would not be prac-| ticable, except with detriment to physical and mental health, even in the bracing climate of Germany. And it is widely admitted that even the present attention to gymnastic training is not sufficient to prevent " over-pressure," as evidenced by defective eyesight, 9 &c.
Consideration in religious matters granted under peculiar circumstances.
esults to pupils trainingUof teachers.
Liberal exgymnasticsTand their importance
"Consolation" (addressed to a Girton girl who has failed in her exam.) — " Cheer up, at the critical moments of strife It bothers a man to be beaten or ' chucked,' But girls, after all, are the roses of life, And roses were made to be plucked." —Punch, 1G Oct., 1886. Note also the "Examiner's Dream," a Rhapsody, "Maemillan's Magazine," May, 1886, p. 35, espec. on "The Demon of Exam." 1 For instance, Poles, Danes, French (in Alsace and Lorraine), as well as Germans. 2 For instance, in Silesia, Posen, Westphalia, and the Rhine provinces, Roman Catholics arc largely in the majority; and note some statistics in B.E. rep., pp. 528, 629. In Wurtemberg it is complained that "the school is too ■ much the handmaid of the Church. According to the law of 183G the Ecclesiastical Committee in each district is also the School Board, in which the voice of a teacher is never heard, not even as a consulting member." But this entire exclusion of the teachers themselves from the control and inspection of the schools is a state of things characterized in a memorial recently presented by the national teachers to the Govt. as unknown in any other German country. 8 " In religious matters our people allow themselves to be indirectly led by those who possess the highest intellectual culture," article by Karl Hildebrand in " N.G.," June, 1880, p. 1005. 4 " The schools are distinctly denominational," M. Arnold, R.E.C., 5310 and seq. But see 5313, and the very interesting replies by Mr. Arnold to queries G094 and seq., and note 6101. On free inquiry into religious and moral questions Lord Macaulay's remarks naturally suggest themselves: " Gladstone on Church and State," essays, &c, 1885, p. 484. 5 For Luther's extolment of the office of schoolmaster see "Franz Noir, Piid Aphorismen." "As a class the Prussian common school teachers stand at the head of the teaching profession in everything that goes to
make good teachers."—Prof. James, "Illinois School Journal," July, 1883. 6 See also I.E.G., vol. 15, p. 1G2. Indeed, "In Prussia they say ! As is the teacher, so is the school.'"—Dr. Philbriek, p, 17. See also B.E.C., Inspector Stewart, 4192. "In Germany and Switzerland the teaching is certainly better than in England, and the teaching power is acquired in the training colleges."—Mr. M. Arnold, E.E.C., 5512, 5513; and see his (May, 188G), report, pp. 13, 15. " Children in foreign schools are better grounded."—M. Arnold, 5839 and seq. "The schools (in Germany) have been for so long and are still, in my opinion, better than the French schools." —M. Arnold, 5913. 7 See note G. 8 "Physical training was introduced into the public schools of Germany in the early part of the present century as one of the essential means for the regeneration of the nation. After Sadowa the statesmen of Austria followed the example. For more than sixty years gymnastic training has constituted a prominent element in Prussian school education," Dr. Philbriek, pp. 101, 102 ; and see there quoted the opinion of Mr. M. Arnold. 9 The late Lord Ampthill held this view. Defective eyesight is very apparent amongst secondary-school scholars, and more especially amongst university students, as recorded by Dr. Cohn, of Breslau. See also report, 15 Nov., 1884, by Dr. Wolfsberg, P. M. Gazette. " It has been found that the shortsightedness so prevalent amongst students, which is generally due to the close poring over small Gothic type, is much favoured in the initiatory stages by the use of the ordinary black slates. Black upon white is a much better arrangement of colour for the eye to rest upon than white upon black. It is expected that a new kind of slate, of material nearly white, to be written on in black or blue, will soon be produced," &c.—" Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 296. And see Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, for 1883-84, " Switzerland," p. 236.
55
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Result of Investigations. I ascribe the virtues mentioned mainly to the influence of the pre-eminent study of philosophy in the universities, and to the exceptional division of the nation into so many . independent sovereignties; the former cause producing amongst the ruling classes 1 (a) a clear a perception of what renders a nation happy, and (b) how such happiness is to be attained; and the latter " a sort of emulation " whereby " the improvements realised at any one point were gradually adopted by the entire nation."' 1 For in Germany we find— («) In religious matters the feature of the greatest scepticism with the greatest consideration ; 3 and (b) That the study of philosophy has resulted in such national culture as has enabled Germany to take strides in recent yeai's in warlike and peaceful pursuits as are elsewhere unknown in Europe—which creates belief that the study of philosophy 4 should be a prime element in any national system of higher culture. The extreme exactness and minuteness referred to would seem to be a blemish, an unhealthy dissipator, rather than a conservator for the accumulation and digestion of knowledge. But whether this should be guarded against by counter healthful action, in the form of increased muscular exercise or otherwise, or remedied by a diminution of particularity, it is here, of course, outside of my province to discuss. GENERAL FEATURES. Some further information on general features is now given : —■ (].) Elementary education in day schools is compulsory for all children,' from the age of six 0 to that of fourteen, 7 unless competent instruction is being obtained elsewhere; and subject, of course, to temporary absences for valid reasons ; s which reasons are very similar in all the States. Applications for permanent exemption, however, are in proportion rare, for there arc comparatively few private schools, 9 and little private tuition; the children of the rich being tutored generally, when not at primary schools, at preparatory Gymnasia before going to secondary schools proper. Default in attendance is punishable by fine or imprisonment; but generally it is uncommon. 10 The hours of attendance in Prussian primary schools are, in summer, 7 a.m. till 12 noon; winter, 8 till 1, with an interval, frequently at the end of eacli hour : and only a few schools have afternoon study. 11
Virtues mainly ascribed to preeminent study of philosophy in universities and division of nation into sovereignties.
Extreme exactness and minuteness of requirements deprecated.
Elementary education compulsory.
School hours.
1 For influence of German universities on national life, see 1.E.C., vol. 15, p. IG2. - Dr. Philbrick, p. 7. 3 Note advocacy even by Professor Laurent, a Freethinker, of the teaching of the morality of Christianity, of Christ.—l.B.C., vol. 14, p. 017. And see "N.C.," as above ; and Mr. M. Arnold's evidence before E.E.O. should be noted. 4 " The true philosophical temperament may, we think, bo described in four words : much hope, little faith; a disposition to believe that everything extraordinary may be done ; an indisposition to believe that anything extraordinary has boon done." —Lord Macaulay, essays, &c, 1885, p. 408. 6 For origin of compulsory enactments, see B.E. rep., p. 533 ; and see also p. 534. " Compulsory education is nothing new. It had its origin in the Thirty Years' War of Germany, when perturbation and trouble so overwhelmed the civil life of the people that heroic measures had to bo invoked to rehabilitate society. The law of compulsory education was resorted to in Gotha in 1G43. In 1099 it was enforced in Prussia." —Sir P. J. Keonan's Address, p. CO. " The example of Germany has been followed by Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Great Britain, and Franco. In Belgium and Holland it has thus far been successfully opposed by sectarian influence."—Dr. Philbrick, p.'187. 6 In Germany " they tell you that it is settled by all the medical authorities that children have no business to begin to learn before they are six years old." —Mr. Arnold, R.E.C., 5377. Seo also 8.C., vol. 1, p. 21; and for Saxony, additional term under certain circumstances at day school, and, unless being otherwise educated, further term at j
Fortbildungsschule—Mr. Bashford's book, pp. 8 and 9. But note the termination is at the end of the session in which the child attains the ago of fourteen. Sec, for instance, regulations for the schools of Berlin, collected Jan., 1881. For some details, see Mr. Arnold's (May, 188C) ropt., pp. 13, 11, 21, and seq. 8 For instance, in Saxony, as above, pp. 10 and 11, and for Berlin, see regulations relating to school attendance at primary and secondary schools, including' excuses allowed, in official pamphlet dated Berlin, 1879 ; and also School Board regs. for Berlin, relating to primary schools, including those relating to attendance, dated 1875. But see R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5493. 9 Note, for instance, the relative number of public and private schools in Saxony—sec " Tech. Ed. in a Saxon Town" as above. And see also Mr. Arnold's (May, 1886) rcpt., pp. 11 and 22. But the German Professor who has perused the statements in this section informs me that Berlin is not one of the best examples of regular attendance. And see Mr. Arnold's (May, 1S86) ropt., p. 23. 10 Note illustrations given in B.E. rep., p. 534; Amer. Oommr, Hep., 1885, p. 211; and ospec. E.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5177 and seq. " School attendance is a habit of the country in Germany." To see how compulsion is worked, refer to E.C.E., Mr. M. Arnold, 5357. 11 But note in Saxony it is otherwise, except on days of great heat; see also Mr. Bashford's book, p. 18. For report on school course and for number of hours' schooling per week, and daily hours of attendance in Hamburg, see Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1880) rept., pp. 11 and 13 ; and, generally, R.E.O. Mr. M. Arnold, 5509 and seq.
56
E.~12
GERMANY.
General Features. In secondary schools in Prussia the hours in the morning are the same; and study is continued on some days in the afternoon. But it is intended to abolish afternoon lessons; because air in the school-rooms is deemed to be not good for health then, and distances which pupils have to travel arc often long. In Prussia the holidays generally consist of two weeks at Christmas, two weeks at Easter, half a week at Whitsuntide, four weeks at Midsummer, a few days at Michaelmas, and single days on the occasions of the anniversary of the battle of Sedan, and of the birthday of the Emperor, and on two religious days. Where there is afternoon study there is a half holiday on Saturdays and Wednesdays. 1 Children arc duly protected against injurious (including premature) employment. 2 There is no regulation, other than those relating to compulsory attendance, which defines school age, or limits attendance. But, of course, there are certain ages when it is considered that pupils should attend a certain grade of school or learn certain subjects, 3 and the gradation of tuition is considered to be excellent. For instance, in Berlin the usual rule is—(«) infant school from the age of two to six ; (b) preparatory Gymnasium, six to nine ; (c) Gymnasium course—with Latin from nine, with French from 10, with Greek from 13, with Hebrew 4 from 15 and 16 ; and thence to university. 5 In Real Schools the same ages apply, substituting English, and stress on mathematics and natural science for Greek and Hebrew. In many State Gymnasia, for instance, throughout Prussia and in Leipsic, the course is for nine years preparatory for the university, which pupils usually enter at the age of 19 or 20; but they must pass the final examination at the Gymnasium before entering the university. (2.) Religious instruction is given in secondary as well as primary schools. To show further how essential it is considered it is laid down, as affecting Saxony at least —" The Volksschulc has for its object the religious training as one part of universal human education." 0 Such instruction is given as the local managers of a school (who represent the inhabitants of a district or parish) decide, whether they be Protestant or Roman Catholic ; 7 with, however, liberty for those non-concurring to retain their children from school during the period of religious instruction. (3.) Elementary education is not gratuitous, as a rule, 8 except for those who cannot afford to pay for it ;' J and in secondary schools instruction is not, as a rule, given free of
Holidays.
School age.
Further information respecting religious instruction.
" I should think that, on the whole, they have about as many hours' schooling in Germany or France as in England.—Mr. M. Arnold, 8.E.0., 5995 and set}., 5996 and 6284. " Hitzferien, or heat holidays, . . . are now established . . . in Germany and Switzerland. When the thermometer reaches a certain point lessons must cease throughout Prussia. The observance of this regulation is compulsory in all private as well as in public schools." i See also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept., p. 11; and on holydays, p. 23. 3 In Prussia, for instance, industrial work for wages prohibited under the age of nine ; in Baden it is eleven ; and so forth. 3 See Offic. Publications, also espec. R.C., vol. 1., pp. 21, 22, 92, 102, 115, 116, and 524. 4 Hebrew, however, is not obligatory. 6 See also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 18S6) rept., p. 11. 6 See Mr. Bashford's book, p. 6; and Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept. pp. 12 and 14. ' Sometimes, however, when the numbers warrant it, schools for a particular creed are officially established. In Berlin, when needed, Catholic schools are established by the magistracy, and note provisions already remarked respecting Jewish teachers of religion. See also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept., p. 8. So in Canada, " in districts where the inhabitants arc divided in their religious opinions, and mixed schools are not possible, the law enables separate ones to bo provided."—See Mr. Colmer's paper in tho Colonies and India, 15 Jan., 1886. Note also latest Manitoba report (herewith). 8 Note remarks by Dr. Rigg at 1.E.C., "In Germany in the year of revolutions, 1848, free education was introduced ; but after a short trial it was found to work badly, and was given up," &c, vol. 16, p. 183. B—E. 12.
—-—: i Munich and Nuremberg (Bavaria) have now abolished fees. " Before the change Nuremberg had three classes of popular schools —schools in which all the scholars paid, schools in which a part of them paid, schools in which none paid. The schools in which all paid were, the burghermaster said, undeniably much the best; the schools in which a part paid were the next best; the free schools were the worst."—Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rcpt., p. 0; and see p. 4; also " Saturday Review," 1 Aug., 1886, " Elementary Education on the Continent " ; and R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 6301. " The school fees are regularly paid, except in a few places. In Berlin they dropped tho fees, it is said, because they found the extreme difficulty of levying them."—Mr. M. Arnold, R.E.C., 531'J. But see further reasons in different places, 5495 and seq., and 63u1. Twopence was the average weekly fee, 5320. 0 For instance, not gratuitous, as a rule, in Saxony or Bavaria, nor by any means throughout Prussia, although it is so in Berlin. Where primary schools are not free, free instruction for poor children is usually provided by means of schools for themselves. Note scale of fees and rule touching exemptions in Saxony in Mr. Bashford's book, pp. 18, 19. See also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept., pp. 5 and 6 ; and R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5186 and seq. "Indeed, as to Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria . . . payment is the rule, free schooling the exception. This I say is the general rule in Germany—a school fee charged where the scholar can afford to pay for it, remitted when ho cannot." —Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept., p. 5. For farther information see espec. pp. 4^7. For process of remitting foes in cases of poverty see R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5448. For statistics respecting free education and size of classes see " Journal of Ed.," Oct., 18S6, p. 414.
Elementary education not generally gratuitous, and
57
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
General Features. charge ■} except in the case of scholars who are not only too poor to pay, but have distinguished themselves, when gratuitous instruction is generally available.- In some schools, however, there are only a certain number of free places f but to these, in some cases, in consequence of Royal and private legacies, free dinners and suppers, 4' or free dinners, 0 are attached. Fees, however, are in all cases low. Generally children have to buy school books, unless in cases of poverty. 8 (4.) Although the gradation of schools is not in all places the same, 7 infant schools are generally the first (although not a compulsory) 3 grade; and these children generally attend from the ages of two to six, but they are by no means always frtate schools. y Indeed, infant schools arc not favoured in Germany ; they tell you " it is settled by all the medical authorities that children have no business to begin to learn before they are six years old." i0 In the land of Froebcl 11 I expected to be impressed with the perfection of the Kindergarten schools, and to find them form a part of State education.^ In both respects, however, I w 7as disappointed. The infant schools I saw did not excel in discipline or intelligence those that I visited in England and elsewhere ; and although they, like all others in Germany, are subject to Government inspection, probably their voluntary character has some bearing upon the absence of special excellence. They arc in Germany considered advantageous institutions ; although a lady there, the wife of a professor, told me that she regarded them with disfavour because rich people send their infants to them instead of giving the children the superior advantage of home influence and training; and even were it not so, she considered them as only good to the extent of keeping the children off the street, because she is of opinion that they cause children to dislike both play and work. 1" An experienced school Inspector in Germany, although considering the schools in question distinctly desirable, also
notice of gratuitous provision in certain primary and secondary schools.
School books.
Infant schools.
Kindergarten schools.
' For instance, at Berlin, parent contributes about 100 marks out of a total cost of about 217. At Leipsic Royal Gymnasium parent pays 120 marks out of a total cost of from 240 to 280 marks. At Stuttgart Keal School parent pays £2 11s. 6d., town one-third, and State one-third, 1.E.C., vol. 16, p. 220. See also Amer. Commr. Kep., 1885, p. 211. 2 For instance, this is the case in Prussia if the pupil passes the six primary-school standards before ho is twelve years old. He is then helped for the school term, which is usually six to nine years. 3 As, for example, at State Gymnasium in Leipsic, which I visited, whore gratuitous admission not dependent upon examination, although in all cases in that school examination is required prior to admission to school. 4 It is so, for instance, in Leipsic State Gymnasium, where, moreover, some free scholars have board and residence. 5 This is also the case at some universities, such as Leipsic and Jena; and in Berlin University, and, indeed, in most, if not all, universities, a scholar unable to pay fees can arrange to defer payment till after leaving university, when he has ultimately to pay by deferred instalments extending over some years. Professors, however, to whom fees would accrue often ultimately relieve students from payment. 6 See also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept., p. 5; and R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5355 and seq. Note superiority of books, 5831 and seq. ' For instance, note E. C, vol. 1, p. 22. 8 For law in Saxony, see Mr. Bashford's book, pp. 8-11. 9 Thus, at Berlin they are private, at Leipsic municipal; and see M. C. E. 10 Mr. M. Arnold, K. E. C, 5377; and see 5159 and seq., 5467, and 5658. 11 Note paper and discussion, I. E. C, vol. 13, pp. 78-87, and 96-105. Also— (a) B. C, vol. 1, p. 21; (b) For Berlin, see Official Pamphlets dated 1873 (referred to supra) and 1879, relating to primary schools—one dated 1882 and one 1883, containing regs. for instruction in gymnastics in boys' and girls' primary schools—official list of books, dated 1882 (Katalog, &c.), recommended by Dr. Berthold for use in the highest Berlin schools. Official plan, dated 1881, of studies of natural science at the Berlin piimary schools, with special reference to the study of zoology; also rogs., dated 1882, relating to school buildings in Berlin; (c) B. E, Rep., pp. 523-536; (d) In Saxony, see Messrs, Bashford's and Felkin'a I books; I
(e) I. E. C, vol. 13, p. 438. For home studies, see Mr. Bashford's book, pp. 87-89 ; and (/) " By Ear or Eye," letters by Mr. John Ruskin and Mr. Walter Crane, P. M. 'Budget, 1 and 8 April, 1886. " How Froebelian principles and methods may best be carried out in the school," the Froebel Society London has offered a prize essay to be sent in by 1 Deo., 1886. "It is Froebel who tells us, again and again, that it is the very early training that is to the child of highest importance. Not one period of a child's life, he insists, is more valuable than another, and therefore requires greater care and attention; but all arc of equal importance, and should have, therefore, equal care. To do the best for the child, and to be content with nothing short of the best, &c, must be the aim of parents and teachers."— "Journ. of Ed.," July, 1886, pp. 276, 277. Messrs. Swan, Sonnenschein and Co. (London) are about to publish —if they have not already published—a translation of Froebel's autobiography, i: See also 11. E. C, Mr. M. Arnold, 5378 and 5463. "In Aug., 1851, the Prussian Government in panic and misconception issued a decree, couched in the most arbitrary terms, forbidding Froebel's Kindergarten to be carried on in the Prussian dominions, partly on the feeble and unphilosophical ground that it was laying at the foundation of the education of children a highly intricate theory. The Kindergarten of Prussia were then shut up, and it was not till 1860 that the Prussian Government abrogated their indefensible decree."—Sir P. J. Keenan's Address, p. 43. In Vienna there are 24 Froebel and 12 infant schools; and it is there " that the Kindergarten are said to have found more favour than in any other European city; and there authority in government and imitation in training are held to be essential elements in the system."—Dr. Philbrick, p. 47. The blind at the Normal College for the Blind, Upper Norwood, London, are taught on the Kindergarten system. " The more I see of the life of an instructor, the more I wonder at the course generally pursued by teachers. They seem to forget that the young mind is to be interested in order to be instructed." —H. W. Longfellow. Note progress of the Sloyd movement in Germany, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland, " of which the Kindergiirten system of Froebel may be regarded as the precursor."—P. M. Budget, 23 Sept., 1886, p. 24. " Matter before form," Comenius. ln A very eminent Scotch educationalist informed rno that he also held this opinion. And note It. E. C, Inspector Stewart, 2422-2424. But see supra " Great Britain "—" Infant Schools."
58
GEBMANY.
E.—l2
General Features. told me that a danger of such schools was found to be that the children acquire habits of playing in school which they carry into the primary schools. Instruction is not gratuitous— the fee charged being generally about 3 marks per month. (5.) Primary day schools (Volksschulen) are the first compulsory stage of German: education; 1 but many parents have their children educated at the commencement in a' preparatory Gymnasium (Vorschule), where they remain till about the age of nine, 2 when the secondary-school course commences. Class numbers arc generally regulated by law. 3 There are no standards; but the time-table is a part ol' the school law and the school regulations of the country.' 1' Home lessons are usual. 0 There is nothing special to remark concerning school buildings, except that in the cities they are very fine. (0.) Supplementary (continuation) schools (Fortbildungssclmlcn), which arc virtually! secondary schools held in the evenings and on Sunday mornings, are everywhere the next 5 stage, and are especially intended for deepening and extending the knowledge of apprentices after leaving school. 6 But these only apply where a child does not attend a secondary school. Attendance at these schools in many States is compulsory, but not so everywhere. 7 In all eases some preparation for industrial occupations is taught in them.s Instruction in supplementary schools is not in all States gratuitous ; although where not gratuitous the fees are always low. In Prussia all tuition is charged for in some/' and in others French and English alone are charged for as extras. In Saxony, on the other hand, 10 there is no charge made. The half-time system does exist, but to no great extent. 11 (7.) Public secondary schools, which arc almost always day schools, exist in all thes States; but there is not everywhere the same gradation. 13 Where the organization is complete 1 they, and the higher educational establishments, mainly 13 consist of—■ (a) Preparatory schools (Yorschulen) 14' for children from about the age of six to nine; (Ij) Modern schools (Realschulen) 13 preparatory for the upper modern school and the Polytechnic; (c) Upper Modern (Ober llealschulen) lr> in which there is no Latin taught, and which specially prepare for entrance into the Polytechnic school to continue scientific education; (d) Polytechnic schools or technical universities ; 17 (e) Classical schools (Gymnasien) 18 preparatory for any of the Faculties of the university, or for the Polytechnic school ;
Primary day ools'
Supplementary schools.
Secondary and niSner schools.
1 See also R. C, vol. 1, pp. 21, 22. " For girls as well as boys, at least in Berlin, sec Official Pamphlet as below, dated 1882, pp. 15-18. 8 For instance, in Saxony numbers in a class must not exceed 60; and one teacher must not have charge of moro than 120. Sec also R. E. C, Mr. M. Arnold, 5105. But see 5242 and seq. *R. E. 0., Mr. M. Arnold, 5277. For difference between "standards" and the continental system see R. E. C, Mr. M. Arnold, 5G90 and seq. s For amount of home lessons see R. E. 0., Mr. M. Arnold, 5930 and seq. 6 See also— (a) R. C, vol. 1, pp. 40-42, 47, 511, 524, and vol. 3, 3413 and seq. (b) For Berlin, see Official Pamphlet, dated 1882, containing the principles of administration of Berlin schools, including regs. respecting subjects taught, inspection, &c.; also official rep. on schools, dated Feb., 1884, containing particulars of work done, results, and statistics. (c) For Saxony, Mr. Bashford's book, pp. 9, 10, and j espee. 19, 20; Mr. Felkin's book, espec. p. 24 ; " Tech. Ed. in Saxony," p. 91; Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 212. But see R. E. C, Mr. M. Arnold, 5403, 5650 and seq. And for further eulogy of the system see Sir P. J. Koenan's Address, p. 07. ' For instance, compulsory in Saxony, Bavaria, and Baden, but not compulsory in Prussia ; also pamphlet, p. 11, and Mr. Bashford's book, pp. 8-11; and note R. C, vol. 1, pp. 40, 47, 524; and R. E. C, Mr. M. Arnold, 5784 and seq. 8 See— (a) R. C, vol. 1, pp. 40, 41, 47, 48, 511, and 524. (b) For Saxony, Messrs. Bashford and Felkin's books. (c) For Berlin, Official Pamphlet and Report as above. J 9 See Pamphlet as above, pp. 7-11. 10 See Messrs. Bashford's (p. 20) and Felkin's books. " See also —
(a) R. C, vol. 3, 1308; and (6) B. E. Rep., p. 533. But see R. E. C, Mr. M. Arnold, 5203 and seq., and 5337 and seq. 12 Note also R. C, vol. 1, p. 22. 13 There are sometimes intermediary gradations—for instance, see Mr. Felkin's book, pp. 9, 10, 28 ; and Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 210. For " Table showing Provision of Schooling (secondary and primary) in Saxony for year ending Christmas, 1884," see Appendix Table (B) to Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) Rep. For "Table showing Provision of Schools (secondary and primary) in Berlin for year ending 1 April, 1885," see Appendix Table (A) to Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1880) Rep. u See also (a) R. C, vol. 1, p. 22 ; (6) I. E. C, vol. 10, p. 213. " Note— (a) I. E. C, vol. 16, pp. 221, 290, 297, and 213; (6) Mr. Felkin's book, espec. pp. 9, 10, 13, 14, and 28; (e) R. C, vol. 3, 1397. For interpretation, " Real," see B. E. Rep., p. 74. '« See also B. 0., vol. 1, p. 22. >' See also R. C, vol. 1, espec. 180-200, 207-214. Ik There are two classes of Gymnasien in Prussia and some other States — (a) Gymnasien without any addition (as denned in the text) ; (b) Realgymnasien (formerly called Realschulen, while what are now called so were designated as Gewerbeschulen or Obergewerbeschulen), preparatory for the Polytechnic schools, and for the study of science, mathematics, or modern languages in the universities. See also— (a) I. E. C, vol. 10, pp. 221, 290, 297, 214; and vol. 15, pp. 87, 200, 201 ; and (ft) " Journ. of Ea.," 1 Feb., 1886, p. GO. For the plans of study, see programme Royal Gymnasium, Leipsic, and Mr. Felkin's book, including pp. 9, 10, 13, 14, 28, and appendices to Mr. M. Arnold's
59
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
General Features. (/) Universities/ of which there are twenty, 3 exclusive of the Academies of Munster and Braunsberg, which provide the ultimate course of instruction. In all secondary and higher schools in Prussia fees are charged; but the main support of such schools accrues from the State or municipality. So in Saxony, where the fee is .€6 a year. There is no provision at the public expense for the secondary education of girls in some States, 3 but in Berlin, at all events, in the case of a girl who has distinguished herself at a primary school, and whose parents are too poor to continue her education, the State pays 48| marks per annum for her tuition at a private school. 4 ' Science and art training, but especially science, are everywhere fostered. 0 Workshops are not yet introduced into the primary schools, but drawing is therein universally and well taught, 6 and there are apprenticeship schools. 7 The regulations to ensure thorough qualification of all teachers are strictly enforced. 8 There are no pupil-teachers. 0 In the Royal seminary at Berlin for training-masters, pupils must be at least sixteen years old 10 upon entering, and they are not allowed to teach before
Secondary education of girls.
Science and art teaching.
Teachers.
May Report. Those who intend to become Civil servants of the higher grade in Prussia must frequent this school, and pass required examination ; see I. E. C, vol. 15. p. 260. 1 See also — (a) I. E. a, vol. 13, p. 11; vol. 15, pp. 14,15, 87-59,102, 174, 183, 200, 261, 267, 276, 277, 280, 281; (b) R. C., vol. 1, pp. 214, 215 ; (c) Programmes of lectures at Leipsic, 1884; Jena, 1883 and 1884 ; Heidelberg, 1884 ; (d) Regs, for obtaining doctor's degree, Jena ; and (e) Opinions of Mr. C. Dawson, M.P., Prof. Richoy, and and Mr. A. W. Quill on German University system as compared with that of Franco. See Transactions Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881. 2 The Universities of Prussia arc —1. Berlin, 2. Bonn, 8. Breslau, 4. GOttingen, 5. Greifswald, 0. Halle, 7. Kiel, 8. Konigsberg, 9, Marburg; besides 10. Erlangen, 11. Miinchen, 12. Wiirzburg (these three in Bavaria) ; 13. Heidelberg, 14. Freiburg (these two in Baden) ; 15. Leipzig (Saxony), 16. Jena (Saxe-Wei-mar), 17. Tubingen (Wurttemberg), 18. Rostock (Mecklenburg), 19. Gicssen (Hessenj, 20. Strasburg (Alsace). The two Academies are in Prussia; at Braunsberg there is only a theological faculty; at Minister, besides a theological, also a philosophical faculty. " It is very noticeable that in the last five years the German universities have greatly increased the number of their pupils. The increase has largely been in the direction of medicine and theology, but in theology more than in medicine. In 1880 there were 2,300 students of Protestant theology ; there are now 4,000. The Catholic students have also doubled their numbers in the course of the last six years. We have, unfortunately, no English statistics to show whether pursuit of divinity studies directly tends to check litigation. It apparently has that effect abroad. While the theology students have grown more and more numerous, the poor law professors have found the attendance at their class-rooms dwindling from term to term."—P. M. Budget, 12 Aug., 1880. Tho universities contain 28,000 pupils. Berlin has 264 professors and teachers, and 4,154 students, divided as follows: Theology, 503 ; jurisprudence, 964 ; medicine, 924 ; philosophy, 1,703. Leipsic has about half the number Berlin has; then comes Munich, Halle, Wiirzburg, Bonn, &c. Heidleberg, the quincentenary of which was celebrated with sueh eclat in August last, stands tenth. For recent history of it see " Athenaeum," 7 Aug., 1886, p. 174. See also Amer. Commr. Report, 1885, p. 211. " In Germany an university is as much a matter of course as a town hall in England," &c. See review of " High Schools and Universities in Germany," by Mr. M. Arnold, 2nd ed., 1882, in " The Edinburgh Review," July, 1886, p. 256. s For an instance of organised provision, note Saxony. See Mr. Felkin's book, pp. 18-19. 4 See last note. For a time-table of a municipal high school for girls in East Prussia, see " Journ. of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 296, and see also p. 274. "The Curriculum of the German High School for Girls," with the subjects therein taught and their organisation, a resume of a lecture by Dr. Ernst on the importance of domestic training
of girls should not be overlooked. See " Journ. of Ed.," 1 Aug., 1886, p. 320, on " The Education of Girls," by a German lady. See excellent article from Berlin, " Gegenwart," in Public Opinion, London, 10 Sept., 18S6, p. 328. 5 For details of whole subject, see— (a) R. C, vol. 1, pp. 50-55, 82, 90-97, 103-105, 115-118, 127-145, 158-168, 169-171 (women's work schools), 191-200, 207-214, 243, 227-229, 232, 233, 235-244, 223-227, 294 and seq., 505, 508-512. On agriculture, see espec. vol. 1, p. 535, and vol. 2, pp. 15-89, 293, 297, 298, 304, 317, and see vol. 3, index; (b) Mr. Felkin's book ; (c) Tech. Ed. in Saxony ; (<i) Programmes of studies in evening schools for artisans at Berlin, 1882; (e) B. E. Rep., pp. 5, 21-41, 78-86, 100-102; (/) Lord Brabazon's article in Time, May, 1886, pp. 547-549, on " The Need of National Industrial and Technical Training." "The teaching of horticulture has been made compulsory in several of the Volksschulen of Baden, with a view to improve the fruit markets. In several of the fruit-growing districts it has even been made one of the principal subjects in the curriculum of the Fortbildungsschulcn (higher elementary schools), and necessary gardens have been established in connection with them."—" Journ. of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 297. 6 See also E.G., vol. 3, 3204-3215, 3286, 3287; and E.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5951. 7 " Schools of Domestic Economy have recently awakened considerable interest in certain parts of Germany, especially in Baden and Wurttemberg, and various schools have been established with the object of training young girls in all domestic duties," &c. Amor. Oornmr. Kept., 1885, p. 212. Note especially the school at Radolfzell to teach country girls all the duties of the housekeeper in the most systematic manner possible. See also " Wurttemberg an Example of Ireland," Art. on industrial training there.—" Contemp. Review," Oct., 1886, p. 586. Most of the adult schools, as in Prance and Belgium, arc Sunday schools. The technical schools on the Continent are said to be mainly formed by manufacturers.—See R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5789. 8 For full details on subject generally, see— {a) 1.E.0., vol. 16, pp. 22, 23, 60, 01, 81, 82, 96, 118, 119, and 297; (b) Office Regs. ; (c) Mr. Bailey's paper on "Primary Education," read before the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society, Dublin, 18 Dec, 1883. E. Ponsonby, Dublin, 1884 ; and (d) Other Refs., supra, under head " Result of Investigation." The law has been lately extended to private teaching. " The instruction is better in the foreign popular schools than in ours, because the teachers are better trained." "The methods of teaching . . . are more gradual, more natural, and more rational than in ours."—M. Arnold (May, 1886) report, pp. 15 and 13. 8 See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5099 and 5248 and seq. 10 See also R.K.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5525 and serj.
60
E.—l2
GERMANY.
(ii neral Features. they have at least attained the age of nineteen, and have passed their examination satisfactorily. The education is not gratuitous, except for those who are too poor to pay, in which case it must also be shown that the applicants' testimonials arc good. There are probably at this institution twenty free places out of accommodation for 200 pupils. Admission to a normal school can only be obtained after passing an examination, and the term of study there varies from three to six yeai's; 1 and religious instruction is included in the course." There arc some normal schools for the training of mistresses, 15 although they are not so numerous as those for masters. " Because in German countries women arc much less used in teaching than men." 1' This is especially the case " above the three or four lowest classes. They think that many of the subjects in the classes above women are not fit to teach." And Mr. M. Arnold thinks the result satisfactory. 5 A part of the training in all such schools consists in practising teaching under the guidance of a preceptor. 6 The main duty of a head teacher in Germany is considered to be that of supervision, and therefore he undertakes only a limited number of lessons. The salaries are very small/ and no part of the pay is dependent upon examination or attendance results. 8 In Berlin, for instance, male teachers in primary schools receive from 1,500 to 3,240 marks per annum, with free rooms, fire, and lighting for head masters; whilst the annual salaries of females range from 1,100 to 1,900 marks. In secondary schools at Berlin the head masters receive from 0,000 to 7,500 marks per annum, with rooms, light, and firing; whilst the salaries of the other masters arc from 2,400 to 5,400. 9 As an instance of how very low some salaries are, at a Kindergarten school which I visited at Berlin, connected with a religious institution, and conducted by some young ladies, I was informed by the Inspector that their salaries were only 3 marks each per month, besides board, residence, and clothing. Pensions are granted, 10 but deductions are made from salaries for the pension fund ; and there also voluntary benefit associations formed by the teachers for provision in case of sickness or death. 11 The school year runs from Easter to Easter, and important examinations, both written: and oral, arc arranged to take place before Easter and Michaelmas. On the result of examination depends the promotion of students from one class to a higher. 1" In addition to ordinary inspections, 13 each primary school in every third or fourth year is carefully inspected by an expert member of the Board of Education. There are no State scholarships in primary or secondary schools. Scholarships are pro-: vided only in the universities by Royal or private legacies, and are not awarded unless to scholars who combine the two conditions of (a) being poor, and (/;) having distinguished themselves ; and even then the scholarships are comparatively very small. 1* (10.) In all States private 10 as well as public schools are under State supervision;ll3 and:
Pensions.
Inspection and
Scholarships.
Private schools.
1 For further details see Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) I ' rept., p. 16; E.E.C., Mr. Arnold, 5128 and scq.; and I Amer. Commr. Rept., 1885, p. 211. 2 " Separate training schools for the Catholics." R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5148 and sej. ' 3 For instance, several at Berlin. Ib is curious to notice that " Prussia for centuries practically rejected the ' co-operation of women in the teaching of public schools ; and, except in the Catholic districts, where conventual establishments prevailed, the training of ' young women for the profession of teaching was not attempted till 1840."—Sir P. J. Keenan's Address, p, 42. Seo also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5133. * Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept., p. 17, where see details, and R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5G72 and seq., and 5733. • R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5726 and 5730. " The directory of the normal school is the post of reward for an elementary teacher; and generally the director is a man who has been an elementary teacher."—R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5145. ' For instance, in Wiirttemburg, 95 per cent, of the elem. I teachers have only an income of from 900 to 1,300 j , marks (or shillings); and widows a pension of from ' 200 to 500 marks. For further details, see Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept., pp. 20 and 21 ; and Amer. Commr. Rept., 1885., pp. 211, 212, and R.E.C., 532G , and 5449. « See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 8655. i '.' See also B.E. rept., pp. 531 and 532.
10 Conditions vary in different States, but usually pensions computed according to duration of service. For some details, seo Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rept., p. 21 ; and R.E.C., 5150, 5124, 6291, and 2330. 11 See also Statute, dated 1885, for establishment of a fund for sick teachers at Berlin. 12 See Official Kegs., dated 1875, relating to the examination on removal of a child in Berlin primary schools from one class to another. 13 In Germany the Examiner confers and co-operates with the teacher, and is regarded by him as a counseller and fellow-worker —not as an excise officer or a detective. —"Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 271. And note the Swiss system supra. The first resolution of the Congress of over 1,000 teachers, held at Hanover on 15 and 10 June, 1880, should not be overlooked. —"Journal of Ed.," 1 Aug., 1886, p. 320. For duties of Inspectors, see R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5089 and scq. For the class from which Inspectors are selected in Germany, see R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5094. But see 5197, 5254 and scq., 5256 and 5261. The local Inspector is the pfarrer (or parson). 14 p Ol . instance, at Leipsic University, ordinary ones range from £7 to £10 a year; but there is one of about £100 a year. See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5641 and scq. 15 See Govt. Regs, affecting head-masters of private schools in Berlin. 16 See Prussian Constitution, Art. xxiii., B.E. rept., p. 536; and Amer. Commr. Rept., 1885, p. 211.
61
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
General Features. where the teacher does not possess the necessary diploma from a " Wissensehaftliche Priifungs Commission/' 1 he must hold one from a Seminarium or normal school. 3 (11.) The revenue of the primary, and generally of the secondary schools/ is the first instance, and mainly derived from the direct local taxation already referred to, levied by municipalities and communes, 4 and from fees, 5 with aid from the State in case of need." But Polytechnics and universities are under the immediate care of the State. (12.) In each State the supreme educational control for such State' is vested in a Minister who has the universities and Polytechnics under his immediate charge. Under the Minister is a State Board; arid there are also Boards for the respective provinces and districts, and School Committees in each parish. 8 (13.) Not only is there as a rule a school library for pupils, but a school library for teachers, as part of the regular apparatus of a school. MATERIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STATES. The material differences between some States in ediicational matters relate principally to the— («) Gradation of schools ; 9 (b) Conditions relative to providing religious instruction ; 10 (c) Payment of, or freedom from, fees ; 11 (d) Compulsory attendance at supplementary schools; 11' and (e) University regulations—as, for instance, at Leipsic and Jena, where students unable to pay may, by petition, obtain leave to attend without fees.
Sources of income of State schools.
System of management.
School libraries.
Gradation of schools. Conditions relating to religious instruction. Payment or nonpayment of school fees. Compulsory attendance or otherwise at supplementary schools. University regulations.
1 The Commission consists for the most part of university professors; but not only of such. Only universities confer degrees. - " The law by which it is forbidden in Germany to give instruction in any subject without a proper certificate, or other qualification, has lately been extended to private teaching."—"Journal of Ed.,"l Oct., 1880, p. 415. See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5389 and seq. 3 For Table " Showing Expenditure in Public Secondary Schools in Saxony, and the sources whence it is supplied," see Appendix table (C) to Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 188C) report. 4 See also — (a) R.C., vol. 1, pp. 515, 22, and 23; (6) M.C.E.; and (c) R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5334, 5321 and scq. For Saxony, see— (a) Mr. Bashford's book, pp. 11 and 12 ; and (b) Mr. Felkin's book, p. 17.
Prussia— B.E. rept., pp. 535 and 53G; Amer. Gommr. Itept.,lBBs, p. 211; and espec. R.E.0., Mr. M. Arnold, 5349 and seq., and 5379 and seq. 5 See also Amer. Commr. Rept., 18S5, p. 211. c See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5321. ~> Note Mr. Philbriok, p. 7. 8 See also B.E. ropt., p. 530; Amer. Commr. Rept., 1885, p. 211; and espec. 8.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5244 and seq., 5339, 5334, 5444 and seq., and 5505 and seq. 9 For instance, note--(a) E.G., vol. 1, p. 22. (&) Mr, Pelkin's book, " Summary of Saxon Schools." 10 For instance, at Berlin, see note supra; whilst in Saxony "the religion professed and taught by a particular school is the religion of the majority of the parish." See Mr. Bashford's hook, p. 7. 11 For instance, whilst in Berlin elementary instruction is wholly gratuitous, in Saxony it is not. See Mr. Bashford's book, p. 18; ond also B.E. rept., p. 581. 12 Compare Prussia and Saxony.
62
E.—l2
BELGIUM.
BELGIUM.
INTRODUCTION. From recent changes 1 in the Belgian educational system, and from the circumstances sur-Re rounding them, valuable lessons can be derived. It is therefore an opportune time for comment. It is requisite to remember that Belgium is a country where, at least nominal, Pr Roman Catholics very largely predominate, and where the Roman Catholic clergy have great influence; that the State system in force under the law of Ist July, 1879, was a secular one; and that the sole provision for religious instruction was that if parents wished their children to be benefited by the ministrations of the clergy, such ministrations could only be given (upon the application of the parents) before or after school hours 2 —the principle adopted being that religious instruction should be left to the care of families and ministers. 3 The result was that religious training in school houses virtually amounted to nothing; and that the Roman Catholic authorities established primary schools, and added to the number of their secondary schools (ecoles moyennes et colleges), all v^hich were, and are still, largely attended. 4 But there grew up in consequence a very bitter and deep feeling of hostility, created or fostered by the clergy, 4 against the State system; and when the clerical party latterly obtained political ascendancy, educational reform was carried out. 5 It is unnecessary to detail the violent agitation, almost amounting to revolution, caused by the enacting of the new law; affording, it would seem, clear proof of the impolicy (to say nothing of the injustice, which of course is always impolitic) of a State identifying itself with a non-religious or religious educational scheme, without providing that every consideration be shown towards the religious or non-religious convictions of all its subjects. The recent Act is strongly condemned by the Liberals, but it will certainly be main- Pi< taincd so long as the Conservative party arc in power. 0 The reform is an advance upon that of Ist July, 1879, as more favourable to local government, especially in religious matters. The communes have now more power: for instance, when the inhabitants in a commune are unanimous respecting religious teaching, it is open to them to subsidise, as primary schools, clerical ones, and to thereby virtually abolish undenominational schools. Even when ratepayers are not unanimous, a minority of twenty fathers of families is entitled to claim that a school shall be established for the use of their children, where religious teachingaccording to the views of the parents may be conducted as a main feature in education, 7 and under certain circumstances they can indicate one or more schools that they wish adopted ; the sole conditions imposed by the State being that— (a) the school must be established in a suitable place; (/;) half at least of the teachers must have obtained diplomas, or have success-
cent changes,
edisposing SJSs' an le
lesent law.
1 Note results of previous law of Ist July, 1879, now re- I pealed; see— (a) Remarks of M. Buls, Burgomaster of Brussels, I 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 182; and (b) Paper by M. Jottrand, vol. 13, p. 308. The new laws, and the regulations and instructions | under them, are herewith, viz.— (a) Loi Organique du 20 septombre, 18S4, sur l'lnstruction Pmnaire, Reglements et Instructions. (£)) Extraitdu "Moniteur Beige "du lOjanvier, 1836, En- j seignement de la Religion dans les Ecoles Primaires. ; (c) Reglements et Programme d'Etudes des Ecoles Primaires Communales, 1885. (d) Instructions pour les jurys charges de proci'der aux [ examensd'enseignementnormaleprimaired' l'Etat, 1885. («) Programme de l'enseignemont tl donner dans les Ecoles Normales et les Sections Normales Pjimaires de l'Etat. The text of the law of 20 September, 1884, is substantially quoted in the Amer. Commr. Hep., 1885, for 1883-84, pp. 201, 202.
- See loi 1 juillefc, 1879, art. 1; and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sec. 84, ss. 3. 3 See Art. 4 as above, also Art. 7. 4 See also " E.G.," vol. 1, pp. 24--2C. » " Questions of education were at the bottom of all the Belgian political movements," &c, M. Couvreur, at Int. Ed. Conf., Times, 0 Aug., 1884. 6 Bat note— (a) Times, 11 Aug., 22 and 23 Sept. and 25 Nov., 1884; and London Daily Nev;s, 1 Sept., 1884; and (6) Remarks of M. Buls, 1.E.C., vol. 13, pp. 182, 183; and vol. 15, p. 302. For recent notices of the proceedings of the present party in power and of their promotion of prize distributions, and of the indictment of prizes in the " Avenir," and for the remark that prize distributions "are being discouraged at present in all countries where education lias reached a high standard," see "Journal of Ed.," 1 Sept., 1880, p. 371. 7 Zee loi 20 septembre, 1884, Arts. 2 and 4, and note espec. extrait du " Monitour " du 10 Janvier, ISB6.
63
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Introduction. fully passed an examination for teachers before a Board organised by the Government; (c) the instruction given must come up to the proper standard; (tl) the children of the poor are to be received gratuitously ; and (e) the school is subject to Government inspection. 1 The defect, however, seems to be the non-provision for a minority of less than twenty fathers. The effect will probably be that there will be in towns as many undenominational schools as ever, but that in the rural districts, whore the Roman Catholic clergy have greater influence than in many of the towns, there will be great changes," and the peasantry will be relieved from the serious hardship of paying for schools which they do not use. The law, as regards State schools, still remains intact in respect of its secular character, and in respect of the provisions for religious teaching; but the main amendment promotes the support of schools where such religious doctrines and formularies, be they Roman Catholic 3 or otherwise, as the managers of the school think proper, form a portion of the ordinary plan of study. 4 However, until such measures be introduced as provide that consideration be shown towards all, one can scarcely expect to find that the Belgian educational system will be devoid of that friction which would alone prevent the perfecting of details apart from those relating to religious teaching. 0 MAIN FEATURES. The main features of the Belgian system are as follow : — (1.) School age is defined to be from the age of six to that of fourteen, but attendance is not compulsory;" and there is no restriction against the employment of uneducated or young children. 7 Persuasion instead of compulsion is relied upon. 8 (2.) Education is, subject to the important provisions already mentioned, secular, 0 and not gratuitous, except for the needy. 10 (3.) The Government only exercise control over State schools, not over private ones, or scholars receiving private tuition; and the sole exception is that in denominational schools receiving State aid they are subject to the five conditions already mentioned . (4.) There are four classes of public schools for children, and also special schools; some particulars concerning which arc given in the following table : —
Its probable effects.
Defects of Act
School age.
Education secular, and not gratuitous. Private tuition not under Government control.
Different classes
TABULAR STATEMENT CONCERNING BELGIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS (EXCLUSIVE OF NORMAL SCHOOLS).
64
Classes of School. How supported. Usual age of froquenting. Fees payable. Instruction. I (1) Ihfaxt schools" The 3 to 6-7 years. ■ Instruction is Programme generally based on (ecoles gardienncsi (a) Communes (pri- ■ gratuitous to the method of Froebel. ,2 eommunales—jardins marily), ! the poor; in d'enfants.) (6) State and Pro- other classes a vinees, ■ small fee pay(c) Pees. able. j I 1 See loi 20 sept., 1884, art. 9, - Note letter from Mr. Hodgson in Times, 25 Nov., 1884. B The teachers in the Roman Catholic subsidized schools will probably be " Petits Freres" (Christian Brothers). 4 Note similarities to the English voluntary school system; although, of course, there are grave dissimilarities. " In Holland the law of 1857 enacts that while a general religious instruction is to be given in the State schools, instruction on specific points is to be left to the different religious communities themselves." See paper on " Primary Education," read by W. T. liailey, on 18 Dec, 1883, before the Statistical and Social Inquiry Soc, Dublin. E. Ponsonby, Dublin, 1884. 5 >Toie comparison, by M. Couvreur, between Swiss and Belgian results, I.E.C., vol. 18, pp. 323, 326. 6 Note tlio results, see remarks of M. Couvreur, I.E.C., vol. 18, p. 324. See also p. 52 supra, and also note 1 thereon. ' See also E.C., vol. 1, pp. 25, 354, 355, 359, 360. 8 See loi, 1879, arts. 21, 22. Note similarity to American principle. 9 As before noted, in Europe where there is no official religious teaching, it is apparently deemed requisite to teach " Morale." 10 See loi 20 sept., 1884, art. 8. 11 The Communal Councils regulate everything relating to their establishment and organization. See Art. 2 of loi 20 sept., 1884. " See I.E.C., vol. 18, p. ICG. Note also " Creches " institution.
BELGIUM.
Main Features. TABULAR STATEMENT CONCERNING BELGIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS— continued.
E.—l2.
marketing 9—E. 12.
Classes of School. How supported. Usual age of frequenting. Fees payable. Instruction. (2) Primary schools 1 (ecoles primaires communales.) The (a) Communes "3 (primarily), (J) Provinces (secondly), "S (e) State, and u (a) Fees. - See loi 20 sept., 1884, art. G. ,o "B o & o u G-7 to 14, unless child goes to secondary school in first instance. 50 centimes and 2fr. per month; but gratuitous for poor. 5 In some communes free schools. Reading, writing, elements of arithmetic, legal system of weights and measures, elements of French, Flemish, or German language — according to the wants of localities —geography, history of Belgium, elements of drawing, notions of agriculture, ,, and, for girls, needlework,* Additional teaching may be added under certain circumstances. 5 Three courses, each of two years or more. But communes may place the moral and religious teaching at the head of tho programme of all, or some, of their primary schools. This teaching must be given at tho beginning or end of the other instruction. Children, whose parents request it, aro to be excused from assisting. H o fa to 3 o3 Jfr CO o 3 (.3) Secokdary schools" The town, or corn- :9 Entrant (a) Higher elementary, mime, which is -g . sent to or middle class (mo- the seat of age ratory yennes inferieurcs) Royal Athente- O S annexei — 81 for boys, 36 um, or of a se--g ? otherwi for girls. condary school !& when i (b) Royal Athciueums' (ecolemoyenno), a q tendec (Athenees royaux) puts at the dis- higher s 20* all-day schools posal of the B g —although in some Government a . .o places boarding suitable school- g "g Entn houses in connec- house, provided *= g oxarnin tion. with furniture in "3 'g good condition ;_o 1X_ and the cost of a repairs is to be rg supplied by the commune. The j= town, or com- ts muno, contri- -S butes besides to g^ the expense of & the school by an m annual subscrip- j>, tion, which need [3 not exceed one- $ third of the ex- a ponses. The^S Government is rt authorized to.2 contribute by g subsidies to the .2 cost of first g e s t a b 1 i shment s and purchase of "a the school furni- o ture in the case 3 of athena3um 2 and secondary schools. .3) Secokdary schools" (a) Higher elementary, or middle class (moyennes inferieurcs) — 81 for boys, 36 for girls. (6) Royal Athciueums' (Athenees royaux) 20 8 all-day schools —although in some places boarding houses in connection. Entrance G-7, if sent to preparatory school annexed ; but otherwise 9-15, when not intended for higher schools. Entrance examination. 11-18. G0-100fr. per annum. 25-60fr. per annum. Latin and Greek are not taught. Tho instruction is divided into two branches:— (a) Literary, (6) Scientific or professional; in each of these there are seven classes. "No Latin is taught on the professional side." 9 At least one in each commune in a suitable locality, loi 20 sept., 1884, art. 1, and see I.E.C., vol. 15., p. 301. See also R.C., vol. 1, pp. 25 and 515. Note remarks of M. Germain on " Objects of Primary Schools," I.E.C., vol. 14, p. 334. Drawing compulsory. See also I.E.C., vol. 14, p. 259, 271. Two or more communes may, when necessary, be allowed by the King to unite in founding or supporting a school, art. 1. Primary communal schools are managed by the communes. The Communal Councils determine the number of schools and teachers, art. 2. - If parent goes to Burgomaster and says he cannot pay. See also R.C., vol, 1, p. 24. 8 Note paper on " Music in Schools," I.E.C., vol. 13., pp. 467-480, and espec. 471. * Paper by M. Germain, I.E.C., vol. 14, p. 834, also courses fixed by Government; see loi, art. 5. " Cooking will henceforth bo an obligatory subject in all the girls' schools of Brussels, by a recent decree of tho Municipal Council. Tho course will bo both practical and theoretical. The different subjects to be included are marketing, tho relative nutritive 16 « See ai re fo i, "In in m hi s< But 6 The ] ilues of all articles of food, and the practical tanagcrnent of a kitchen."—" Journ. of Ed.," July, 380, p, 297. Circulaire, art. 5. For selection of books see loi, rt. G. This list of subjects has just been officially svised by the authorities, otherwise I should have rewarded the official documents herewith. See art. , loi 20 sept., 1884. i Holland, tho law defines the subjects of primary istruction as follows: Reading, writing, and arithictic ; the elements of geometry, Dutch grammar, istory, geography, natural sciences, and singing." ee Mr. Bailey's paper as above. - see note re religious instruction on preceding page. Roman Catholics have numerous good primary and condary schools—now subsidized. See also R.C., >1. 1, p. 26. e prepare for universities, and are under the more imediate care of State, and answer to English public hoolp, such as Eton or Harrow. teen is minimum number. See also R.C., vol. l,p. 25. 3.C., vol. 1, pp. 25, 2G. se< vo ' Thes< in sc' 8 Ninei 9 See I
E—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Main Features. TABULAR STATEMENT CONCERNING BELGIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS—continued.
TABULAR STATEMENT RELATING TO PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS IN BELGIUM.
7. The following table supplies some information on scholarships ; —
' (a) E.C., vol. 1, pp. 25, 44, 45, 46, 57-64, 125, 126, 171173, 245-247, 354-383, 505, 507, 511, 515, 520, 523 ; vol. 2, Agriculture, pp. 179-189, 293, 295 ; vol. 3, answers, 1236-1239. (6) See remarks of M. Couvreur on art education, T.E.C., vol. 14, pp. 259-261; see also vol. 13, pp. 3, 322; and vol. 14, pp. 6, 8, 259, 271. (c) Teaching of Agriculture, vol. 14, pp. 384-397 ; and Brit. Leg. Rep., 1 July, 1808, pp. 87-94, and 191-253. Most of the adult schoolsin Belgium, as in France and Germany, are Sunday schools. The Communal Councils regulate everything relating to the establishment and organization of adult schools, art 2. 2 " Training schools are the foundation of primary ; schools," A. I. Germain, I.E.G., vol. 14, p. 335.
8 For full details see— (a) " Organisation," par A. I. Germain, 1884 ; b) Programmes, 1885; c) Instructions pour les jurys, 1885 ; d) Programme pour la preparation d'institutrices d'ecolcs gardiennes ; (c) I.E.C., vol. 13, espec. pp. 468, 472, 479-480; vol. 14, pp. 287-333, 334-346 ; vol. 16, p. 97. 4 See loi 20 sept., 1884, art. 8. "In Holland no teacher is appointed without undergoing a competitive public examination. See Mr. Bailey's paper as above. ■"' See loi, 1884, art. 7. 11 Loi, art. 7. 1 Reglements, 1884, p. 54 and seq.
Universities.
Teachers.
Scholarships.
66
[4) Special schools, , including evening schools for primary instruction, and scientific and art schools. (a) Thes'eare so varied In character, and the conditions are so diverse, that reference for information should be mado to the publications hereunder noted, 1 and especially to the recent reports ot the Koyal Commission on Technical Instruction. ■ . - (6) In industrial schools "drawing is the basis of all the instruction, and is regardod as the universal language." (c) Women work schools. , . , _ n n ._ , , (rt) Kemark at International Conference: " As to agriculture, Belgium had proved herself to be, m agricultural matters, the most successful country in Europe." (e) No Polytechnic schools in Belgium, although one annexed to university at Brussels. _ (/) Hut generally noto special promotion of technical instruction in Belgium, winch instruction is f<7) imS sTecfal" sch'ools the following should be mentioned: At (ihont, the special school of civil engineering the special school of arts and mauufaotures, and the school of horticulture; at Lil"e the special school of mining engineering, the school of arts and manufactures, and tho school of electric engineering; at Mons, the provincial school of industry and mining; at Qembloux the State school of agriculture ; at Louvain, the school of agriculture joined to the university ' at Cureghem, the school of veterinary medicine ; at Vilvorde, the school of horticulture ; at Antwerp the upper commercial school; .'» industrial schools; the academies of fine arts in \ntwerp Liege, Brussels, and more than 80 academies or drawing schools ; at Brussels, Liege, and Ghent, tho Boyal Conservatoire of Music, and 02 other conservatoires or music schools ; and at Brussels, the military school and the war school. (5.) There are two State universities under the immediate care of the Government, am ;hc Roman Catholics support one at Louvain. (6.) The following table gives some particulars relative to teachers : —
Pupil-teaohers and Training Colleges. Qualifications. Appointments. Salaries. No pupil-teachers. The State, the provinces, and the communes can establish normal schools. The organization of the normal schools of the State is regulated by the Government. The provincial and communal normal schools, as well as private normal schools, may receive subsidies if they submit to inspection. Several State normal schools, 2 some for training masters and others for mistresses; where tuition gratuitous, and good, and will probably be better. When students' circumstances require it, food supplied. Course three years. Primary schools annexed, where studentteachers practice at least two years, (3J hours (six lessons) weekly, under guidance of master. Gymnastics part of training. 3 Besides the State schools there are three 4 normal schools adopted by the Government. Those Belgian or naturalized persons are to be taken as commune teachers — (a) who have obtained diplomas as primary teachers on graduating from a public normal school, or one subject to State inspection after having attended the course during at least two years; (6) who have obtained diplomas of secondary teaching (second degree). Such teachers may also bo selected from among those who have sucessfully passed an examination for teachers before a Board organized by the Government. 1 No law requiring qualification for other than Government schools. The Communal Council has the power of appointing, suspending, and removing teachers. But removal of teachers can only be effected after approval by the permanent committee. Both the Council and the teachers have the right to appeal to the King. The same rules apply to any suspension which exceeds one month, to any suspension with stoppage of pay, and to placing on the unattached list. Suspension once decreed by the Communal Council cannot bo reviewed by it on the same facts, nor exceed 6 months. The King may, with the favourable advice of the permanent committee, after having heard the teacher and the Communal Council, remove or suspend a commune teacher. He may, under the same conditions, place him on the unattached list." In secondary schools teachers appointed by the King to superior positions, and by Minister to others. Fixed salaries only. Fixed for infant and primary schools by Communal Councils. But there is minimum 6 limit of l,OOOfr. for assistants, and l,200fr. for teachers, besides a house. Those in secondary schools generally not moro than 5,000fr., and in universities professors not more than 7,000fr. Pensions are given.7
BELGIUM.
Main Features. TABULAR STATEMENT RELATING TO SCHOLARSHIPS.
E.—l2
Inspection.
Merits.
Demerits.
The supervision of primary schools is confided to the communal authorities, and to the Government Inspectors. 3 Each province has one or two Inspectors appointable and dismissable by the King ; 3 and such Inspector must visit the schools in his province at least once in two years. 4 Under the Government, Inspectors ai*e cantonal Inspectors, who are nominated by the Government; and they must visit the schools in their several cantons at least once a year. 0 But inspection does not extend to religious and moral instruction, 6 and is regulated by Government. Once, at least, every three months the cantonal Inspector calls together the teachers of his district, and a report on the condition of primary instruction in the district is then addressed to the principal Inspector. Each principal Inspector presides annually at a conference of teachers, and sends in an annual report to the Minister/' All salaries are paid by the State. For secondary schools Inspectors-general and Inspectors 7 are appointed by the Government. There are annual examinations in all schools, 8 regulated by the Government. The school buildings are excellent, 9 and the arrangements for the teaching and comfort of the pupils good. OVER-PRESSURE. I could not hear of over-pressure in Belgium, but one must remember the absence of any compulsory-attendance law. The programmes, however, seemed to contain too many subjects and too much work for proper digestion, 10 but those are incidents not peculiar to Belgium. 11 SUMMARY. There appears to be a good deal worthy of commendation in the Belgian system, for instance— («) The arrangements for communal school government; (p) The absence of pupil-teaching and the provisions for training teachers, including infant-school teachers ; (c) The attention paid to physical training ; 13 and («?) The especial promotion of industrial and art training. But there arc at least three overshadowing defects, namely— (a) Want of consideration for all in the matter of religious teaching ; (b) Absence of any compulsory-attendance law, 13 and (c) Want of protection for children against injurious employment. 1*
Examinations. School buildings, &c.
Over-pressure.
1 See also E.C., vol. 1, p. 25. 2 See loi 26 sept., 1884, art. 10. 3 See loi, 1884, art. 12. 4 See loi, 1884, art. 10. 6 Art. 10 as above. "In Holland they say 'As is your inspector, so is your school.' " —Dr. Philbrick, p. 14, and see also p. 56. 0 See loi, 1884, art. 10. 7 See " Eeglement d'administration concernant les concours," 1884. 8 Note " Eeglement d'administration concernant les concours," 0.P., 1884. lJ See paper on " The construction of Primary Schools," by M. Buls, 1.E.C., vol. 13, pp. 207-213.
10 Note also remarks of M. Suls, 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 182. 11 Prof. Seeley is of opinion that in the English schools there aro too many subjects taught at once, " N.G.," Dec, 1885, art. on "Insular Ignorance," p. 872. Also see p. 51 supra, and Inspector Stewart's evidence, E.E.C., 2367 and 3357 ; remarks on programmes by Dr. Philbrick.—Dr. Philbrick, pp. 56, 59, and seq. ; paper on " Intermediate Education in Ireland," by Dr. Molloy, Trans. Nat. So=. Sc. Assoo., Dublin, 1881, p. 371; and opinions of Eev. Prof. Mahaffy, p. 406, Eev. Prof. Healey, p. 411, and Mr. Chas. Dawson, M.P. " Non multa sed multum." 12 See also 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 161. 1:1 M. Couvreur in 1.E.C., vol. 13, pp. 323, 324. 14 Note R.C., vol. 1, pp. 25, 354, 355, 359, 360.
67
Classes. Conditions of Grant. Amounts. Term. There arc both State and municipal scholarships, and also several private bequest ones. Only granted where student is deserving and needy, as a means towards pursuing higher studies. Those for (a) primary school scholars rango from lOOfr. to 200fr. : those for (6) Royal Athenoeum scholars from 200fr. to 400fr., according to necessities of pupil. (a) In primary schools tenahle for three or four years, provided satisfactory examinations be passed each year j 1 (i) in Royal Athenoeum, tenable for six years. Ni ite.—Scholarships have all so been established in connection with normal schools.
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Summary. Facts therefore warrant at least doubt as to the pre-eminent merit of the system, as a whole. 1 I went to Belgium on three occasions in 1884, enjoyed the opportunity of meeting the Minister of Public Instruction and other educational authorities, and visited, with Dr. Michel Mourlon 2 at Brussels, infant-, primary-, and secondary-schools. I also saw a normal school for training mistresses. I express my thanks to the State authorities for many attentions and opportunities of information; and especially to the Honourable the Premier, M. Beernhacrt, who, in response to a request that the statements in this section might be repcrused, has recently sent to me some valuable notes, which I have incorporated.
Opportunities of judging.
1 Note statistical results by M. Jottrand as above, and remarks of Belgian delegates ; also of— (a) M. Couvreur, vol. 13, pp. 324-32G ;
(b) Mr. Mundella, 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 195. 2 Agrege de l'Universite, membre de VAcademie Koyalo des Sciences.
68
E.—l2
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMEBIC A. 1
INTRODUCTION. When this report was originally forwarded in May, 1885, I wrote as follows : — " I had, until recently, hoped that it would have been practicable to include herein information obtained by me in the United States of America. But, in consequence of the continuous labour that I have found it to be requisite to bestow on the subject of education in Europe—which subject has necessitated close attention from the time I landed in England in January, 1884, up to the present date —it has been impossible as yet for me to visit America. It is still, however, my intention to do so soon; and, if thereupon my views upon national education there materially alter, I will communicate with the Government by sending a supplementary report. It may, however, be stated that the opportunities I have had of personal intercourse with Americans and others intimately acquainted with the subject; the advantages afforded by attendance at the conference last year; and the study of publications, including the latest official ones received by me from the Bureau, Washington, recently, enable me, with some degree of confidence, to arrive at conclusions." Since thus writing, I, in January last (1886), visited the United States ; and, in consequence of personal inquiry and observation, now add more data, and confirm what was previously stated. There are several very interesting questions which may with especial advantage be studied in connection with the United States; and as they are of grave importance, and especially deserving of attention in new communities — such as the Colony— where as yet institutions have not been permanently developed, some of the most prominent are here referred to :— (1.) Whether a system of complete gratuitous State primary education has a demoralizing tendency, as inclining to weaken a sense of parental responsibility and influence ? 2 (2.) Whether the present scope of the popular educational teaching in force—for instance, in Great Britain and the Colony —does not tend to discourage manual pursuits, and thereby retard the general development of the material resources of a country ? 3 (3.) If so, whether the giving of a greater prominence, in a national course of study, to all that which would tend to be useful in the practical development of such resources, would
1 The following official publications (herewith) have been recently received from the Bureau, Washington :— (a) Circulars of Information, 1884— No. 1. Meeting of the International Prison Congress at Rome, in Oct., 1884. No. 2. The Teaching, Practice, and Literature of Shorthand, by J. E. Rockwell. Second and enlarged edition. No. 5, Suggestions respecting the Educational exhibit at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, U.S.A. No. 6. Rural Schools —Progress in the Past; Means of Improvement in the Future. No. 7. Aims and Methods of the Teaching of Physics, by Prof. C. K. Wead, A.M. (b) Circulars of Information, 1885— No. 1. At School Systems in U.S.A., by J. D. Philbrick, LL.D. (herein called Dr. Philbrick). No. 2. Teachers' Institutes. No. 3. A Review of the Reports of the British Royal Commissioners on Technical Instruction, with notes by the late C. O. Thompson, A.M., Ph.D., Pres. of Rose Polytechnic Inst., Indiana. No. 4. Education in Japan. No. 5. Physical Training in American Colleges and Universities, by E. M. Hartwell, Ph.D., and M.D. of John Hopkins University. (c) Report of the Commissioner of Education, U.S.A., for Year ending 30 June, 1884, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1885, which is the last report published (herein termed C. rept., 1885).
In addition I have been favoured with a communication recently from the Bureau, which I have incorporated herein. See also interesting statistics in " Journal of Ed.," London, Oct., 1886, p. 419. For Canada, see— (a) Mr. Mather's rept. on America and Canada, 8.C., vol. 2 (hereafter termed M. rept.), pp. 66-70, and for testimony to its value see R.C., vol. 1, p. 513; 1.E.C., vol. 14, p. 68 ; and Amer. Commr. Rept. on Education for 1882-83, Government Printing Office, 1884 (hereafter termed C. rept., 1884), p, 151, &c.; (b) " Sheffield and Rotherham Independent Newspaper" (hereafter termed S. and R.1.), 23 and 20 Sept., 1884 ; (c) C. rept., 1885, p. 249-253 ; and 1884, p. 252 ; (d) M.C.E.; and (e) Paper on " The Recent and Prospective Development of Canada," read by Mr. J. G. Colmer, at the Royal Colonial Institute, on 17 Jan., 1886 — see "The Colonies and India," 15 Jan, 1886. See " Quarterly Review," April, 1875 —"National Education in America " (hereafter termed Q.R.), pp. 45G and 458. See also R.C., vol. 3, 7783. 1 Seefa) M. rept., pp. 47 and 64; (b) C. rept., 1884, p. 157 ; (c) 1.E.C., vol. 14, espec. pp. 5, 51, 57, 67, and 571; vol. 13, pp. 159 and 162. But note vol. 14, p. 334 ; (d) Prof. Huxley, 8.C., vol. 3, 3001; (e) B.C. rept., vol. 1, pp. 512, 513.
69
E.—l2.
RETORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Introduction. not be distinctly preferable to the larger attention now paid to purely literary attainments P 1 and — (4.) Whether that inventive skill, for which the United States is so renowned, 3 may not be attributed— (a) To the ambition engendered by such democratic institutions as enable even the highest post to be attainable by industry and ability, coupled with (b) That instruction in many schools and systems of schools which provides that stress is laid upon the practical method of conducting investigations for the purpose of verification and of original discovery. 3 It is not within the province of this Report to discuss these questions, but I venture to commend their consideration to those interested in educational progress, and to suggest that no country presents such materials for their solution as the United States, with over 50,000,000 of inhabitants, and with a school population of at least 16,794 v 102. 4 PRINCIPLES. The following are the main principles recognized in the United States as relating to ■ education; — (1.) "The existence of a republic, unless all its citizens are educated, is an admitted impossibility." 5 (2.) " The productive industry of the country is known to have a direct relation to the ' diffusion of educated intelligence therein. 6 . • ■ The modern industrial community cannot exist without free popular education carried out in a system of schools ascending from the '-primary grade to the university." 7 (3.) "By the Constitution of the United States, no powers are vested in the Central Government of the nation, unless the same relate immediately to the support and defence of the whole people, to their intercourse with Foreign Powers, or to the subordination of the 1 several States composing the Union ;" s and, except military education for the army and navy, " further action in aid of education has been limited to endowments in the form of land grants to the several States, 9 or portions thereof, for the purpose of providing a fund for the support of common schools, or to found colleges for the promotion of scientific agriculture and the mechanic arts." " Universities also have been endowed by the United States Government 10 in all the new States since the North-West Territory was organised in 1787. Recently, in 18G7, a Bureau of Education has been established at the seat of Government, and a national Commissioner appointed, who collects statistics and disseminates valuable information relating to all educational subjects." 10 But State rights are so jealously guarded that even the Bureau has no power to insist upon information; and docs not in all cases receive it. 11 (4.) " The free public education of the children of the United States depends everywhere upon the action taken by the several States and by the citizens of those States in the several -localities." 12
Universal education indispensable for existence of a republic.
Belation of productive industry to diffusion of intelligence. Gratuitous popular education necessary to modern industrial community. Limitation of power of Central Government. Endowments by Central Government.
Establishment of Bureau by Central Government.
Gratuitous public education dependent upon State or subordinate action.
'See— (a) " Statement of the Theory of Education in the U.5.," Government Printing-office, 1874 (hereafter termed Statement), p. 17; (6) " Education," Amer. Mag., Nov. and Dec, 1883 : " Technical Training in American Schools," pp. 114-121 ; (c) Last note ; and, since the above text was written— (tf) Speech by the Hon. R. Stout, in House of Reps., 21 July, 1885, p. 14. - See M. rep., p. 64. 3 See Statement, p. 17. * See C. rep., 1885, p. 29. 5 See C. rep., p. 6. e Statement, p. C. Note apparently same conclusions by Swiss and French, supra " Prance " and " Switzerland," and opinion of Montesquieu, also supra " Switzerland." " Knowledge is in every country the surest basis of public opinion."—Washington. " Popular government must have a basis of popular intelligence, or it cannot stand," C. rep., 1885, p. 227. And see " Circular of Information," No. 6, 1884, p. 718. It has been recently said, " America is the only country which spends more upon education than on war or preparation for war. Great Britain does not spend one-third as much, France not more than one-ninth,
or Russia one-twenty-ninth as much on education as on the army." ' Statement, p. 12. 8 Ibid., p. 9. 9 See also— (a) 1.E.C., vol. IC, p. 438; (b) K.0., vol. 3, 77C4 and seq.; (c) Brit. Diplo. Rep., 7 Jan., 1868, pp. HG, 147; and (d) S. and R.I. On " Shall the Federal Government give aid to Popular Education to extirpate Illiteracy ? " and for comments on details of illiteracy, and State taxes, see " The Century," 1 April, 188C, p. 959. 10 Statement, p. 9. For account of estab.,hist., &c, see— (as) " The National Bureau of Education," by Dr. Shiras, Washington Printing Office, 1875 ; (6) "Barnard's Amcr. Journal of Ed.," March, 1880 ; (c) " Eduo.," art. by Dr. Sears, Sept.-Oct., 1880, p. 21. 11 See also C. rep., 1885, p. 29, and 1884, including p. 7. I 12 Statement, p. 6, " In America there is no decree of education issued by the national Government," Gen. John Eaton (now ex-), Commissioner of Ed., 1.E.C., vol. 16, p. 438. See also (a) M. rep., p. 12 ; (b) Dr. R., pp. 8-10. Note similarity to Swiss system, except that in America exclusion of federal interference is more stringent.
70
E.—l2
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Principles. " The general form of the National Government is largely copied in the civil organisation of the particular States, and no powers or functions of an administrative character are ordinarily exercised by the State as a whole, which concern only the particular interests and wellbeing of the subordinate organizations or corporations into which the State is divided for judicial and municipal purposes; but the State usually vests these local powers and functions in the corporations themselves, such as counties, townships, and cities. The power of the State over these local corporations is complete, but they are generally allowed large legislative and administrative powers of a purely local character, while the State ordinarily confines its actions and legislation to matters in which the people of the whole State are interested." 1 (5.) Free common schools arc supported («) "in part by State school funds, accumulated from national grants of land; {b) from appropriations made from the State revenue; and (c) in part by local taxation or assessment made upon those directly benefited by the schools themselves." 2 " Local taxes are the main support of the public schools in a majority of the States." 3 The outlay is by no means at the same ratio in each State. 4 For instance, in Massachusetts it is especially liberal. 5 There, however, the per capita school-tax is higher than in any other State, 6 which is scarcely to be wondered at when we read of a free schoolhouse built with tax-money, costing 750,000 dollars, and when salaries in Boston arc proportionately good. (6.) " The local direction and management of the schools are left to the municipalities, 7 or to the local corporate bodies organised for the special purpose, 8 and a general supervision is reserved to itself by the State." 9 (7.) " The State arranges the school system, and designates the various kinds of schools to be supported and managed by the public authorities, and sometimes prescribes more or less of the branches of knowledge to be taught, provides how districts may be created, divided, or consolidated with others, and how moneys may be raised by or for them; prescribes their organization, officers, and their powers, and the time and manner of filling up and vacating offices, and the functions of each officer; prescribes the school age and- conditions of attendance ; and provides in some cases for the investment and application of the school funds derived from the General Government. The local municipalities organise school districts under State laws, elect school officers, and levy and collect taxes for school purposes. The local school officers examine, appoint, and fix the salaries of teachers when not otherwise done, build schoolhouses, 10 procure school supplies, arrange courses of study, prescribe the rules and regulations for the government of the schools, and administer the schools." 11 Dr. Rigg in 1881, wrote as follows : — " In America one leading principle has obtained very wide acceptance for many years: past. That principle is that, for the citizens of the country who, as individual members of the sovereign people, have both to keep the laws and also to govern each other, so much; education must be provided—and at the nation's cost, so far as need be—as will enable them' to understand the laws of their country, and their own relation to the National Government. The real statesmen of the United States placed the right and duty of national education on
Relative stltes°and°of subordinate corporations.
Sources of common schools,
Local taxes are p ort Respecting ou ay'
Local direction 0 00
Dr. Rigg on a American principle of
1 Statement, pp. 9, 10. i 2 (a) Statement, p. 10 ; (6) C. Rep., 1885, p. BO; (c) " The Century," April, 1886, p. 959. Compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sees. 39, 42, 80. B For details respecting public school funds, including per capita expenditure and taxation, see C. rep., 1885, p. 19-26, 84. See also— (a) M.C.E.; (b) S. and R.1., 21 Oct., 1884 ; (c) Q.R., pp. 457, 458 ; (d) "The Century," April, 188G, p. 959. j For cost per scholar, see S. and R.1., 14 Oct., and 9 and -23 (Canada) Sept., 1884. * For summary of annual income and expenditure in each State and Territory, see C. rep., 1885, pp, 19, 25, 20 and scq. 5 See (a) C. rep., 1885, pp. 19, 23; (6) S. and R.1., 14 Oct. and 9 Sept., 1884; and (c) C. rep., p. 21. " Expenditure for year ending 30 June, 18S4, $19-34, the highest of any State; Georgia, the ' lowest, is but $1-20." » See Dr. Philbrick, p. 106; and on schoolhouscs generally, p. 150. For " Requirements of tho Modern Schoolroom," p. 171. And for subject generally note recent Canadian work and other authorities referred to supra " Great Britain." I
7 For very full official details see "Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education," No. 1, 1885, " City School System in the United States," by John D. Philbrick, LL.D., late Supt. of Boston Schools (hereafter termed Dr. Philbrick), Washington Govt. Print. Office, 1885; and for some particulars concerning Boston, New York, and Chicago, by a British observer, see S. and 8.1., 6 Sept., 4 and 21 Oct., 1884. See also C. rep., 1885. s g ee c. rep., 1885, and " Circular of Information," No. 6, 18 84, " Rural Schools." Outside of official circles, I ] learc i tllc illiteracy of many members of the local I school-governing bodies in country districts complained of as a great hindrance to progress. But J >< aie American school system is largely founded on I the idea of local competency in the management of educational affairs."—Dr. Philbrick, p. 14, where see ful l details. ,„,, , ' atem-nc-10 ote excellent law in Now York, " that no schoolhouse shall be built in the State until the plan of it, so far i as ventilation, heat, and lighting are concerned, shall j llave keen approved by the School Commission of the j district in which such schoolhouse shall bo built."— 0 1 rept., 1885, p. 192. " Statement, p. 11; and see Dr. Philbrick.
71
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Principles. this basis. They never contended that every man in the country was entitled to receive a gratuitous education, graded so as to provide for all that might choose to use it, the highest education to which they might aspire, whether literary, scientific, or technical. A few extreme doctrinaire politicians have of late years broached views which, if they mean anything, would carry their professors to such length as we have now described. But the common sense of the country generally, and especially of the Western States, repudiates with something like indignation such extreme views as these." And again :" It must be remembered, however, and this brings us back to the point from which we started, so far as regards education in the States, that the only really national and characteristic principle which can be asserted as to American education is the constitutional principle, held throughout all the States, that the citizens at large must have provided for them a certain minimum of necessary education, such education being altogether what we in England should call elementary or primary. 5'1 The Americans, however, by no means at present pursue such a restrictive policy. 1 With this reference to principles, I turn to the manner in which they arc carried out. But the range of country is so immense, and the social conditions so diverse, that it is difficult to make general statements applicable to the States as a whole. The condition of education in each State or Territory must be judged on its merits. 2 DIFFICULTIES OF ADMINISTRATION. Very great allowances must be made in view of (a) the coloured-race element 3 —a result of the abolition of slavery, whereby some additional millions became entitled to claim State rights—and (b) of the vast number of immigrants of various nationalities continually pouring in, to whom the system of the majority has to be adapted. 4' These facts colour State laws and administrations, and explain much that would be otherwise inexplicable. GRATUITOUS, SECULAR, AND COMPULSORY FEATURES. (1.) Primary schools afford gratuitous instruction/'—may be termed secular—and attendance is not as a rule compulsory ; 6 and even where compulsory, is only so for a limited term. 7 In high schools instruction is generally free; indeed in Boston " tuition at primary, grammar, high Latin, and evening schools, is gratuitous, and also all books and supplies are free." 8 " Sectarian instruction is not given in the public schools. It is quite a common prac-
Gratuitous
Religious instruction.
' See Dr. E., pp. i and 8; also E.C., vol. 3, 7783. But see Dr. Philbrick, p. 27; and 0. rep., 1885, pp. 30, 125-127, 131, 132, 481-591. And for superior education of women, p. 135 and seq. 2 For details relating to each State and Territory, see 0. rep., 1885, p. 4 and seq. 8 See C. (1884) rep., p. 55 ; and 1885, table showing comparative white and coloured race statistics, p. 53 and seq., and 59. This element swells the statistics of illiteracy, and complaints were made to me at the Bureau that, in consequence, false impressions obtain outside the United States in respect of the value of the American system. See, for instance, Kentucky, C. rept., 1885, p. 97. Note curious race laws in various States : thus, in Kentucky, " No tax may bo levied upon the property, or poll, or any services be required of any white person to aid in building or repairing a schoolhouse for the use of coloured children; and the same provision is made to exempt the coloured people from aiding the whites."—C. rept., 1885, p. 99. For interesting notice of benefit to negroes of education see " Sunday at Home," May, 18S6, p. 296. * But note 1.E.C., vol. IG, p. 182 and 183. Respecting sparselj'-settled sections of country where districts cannot combine their resources, see C. rept., 1885, p. 37. • Seo Statement. For original effects, see Q.E., p. 457. " Gratuity of instruction is a feature of our school system, for which we may claim a merit of a peculiar character.—Dr. Philbrick, p. 103. Again— " Tuition in all public schools, whether elementary or high, is with us absolutely gratuitous. Public schools
arc free schools. This is, without doubt, the distinctive characteristic of our system, of which we have the greatest reason to be pvoud."—pp. 103 and 104. 15 See Table, pp. 81, 82. This is admitted by (now ex-) Commissioner Eaton to be a defect. He says: "It is, however, the opinion of the most competent authorities in the matter, that a judicious and effectual obligatory system is necessary as a means of accomplishing the rudimentary education of all children. The absence of such a system is regarded, and properly regarded, as the ohief cause of insufficient school attendance." —"Journal of Ed.," Oct., 1886, p, 420. And see C. rep., 1885, p. 85. i See Table, pp. 81, 82, and compare with N.Z. Act, 1877 ss. 55 and 84, s.s. 2, and s. 95 ; and 1885 Act, ss. 3-5. BS. and E.1., G Sept., 1884. For full details, see Dr. Philbrick, espec. pp, 22 and 195. But Massachusetts is considered by many the model State. See, for instance— (a) G. rept., 1885, pp. 8G and 128 and seq. ; and S. and R.1., 14 Oct., and G and 9 Sept., 1884, for details Boston school system. For details Philadelphia system, see 7 Oct., and G. rep., 1885, pp. 89, 85 and sew. ; (b) R.G., vol. 3, 7812 ; (c) Dr. R., p. 5. But see Q.E., p. 447, and S. and E.I. The law, however, has been lately altered to this extent —"heretofore school books and other material have been furnished to pupils in the public schools of that State, and the price taken out of the next annual tax. Now select committees are required to purchase the necessary text books, and loan them to pupils free of charge."—C. rept., 1885, p. 31. For Maine, p. 112 ; Maryland, p. 119.
72
E.—l2.
THE UNITED STATES OP AMEEICA.
Gratuitous, Secular, and Compulsory Features. tice to open or close the public schools with Bible-reading and prayer. 1 Singing of religious hymns by the entire school is still more common." 2l ;i The influence of the schools is wholly on the side of morality and religion. Religious teaching, however, is entirely entrusted to church and family agencies ; but the Commissioner informs me that these maintain very full provision for the work. The lloman Catholics, however, —as do the Dutch Reformed and Episcopal Churches, — maintain extensively denominational schools. 4' Indeed, it has been said " that the higher education of the States in all departments is in fact given for the most part, not in taxsupported schools or ' common ' schools of whatever grade, but in self-supporting voluntary schools, whether public or private." J In truth, arrangements for religious teaching are a source of discontent in the United States ; fl especially to the Roman Catholics. They are not upon a basis which satisfies ail, or virtually all ; and cannot be deemed permanent. 7 It may be worth remembering that, in writing upon " National Education in America," the " Quarterly Review" of April, 1875, states, " in no country, indeed, as yet has it been found possible to maintain, permanently, a system of unsectarianly Christian common schools against the pleas and persistence of the Roman Catholics." 7 The majority of the States and Territories have no compulsory laws ; 8 and where such laws exist they arc not uniform, and the obligatory terms are very limited. 8' 9 The table at the end of this section supplies particulars also respecting employment of uneducated children. 10 " The attempt has been made in a number of cities to maintain special schools for ' wastrels,' but the more general practice is to gather them so far as possible into the regular schools, and make such allowance for them as their circumstances require." 11 An American authority asserts — "enlightenment, not coercion, is our resource;" 13 but the results are unsatisfactory, 13 although the desire that children attend school may be great. 1* Of the school population on 30 June, 1881, of 10,791,402, there are only 10,738,192 enrolled in the public 16 and 605,517 lfi in the private schools : with but an average attendance in the public schools of 0,093,928. 13 So that nearly one-third of the school children of the country arc out of school altogether, 1" and only a little more than three-fifths of those enrolled on the public registers are in regular attendance. As a result of non-attendance, and of irregular attendance, there are according to late returns, 0,239,958 illiterates over ten years
Compulsory laws.
'At Boston. Schools opened every morning by reading portion of Scripture without note or comment; and there are no other religious exercises. S. and R.1., G Sept., 1884. For Philadelphia, S. and R.1., 7 Oct., 1884. For Kansas, C. rep., 1885, p. 91. In Dakota, " the Bible may not bo excluded from any public school, nor decried a sectarian book ; and the law requires that the highest standard of morals shall be taught."—C. rep., 1885, pp. 292 and 293. 2 See Statement, p. 18. 8 But see (a) 1.E.C., vol. IG, p. 183; and (6) Dr. E., pp. 5-7. * See also Q.R., p. 445. » Seo Dr. R., p. G. 0 See also (a) Statement, p. 18 ; and (6) Q.R., pp. 445 and 446. 7 Seo Q.R., pp. 445 and 446. Seo also Dr. E., p. 7; and also Lord Macaulay's remarks on the polity and power of the Church of Rome, and of her possible undiminished vigour " when some traveller from New Zealand shall, in the midst of a vast solitude, take his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to sketch the ruins of St. Paul's."—Essays, &c, 1885, p. 542. The Commissioner claims, however, that "religious friction as an accompaniment of the educational work, is local and spasmodic ; and so far has been easily met and overcome." • C. rep., 1884, p. 30 and seq., and Table pp. 81, 82 infra. Note contrast espec. between American and German systems. See also Dr. R., p. 9, and espec Dr. Philbrick, p. 185. Note discussion at Kentucky State Teachers' Association, 2G and 2S Dec, 1883. "In the course of the discussion the question of compulsory education camo up, but did not seem to be well received, some approving and some opposing."—C. rep., 1885, p. 103. 6 Compare Table pp. 81, 82 infra at end of this section, with N.Z. 1877 Act, sees. 89 and 95 ; and 1885 Act, sees. 6-8. 10—E. 12.
|10 See C. rep., 1884, p. 30 and scq. See also— (a) See rep., 1885 ; (6) M. rep., pp. 13-15 ; (c) S. and R.1.; (d) Ciroulat of Information, on Compulsory Education, issued by Bureau, containing history, opinions, &c, p. 10; (e) Q.R., p. 425. 11 See G. rep., 1885, p. BG, whore there arc some details of the work. 15 Horace Mann ; see " Education," Sept. and Oct., 1880, p. 3G ; and see mode adopted at Boston, S. and 1t.1., 6 Sept., 1884. 1n C. rep., 1885, pp. 13 and 27; and 1884, pp. 15, 77, and 293. See also— (a) 1.E.C., vol. 16, pp. 182, 183, and 211; vol. 14, p. 574; (6) S. and R.1., 14 Oct., 1884 ; but seo 21 Oct., 1884 ; (c) London Daily Telegraph, 19 March, 1885; id) Q.R., pp. 430 and 431; and espec. (e) Ex-Commissioner Eaton's opinion. — "Journal of Ed.," 1 Oct., 1886, p. 420. See also— (/) G. rep., 1885, p. 85. " See for instance— (a) M. rep., p. 17 ; (6) Dr. R. rep., p. 6 ; (c) S. and 8.1., 21 Oct. and G Sept., 1884. 15 O. rep., 1885, pp. 13 and 27. "But, speaking of cities, it appears evident that an average attendance at schools, public and private, of not less than 90 per cent, of the youth included in the ordinary ages of school attendance should be maintained."—C. rep., 1885, p. 84. 18 0. rep., 1885, pp. 13 and 27. See also S. and R.1., 14 Oct., 1884, and compare with N.Z. Ninth Annual Rep., 1886. But in some States the average is much more or much less : thus New York, 90 per cent, of those enrolled.— C. rep., 1885, 196. Maryland and Virginia instances of much less, pp. 118 and 277.
73
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Gratuitous, Secular, and Compulsory Features. of age, and tlicy increased largely between 1870 and 1880, the date of the last census; 1 which figures " will probably startle some who have too hastily assumed that America is an educated paradise." 2 Agents of truancy are employed in some States to assist in enforcing compulsory laws, and truancy is punished in certain States by the Courts. 3 Next to the absence of an effectual obligatory system, inadequate school accommodation is stated by the Bureau to be the potent cause of insufficient school attendance. 4 SCHOOL AGE. " There arc eighteen different legal school ages in the States and Territories; the longest, extending from four years of age to twenty-one, covers a period of seventeen years, and the shortest, from eight years of age to sixteen, a period of eight years. " J The average is from a little over five and a-half years to nearly nineteen and a-half years. But it is stated that the actual school age of the pupil generally begins at six years, and ends 8 at fifteen or sixteen. 7 Cramming, as producing " over-pressure," has been loudly complained of, even by prominent physicians and educationalists. 8 School libraries are encouraged in some States, 9 and teachers' libraries are not unknown. 10 SCHOOLS. 11 The schools for ordinary courses of study consist of 13 — (1.) Primary schools; (2.) Grammar schools ; (3.) High schools; 13 (4.) Colleges; and (5.) Universities. There are also night and half-time 14 schools. The usual ages for frequenting day schools are 15 —
ages in States and Territories.
Over-pressure.
.
Classes of day schools.
Ages for frequenting schools.
1 See— (a) C. rep., 1885, pp. 6 and 229 ; 1884, pp. 15, 77, and 293; (b) 1.E.C., vol. IG, pp. 182, 183, and 211, and vol. 14, p. 574; (c) S. and R.1., 14 Oct., 1884; but see 21 Oct., 1884; (d) London Daily Telegraph, 19 Mar., 1885 ; (e) " Q.R., p. 425. 2 But the coloured-race difficulty must not bo overlooked, see supra,, and C. rep., 1884, p. 55, and 1885, Table p. 53 and seq., and 59. Note, for instance, Kentucky, p. 97. s For instance, note their work in New York—C. rep., 1885, p. 196, and Rhode Island, pp. 243, 244, 248. 4 See statement by the (now ex-) Commissioner.—■ " Journal of Ed.," London, 1 Oct., 1880, p. 420. 6 For details, including summary of school age, population, enrolment, attendance, &c, see C. rep., 1885, pp. 10-16, 27, 29, 66 and seq., and compare with 1884, p. 16. But see—■ (a) M. rep., p. 17, and see p. 48; (b) S. and E.1., 9 Sept., 1884 ; (c) Statement, p. 19. For compulsory school ages see Table infra at end of this section. 6 The ago mentioned to mo at the Bureau was fifteen. Compare with New Zealand 1887 Act, s. 83. ' Statement, p. 19 ; and see Dr. R., p. 5. Note, however, M. rep., p. 48. When discussing the question of illiteracy at the Bureau, it was stated to me that it was only fair to remember that the actual school age population is much less than the legal school age population. 8 For instance, seo Dr. Philbrick, p. 29; and especially as affecting female pupils. But Dr. R. M. Hodges, in his recent address before the Massachusetts Medical Society, said: "The alleged over-pressure in school is in the main a fallacious assumption. Sound study is an advantage, if the general rules of health are attended to, and for one youthful person injured by excessive application there are a hundred whose physical condition is deteriorated by want of wholesome mental exercise. The special provocatives
of ' delicate health ' in females are in great mcasuro social. The deleterious influences of a multiplicity of engagements, of the exacting demands of ambitious fashion and gaiety—and not unfrequcntly an early betrothal—are intensified by the capacity for endurance which belongs to the so-called weaker sex." 9 For instance, New Jersey, C. rep., 1885, p. 185 ; and see Now York, p. 192. 10 See, for instance, Pennsylvania, C. rep., 1885, p. 233. 11 For full details see Dr. Philbriek; and for statistical summary of institutions, instructors, and students from 1874 to 1884, see C. rep., 1885, p. 8, and 1884, p. 12. For building and apparatus, see C. ropt., 1884, p. 30, and 1885, p. 931 and seq., Dr. Philbrick, pp. 156, 166, and 171. And for subject generally note recent Canadian publication, and other authorities referred to supra, " Great Britain," and " Circular of Information," No. 5, 1884, respecting Educational Exhibits. In the Indian territory "most of the teachers are educated Indians who teach only English in the schools. The Gherokees have two fine seminaries, managed and operated by themselves." —C. rep., 1885, p. 301. '2 See (a) C. rep., 1884, pp. 12 and 85 ; (b) M. rep., p. 12 ; (c) S. and R.1., 14 Oct., ana 6 and 9 Sept., 1884 ; (d) Dr. R., p. 5. 13 See also C. rep. 1885, and Dr. Philbriok, especially pp. 22 and 35; and for higher education of women also see— (a) C. rep., 1885, pp. 13C, 146, 605, and 622. (6) 1.E.0., vol. 15, especially pp. 388-393, 397-399, 400--402, and 405-407. On subject generally see paper on the " Higher Education of Women," by Mrs. Bycrs, Principal of Ladies' College, Belfast, Trans. Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881 (hereafter termed Mrs. Byers's paper). 14 Note, for instance, the provision in Pennsylvania, C. rep., 1885, p. 229 ; and see M. rep., p. 13. 16 M. rep., pp. 12 and 13. But note— (a) R.C., vol. 3, p. 494 ; (6) Ages in Boston schools, S. and R.1., 6 Sept., 18S4, and Q.R., pp. 448-454.
74
E.—l2.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Schools. Class of School. Ago of Frequenting. | j Primary schools ... ... j 6 — 9 — 10 1 Grammar schools ... ... 10 — 14< — 15 High schools ... ... : 10 — 15 — 17 — 18 " Infant schools do not enter into the theory of American school organisation," 3 but in some places there are voluntary infant schools conducted upon the Kindergarten method. 8 These schools arc gratuitous, and are rapidly increasing; and the Boards encourage and, in some instances at least, assist. 4 The method has been also introduced to a certain extent into the public primary school system for children not over seven ; and apparently with satisfactory results. 5 On the 30 June, 1881, there were 35i Kindergarten, having 831 teaehers and 17,002 pupils. 6 As a rule in primary schools both sexes are taught together, 7 but the playgrounds are separate. There are, however, some noteworthy exceptions to the rule, including Boston, a model school place, 8 where mixed schools appear to be the exception; whilst at Philadelphia there are none. 9 " The cardinal studies of the common school are 10 reading and writing, 11 grammar, arithmetic, 13 geography; the first two look towards mastery over spiritual combination, the latter two over material combination. The common school aims to give the pupil the great arts of. receiving and communicating intelligence. Drawing and vocal music 13 arc taught quite gene-1 rally, and the rudiments of natural science are taught orally in most city schools. Declamation of oratorical selections is a favourite exercise, and is supposed to fit the youth for public and political life." 1* The length of the school term varies greatly, ranging from 210 days in Arizona to 78: days in Tennessee, 15 so that in some States schools are not open except for a little more than' two months in the year. " The school sessions are usually longer in the colder climates." 10 The ordinary school hours are from 9 a.m. to noon, and 1 to 4 p.m.—with a recess of a' quarter of an hour in each period 17—for five days in a week.
Infant schools.
Primary education.
Studies of common school.
Aim of common school.
Length of school term.
, School hours.
1 But see Dr. Philbriek, p. 153 and seq. 2 Q.8., p. 445, and see Dr. Philbrick, p. 49; see also Dr. E., p, 5. But for Infant Asylums, see C. rep., 1885. 8 Sec also C. rep., 1885, p. 120 and seq., for full details ; and Dr. Philbrick, p. 47. " Froebel's system of infant training appears to be peculiarly fitted to overcome the influence of inherited vicious propensities and physical infirmities." —C. rept., 1885, p. 120. * For details and statistics see— (a) C. rep., 1885, p. 123 and seq., and 1884, p. 105 and seq.; (b) S. and E.1., 9 Sept., 1884 ; and (c) London Daily Telegraph, 19 Mar., 1885. 8 Seo (a) C. rep., 1885, p. 120, and seq., and 1884, p. 107; (b) M. rep., p. 13 ; (c) 1.E.C., vol. 13, pp. 352-354. " Inquiry is constantly arising as to the prospect of the Kindergarten becoming a feature of our public school system," &c—C. rep., 1885, p. 123. Observe the following notification issued by the Education Department in Wisconsin: "It being very in- * jurious to children under school ago (i.e., below six years) to admit them into schools and to give them the same education as children of school age, the Government of each fu or ken shall cause such children to be trained according to the Kindergarten system."—C. rep., 1885, p. 124. s C. rep., 1885, p. 119, where see further details. ' Opinion on this subject is divided in the State; see, for instance, Oregon, G. rep., 1885, p. 220. 6 Compare— (a) Statement, p. 17 ; (b) M. rep., p. 13 ; (c) S. and E.1., 9 Sept., 1884; and C. rep., 1884, p. 83, and 1885, pp. 87, 88, 94, 95, and 129-131. 0 See S. and E.1., 7 Oct., 1884. 11 In small towns where separate schools for both sexes cannot bo maintained, under careful supervision no objection can be taken to the education of boys and girls together."—See Mrs. Byers's paper, p. 419. 10 See Statement, p. 15. 11 Note estimate of reading and writing, Statement, p. 15. 13 Note preference given to arithmetic and then geography, Statement, p. 15.
13 See also 1.E.C., vol. 13, pp. 455, 450. In Minnesota special teachers arc employed in music, drawing, and penmanship, throughout, and in the German language for the fifth grade. Phisiology has been dropped from the course of study below the high school." —C. rep., 18S5, p. 153. Also see Nebraska, p. 172. As many as GOO American girls are studying music in Milan.—" Young Ladies' Journal," Sept., 1880, p. 154. 14 See Statement, pp. 15, 10. Note also— la) C. rep., 1884, pp, 79-83 ; (6) D.8., p. 5 ; (c) Q.R., p. 457 ; (d) " Circular of Information," No. 6, 1884, " Bural Schools," p. 21 and seq. ; and espec. (e) Dr. Philbrick, p. 51; (/) Infra, Summary Table 82*. " Power of speech has naturally played a great part in the world ; and a much greater part than it ought to play, or would play if experience wo = allowed a fair chance, and wisdom had its due."—Bev. E. Thring, M.A., ".Journal of Ed.," June, 188.6, London. But for full details with valuable comments on additional subjects and programmes, see Dr. Pbilbrick, pp. 51, 59 and seq., and 147; sewing, 89-99; gymnastics, 99; and see Circular No. G as above. Compare with N.Z. subjects of study, table p. 17* in "Great Britain." For gymnastics see also 1.E.C., vol. 13, pp. 349-372, and 385-388. For course of study for rural schools, see Circular No. 6 as above, and C. rep., 1884, p. 29. " C. rep., 1885, p. 29, see also— (a) Dr. 8., p. 8; (b) Q.R., p. 442, and note half-time system in country districts, mentioned in M. rep., p. 13. 10 Statement, p. 19. 17 For remarks on " Eecess and No Recess," see report to Nat. Council of Education, Wis., July, 1884; C. rep., 1885, pp. 96 and 311, and result in New York of omitting recess, p. 192. But note abolition of recess in New Jersey, and the reasons, p. 187. Note also Dr. Philbrick, p. 150. On the benefit of " Intervals in School Work," see testimony in "Journal of Educ," London, May, 1880, p. 208, and Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., p, 11.
75
E—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Sdwols. Physical training is neglected, "free gymnastics" and "vocal gymnastics" being tlie only muscular exercises in primary schools, and they arc not practised in even all the city institutions. 1 " The secondary education 3 carried on in high schools/' academies, and seminaries to the studies of the common school adds," on the side of tho theoretical command of material ni3ans — " (a) Algebra, geometry, calculus, raid some form of engineering (surveying, navigation, &c.) ; (6) natural philosophy or physics 4 (i.e. nature quantitatively considered) ; (c) physical geography or natural history (nature organically considered). On the side of the humanities— (a) Rhetoric, (b) English literature, (c) Latin 8 (the basis of the English vocabulary, as regards generalisation and reflection, as well as social refinement), (d) a, modern language (commonly German or French)," &c. 6 High schools would thus seem to have, at all events as a rule, a science division, as distinct from a Latin or English division. 7 Military drill, in addition to other physical training, is given in many of these schools. 8 Astronomy in the larger cities is taught in high schools. 0 "The high schools generally form a portion of the free public school system; 10 the academies and seminaries are generally founded and supported by private enterprise or religious zeal, and are not controlled or interfered with by the State, although many of them are chartered by it and are free from taxation." 10 They are numerous, even more so than, possibly, might be inferred from some of the official publications. 11 In grammar and high schools the new prominence given to drawing is noteworthy, 1- and indeed, the attention paid to it in all American schools appeal's to be marked. 13 A notable feature in public schools in America is the absence, to a great extent, of corporal punishment; 11 and it is sai:!, "the best teachers as a rule resort to it least." 10 In city schools " great stress is laid upon punctuality, regularity, attention, and silence." 10 " The general system of instruction lays special emphasis on the use of text-books, &e.; 1? but in many schools and systems of schools equal or greater stress is laid upon the practical method of conducting investigation for the purpose of verification and of original discovery." 17 "The highest form of school education is found in the colleges and universities scattered through the country, some under the control and support of the State, but far the greater number founded and supported by religious denominations or private endowment, and tuition fees from the students. All, or nearly all of them, are chartered by the State, and their property is exempt from taxation. These institutions support one or more of the following courses : (a) Academic course, generally of four years, a continuation of the secondary education, as herein described, embracing a course in Latin and Greek, French and German, higher mathematics and some of their applications, the general technics of the natural sciences, and also of the social and political sciences, belles lettrcs, and universal history, logic, metaphysics, and moral philosophy; (b) a scientific school; (c) a law school; (d) a medical school; (e) a theological seminary; (/) a normal school (for the training of teachers; this is seldom found in State universities, but is usually a separate institution, founded by
Physical training.
Secondary education.
General absence of corporal punishment.
Use of textbooks.
Colleges and universities.
Their courses.
1 " Gymnasiums for grammar and primary schools arc, it is believed, wholly wanting. This is a grave defect in our city system of education," Dr. Philbrick, p. 100; and for general remarks, p. 99. Again, "as yet our provisions for physical education are very inadequate," p. 101. Dr. Philbrick's remarks upon "Fire Drill " are worthy of note, p. 101. But see 1.E.C., vol. 13, espec. pp."349-37G and 385. 2 For explanation of term see C. rep., 1884, pp. 215, IG9 and seq. For comparative summary of number of institutions, with very full details, see 0. rep., ISBS, p. 125 and seq, 8 See also— la) C. rep., 1885 ; {b) S. and EL, 7 Oct., 1884 ; (c) Q.E., pp. 449-454. 1 See " Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education," No. 7, 18S4, " Aims and Methods of the Teaching of Physios," by Prof. C. K. Wead, A.M., of the University of Michigan. s See also S. and E.1., 7 Oct., 1884. e See Statement, p. 1C; C. rep., 1884, pp. 118, 119 ; and Dr. Philbrick, espec. pp. 23 and 199. ' See M. rep., p. 13. 6 Note that Dr. Philbrick strongly recemmonds its general introduction, Dr. Philbrick, p. 103. " Circular oE Information," No. 5, 1885, "Physical Training in
American Colleges and Universities," by E. M. Hartwell, Ph. D., M.D., of John Hopkins University, Washington Govt. Printing Office, ISSG, deserves attention. The chapter on "Physical Training in Germany" should not be overlooked. 0 See M. rep., p. 14. 10 See also C. rep., 1835, and Dr. Philbrick, espee. p. 23; and for curious association at Boston, see S. and 1t.1., 9 Sept , ISS4. " Sec Statement, pp. 17, G7, 08; C. rep., 1834, p. 117; and Dr. Philbrick, espec. p. 23. 12 See (a) M. rep., espec. pp. 13, 14, and 19; (6) E.0., vol. 3, 4, 339 and scq. ; (c) S. and 8.1., 6 Sept., 1884 ; and (</) 0. rep., ISB4, p. 84. 13 Compare with K.Z. regs. of 16 Juno, 1885, see table 17*, in " Great Britain," supra. u See (a) M. rep. (b) S. and R.1., 14 Oct., 1884 (and note effect) ; (a) But see S. and E.1., 6 Sept., 1884, and (b) Statement, p. 14. Note discussion and resolution for abolishment, at State Teachers' Assoo., Cal., Dec, 2G-28, 1883, C. rep., 1885, p. 25; and see New York, p. 194. '• fee, for instance, Rhode Island, C. rep., 1885, p. 245. '6 See Statement, p. 14. 17 Sec Statement, p. 17.
76
E.— -t
THE UNITED STATES OF AMEKICA.
ScJiools. the State or municipality). The academic course is the college course proper; wlien united to the others, it forms a university."' " The State system of education generally includes a university." 3 In both the universities and colleges science teaching is a prominent feature. 3 " Free evening schools are common in cities, to provide means of improvement for '. adults and for youths who are prevented from attending the day schools by reason of some useful employment.* 1' Special attention is given in them to reading, writing, arithmetic, and to certain industrial studies, such as book-keeping, line drawing," &c. 3 But these schools are not a success ; and " the chief cause of their inefficiency seems to have been due to the inferior qualifications of the teachers employed in them." 0 The plan of study, in addition to elementary industrial drawing, " is generally adapted! to that class represented by the children of immigrants, or those boys and girls who for some1 cause have not attended regularly at the public schools, and who, on going to work, find it necessary to work up deficiencies." fl Technical instruction''' is too important a subject to be lightly touched upon. Moreover/ it is unnecessary even to do so, because the publications herewith 8 supply ample information. 1 I therefore only point out— (fl) That evidently great attention is devoted to colleges of agriculture 9 and mechanics, in which in many cases the sexes arc educated together; {b) The commencement of the blending of mental and manual instruction in primary schools ; 10 (e) The feature of certain gratuitous evening industrial and drawing 11 schools, where books and supplies are free; and («*) The fact that art schools arc not numerous. 13 An outline of the requirements of a system for the industrial education of a nation has been prepared by Prof. Thurston, and it appears to be well worthy of consideration. 13 SUPERINTENDENTS. There arc Superintendents, who correspond somewhat to our Inspectors; but they arc 6 political officers, are generally ill-paid, and their duties arc more extensive. 11' They do not, in the majority of cases, give the whole of their time to their official duties; indeed, " many Superintendents have to combine other business with their schoolwork in order to make a living." The system of inspection is not yet satisfactory. 10
Night schools,
Plan of study in '° so 10° s'
Technical mstructlon'
Superintendents.
1 Statement, pp. 10, 17. See also M. rep., pp. 17, 18. For details and statistics sec— (a) C. rep., 1885 and ISB4, p. 137 and scq. ; (b) 1.E.C., vol. 10, pp. 209-212 : vol. 13, p. 350 and seq., 357 and seq., 375 and seq. ; (c) M. rep., espec. pp. 14, 17-20 ; and R.C., vol. 3, 77G0 and scq. ; (<!) M.O.E. : For summary of statistics ef universities and colleges, see C. rep., 1885, p. 156 and seq. ; and for special provisions for instruction of women, p. 130,137, and index. 8 For details of evening schools, elementary and high, Bee Dr. Philbrick, espec. p. 32; and see Statement, p. 18; and note— la) S. and R.1., G Sept., 1884 ; (6) C. rep., 1885. 4 "Indeed in Massachusetts, under n, law of ISB3, towns and cities with 10,000 or more inhabitants p*re required ! to maintain evening schools."—C. rep., 1885, p. 132. i 6 Dr. Philbrick, p. 33 ; but note other causes, pp. 33, 34. c M. rep., p. 14; and note also gratuitous morning schools for licensed minors, S. and R.1., 0 Sept., 1884. 1 For definitions of, and distinctions between, " non- j technical or general education," "technical education," and "industrial education," see Dr. Philbriok, p. 09; and for definition of "apprentice school," p. 84. 8 See (a) Dr. Philbrick, p. G'J. (6) "Industrial Education in United States," special rep. prepared bv the U.S. Bureau of Ed., 1883; (c) C. rep., 1885, p. 101 and seq. ; and 1884, pp. 147,157; (d) M. rep. and R.C., vol. 3, espee, 4339 and scq., 7760--7785, 7813 (for review, see Circular No. 3, 1885) ; (e) 1.E.C., vol. 14, pp. 52-68 ; (/) S. and 8.1., 11 Sept., ISB4 ; ifj) Lord Brabazon, "Time," May, 18S0, pp. 547-049, j "The need of National, Industrial, and Technical i Training." On gratuitous features, see R.C., vol. 3, 7783.
I '■' The arrangements in these colleges appear to bo emi liently practical. For instance, in the State Agricultural College of Vermont thero is a special winter course for young men who cannot leave their farms in summer ant"! fall. The topics in the course are : Agricultural chemistry, botany, physics, entomology, stock-breeding, dairying, fruit-culture, road-making, farm accounts, and bee-culture. Representatives of the college co-operate with the State Board of Agriculture in attending fanners' meetings during the winter, giving special attention to fertilizers with reference to experiments conducted by the college on farms throughout the State.—C. rep., 1885, pp. 20'J, 270. 10 See G. rep., 1835, p. Oi and scq., espec. 90, and Dr. Philbrick, p. 09; S. and R.1., 6th Sept., 1884. But see 8.C., vol. 3, 7783, and "The Century," April, 1880, " Defective Industrial System in U.S.A." Prof. Ordway, at Nat. Ed. Association, Wis., July, 1884, "not only took the ground that manual trailing should be a part of general education, but specially advocated the introduction of handwork in wood and iron into public schools."—C. rep., 1885, p. 90. 11 See Dr. Philbrick, pp. 37-38, 40, G'J and scq., and espec. 79. " See M. rep. However, " last year over 500 women attended the classes in industrial art of the Co-operative Union in New York."—" Young Ladies' Journ.," Mar., 18SC, p. 148. It was said at Amer. lust, of Ed., at its 54th annual meeting, 11-13 July, 1883, by the Super, of Public Instruction, Now Hampshire: "Our systems of instruction have come down to us strong on the intellectual side, but weak on the practical."—C. rep., 1885, p. 312. n See C. rep., 1884, p. 159. II For full details,with valuable comments and suggestions, see C. rep., 1885, p. 30 and seq., and Dr. Philbrick, pp. 52, 181. 13 0. rep., 1885, p. SO and seq., and p. 270,
77
E.—l2.
fiEPOET UPON STATE EDUCATION.
TEACHERS. 1 The organization in respect of teachers 2 is defective: although the best blood in America is said to teach in the schools. The Americans " have not in any State/' it is reported, "devised a means of giving all the teachers of the public schools a fair measure of professional training, so that many teachers are to be found with little scholarship and little skill in teaching, &c. 3 The last official report, however, states " the efforts made within the past few years to improve the teaching force of the country schools has had some degree of success. It is now required in all the States that candidates for the service shall pass the examination for a teacher's certificate, or present the diploma of a normal school. 4 There were, according to the more recent returns, 255 (127 public and 128 private) normal schools, having 1,937 instructors, 5 and G0,063 students. 6 They are spread over all the States, save Delaware, Louisiana, Nevada, and South Carolina; but the teaching in them is not always satisfactory, 7 and is frequently for too short a term. 8 The appliances for teaching sciences, however, are good. 9 Tuition is not gratuitous in the case of all schools, or of all students at schools where there are gratuitous pupils; but free tuition is very general. 10 Although no teacher can receive public money unless certificated, yet the character and conduct of the examinations of teachers do not, as a rule, seem to be satisfactory, 11 nor are certificates always wisely granted, or appointments invariably made according to merit. 12 This is not without effect upon the teachers, for in a country where rents, and indeed living generally, are notedly high, salaries are disproportionately low. 13 There are, however, very handsome exceptions. For instance, in Boston (Massachusetts again) there are reported to be at least 100 free school-teachers, head-masters, who have each a salary of nearly 4,000 dollars; and about 100 women free school-teachers, who have each 2,800 dollars ; 14 whilst in New York city the salaries range " from 3,000 dollars down to 400 dollars for junior female teachei's of one year's experience." " In the city schools, female teachers largely preponderate, composing frequently 90 per cent, of the entire corps of teachers. In country schools the proportion is very much smaller, but has increased considerably in late years." 15 The reasons given are : " The female character being trained by experience in family supervision to the administration of special details wherein division of labour does not prevail to any great extent, is eminently fitted to control and manage the education of a child while it is in a state of transition from caprice to rationally regulated exercise of the will j and the development of individuality is generally more harmonious up to a certain age if the pupil is placed under female teachers. The com-
Defective organization. Defective normal school teaching.
Certifications and appointments of teachers not alwa)'s satisfactory. Salaries,
Female teachers largely preponderate.
1 For instructive particulars respecting training, and normal schools, see Dr. Philbrick, p. 41 and seq. But espec. Circulars of Information of Bureau, No. 2,1885, Teachers' Institutes (herein termed " Teachers' Institutes"), Washington Govt. Printing Office, 1885, particularly p. 71 and seq. The views of the 25th annual meeting of Nat. Ed. Assoc, held at Topeka, Kansas, on 13-16 July, 1880, at which 7,000 teachers are estimated to have been present should be noted.—Sec Journ. of Ed., 1 Sept., London, 1886, p. 370. ! Note Teachers' Institutes, p. 7, and No. G Circulars, 1884, Rural Schools, p. 13 and seg. 8 Seo 0. rep., 1884, p. 99, rep. by Dr. McLellan,-*" some years ago the Commr.'s own estimate was that 3 per cent, of American teachers were trained;" rep., 1872, p. 29, and C. rep., 1885, p. 40; Dr. R., p. 10 ; and see Q.R., pp. 422, 437, 455. Seo also Dr. Philbriok, p. 110. " The Amer. Journ. of Ed. says that the numbers that graduate from the normal schools of the country, public and private, each year are less than 5 per cent, of the teachers ; so it is impossible to secure anything like a reasonable proportion of trained teachers."— "Journ. of Ed.," London, 1 Oct., 1886, p. 415. See also Circular No. 0, 1884, espec, pp. 13 and seq., and 41 and seq_. 1 C. rep., 1885, p. 38. 6 See also C. rep., 1885, pp. 99-113, 388-410, and Teachers' Institutes, p. 11. For sample course of study, see Dr. Philbrick, p. 197. • See Note above. ' See C. rep., 1884, p. 100. For illustration of course, see Dr. Philbrick, p. 197, and C. rep., 1885, p. 101.
8 See— (a) Dr. E., footnote to p. 10, and (b) Q.R. On subject generally see— (a) " Education," Nov. and Dec, 1880, pp. 180-184; (6) Q.R., pp. 422, 423; (c) New York and Philadelphia Colleges; S. and E.1., 14th and 7th Oct., 1884; and espec. (d) Dr. Philbrick, p. 110. 9 Sec also C. rep., 1884, p. 97. 10 Seo 0. rep., 1885, p. 394 and scg_. 11 See— la) 0. rep., 1884, p. 23; (6) " Education," Jan. and Feb., 1881, p. 237; (c) Dr. Philbrick, p. 118; and (d) C. rep., 1885, p. 33. 12 See for instance C. rep., 1885, p. 38, and 1884, pp. 100, 28. 13 See details and statistics, C. rep., 1885, pp. 35, 277, 16 and seq., and 180; 1884, pp. 17, 26, 28, 29. See also— (a) Dr. R., p. 8, 9; (6) Q.R., espec. pp. 422, 426, 427, 430; and (c) Dr. Philbrick, p. 110. 11 See S. and R.1., 14 Oct., 1884. And on subject generally see same journal 9 Sept. and 7 Oct., 1884. The statement, however, that salaries in New York are regulated by the average attendance of the preceding year, I am told, is incorrect. 15 Statement, p. 18. See also—■ (a) C. rep., 1885, p. 28. June 30, 1884, total female teachers employed in U.S.A., 173,776, as against 102,883 male ; (6) R.C., vol. 3, p. 495 ; (c) S. and R.1., 7th Oct., 1884 ; and (d) Dr. Philbrick, p. 127.
78
E.—l2
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Teachers. paratively small cost of female labour also largely determines its employment in all public schools." 1 About three-fifths of the teachers employed in the secondary schools, which report to the Bureau, 2 arc women. 3 In some States there are pupil teachers. 4' On the Ist of January, 1885, a law came into force in New York that no one can teach. in a public school unless he or she lias passed an examination in respect of the effects of alcohol on the human system, 0 and similar laws have become operative in Michigan and Connecticut. 0 The teaching in the children's schools in those States is, of course, carried out accordingly. New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island have also by special enactments made obligatory the teaching in the State schools of the effects of alcohol. 7 Indeed, in some States, as in Massachusetts, instruction in physiology, hygiene, and temperance has long been required. Teaching the effects of tobacco is obligatory in Connecticut. CONCLUSION. In the American system there is much that induces commendation; especially— (a) Large powers of local government, including powers of direct local taxation; (Ji) Compulsory-attendance laws so far as they exist, although they exist only to a limited extent; (c) The promotion of technical instruction, including prominence given to drawing; (d) The requirement in certain States respecting the knowledge of the influence of alcohol on the human body; and (e) The provisions, so far as they extend, against the improper employment of children. But public education in the United States has not arrived at that condition which justifies its imitation as a complete system. 8 For instance, respecting the States generally, there exists the want of adequate provisions * affecting (a) school accommodation, 9 (b) compulsory education, 10 (c) length of school terms, (d) training, standard of qualification, and appointment of teachers; (e) religious instruction, (/) physical training, (ff) inspection, (h) infant-school arrangements, and (i) injurious employment of children; 11 involving an unjustifiable amount of illiteracy, 13 incompetent teaching in. too many cases," religious friction, 13 and a very general absence of that thoroughness, without which veneer is apt to take the place of substance —causes which, as it seems to me, must, if unamended, not only retard the progress, but sap the core of any nation. There must, however, be much to learn, even if there be not everything to imitate; for,: apart from the large questions which may with especial advantage be studied in connection1 with the States, and in addition to much that may be commended, to arrive at a clear per-i ception of error must be distinct gain. Moreover, the immense mass of data on educational subjects not only relating to the States, but to all parts of the world, annually collected and gratuitously distributed by the Bureau, is indeed a most valuable contribution and aid to educational progress, and deserves to be extensively and gratefully availed of. I'*1'*
Anti-alcohol and tooacco progress in America.
Merits of American system. a
American education not upon the whole satisfactory. Defects.
Result of defects,
But much to be *®amtfrom system.
1 Statement, pp. 18, 19. See also Dr. Pliilbrick, p. 127 and seq. ; and discussion and resolution at State Teachers' Assoc, Cal., Dec, 1883, 0. rep., 1885, p. 25. But in Tennessee the law directs that for like services of male and female teachers like salaries shall be paid, C. rep., 1885, p. 257. s C. rep., p. 131, 58G. 3 C. rep., 1885, p. 131. A For instance, note New Hampshire, C. rep., 1885, p. 181. 6C. rep., 1885, p. 41, where see note re Massachusetts. For method of examination of schools, see C. rep., 1884, p. 80 and seq. Dr. Richardson's is text-book used in New York. At the 23rd annual meeting of tho Nat. Educ. Assoc, held at Madison, Wisconsin, 15-19 July, 1884, at which over 6,000 educationalists were present, a resolution was adopted " advising tho introduction in public schools of instruction as to the effect of alcoholic liquors on the human system," C. rep., 1885, p. 311. 6 See C. rep., 1885, for details, p. 144. Text-books on this subject must have tho joint approval of the State Board of Education and the State Board of Health. -' C. rep., 1885, p. 41. 9 Note, for instance —
(a) C. rep., 1885, pp. 12, 27, 81, and 1884, p. 293, and other refs. already made ; (b) 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 195; (c) S. and R.1., 14 Oct., 1884; (d) "It is a moot question whether, as a whole, the common schools have not, during the past ten or perhaps twenty years of American history, proved themselves a failure."—Dr. E., pp. 4, 5 ; (<?) Q.R., espec. pp. 426, 437-439, 455, 458, 459; and (/) " Circulars of Information," No. 6, 1884, " Rural Schools," pp. 11, 12. For brief summary of educational condition of Union, see C. rep., 1885, p. 41, and 1884, pp. 3G and sgj. 9 The school buildings, moreover, are by no means always what they should be. For instance, note Pennsylvania, C. rep., 18S5, p. 229. '» Sen C. rep , 1884, pp. 77, 159, and 81, 82 table infra. 11 See also other grounds alleged, C. rep., 1884, p. 67. n For partial explanation, at least, see Statement, pp. 10, 68, 69; C. rep., 1885, p. 30; "The Century," April, 1886, p. 959 ; and note that the actual school ago population is much less than the legal school age population. 13 See supra, "The United States—Religious Instruction," and 2 R., pp. 445, 446. " For the work done and publications issued by Bureau for year ending 30 June, 1884, see C. rep., 1885, p. 6.
79
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Conclusion. I originally wrote : " I may state that I am greatly indebted to General Merritt, ConsulGeneral 1 in London for the United States, for much valuable information. He has, moreover, considerately given me leave to state that he has perused my statements of fact, and that he is satisfied as to their correctness, although, of course, he must not in any way be deemed to be identified with, or to endorse, any comments or inferences made." I may now add that I was in January, 1886, personally assured at the Bureau that the statements in question were substantially correct. I have to thank the authorities in the United States for much courtesy shown whilst in their country. Indeed, so much so that I had no need to deliver the official introduction which I held from the Premier, the Marquis of Salisbury, to Her Majesty's Minister at Washington. I am also indebted for a very recent communication from the Bureau containing additional facts, which I have incorporated herein.
1 But who retired on accession of the present President.
80
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
TABLE RELATING TO COMPULSORY EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT OF UNEDUCATED CHILDREN.
E.—l2
81
Namo of Stato or Territory, and Date of Law. Age limit. Torin in Year. Remarks. STATES. California. 8 to 14 28 March, 1874. I 8 to 14 .. At least two- Unless— thirds of the (a) Child physically or mentally disabled, or time during (b) Taught otherwise the common school primary branches of which school study, or is taught. (c) Out of reach of school. Penalty not exceeding 20dols. for first offence, or 20dols. to SOdols. for subsequent ones, with costs. 8 to 14 . Atleast 12weeks, Unless — or 60 full school (a) Physical or mental condition makes attendance inexpedient days. C weeks | or impracticable, or at least con- (b) Receiving elsewhere regular and thorough instruction in readsecutive. ing, writing, English grammar, geography, and arithmetic* for same term. In case each week of failure liable to fine not exceeding 5dols. No child under 14 that has resided in the United States nine months may be employed to labour unless shown to have complied with above requirements, and any person employing contrary to these provisions finable not more than 60dola. 10 to 14 .. 12 weeks. 6 Unless excused for preceding reasons, weeks to bo Penalty 3dols. to lOdols. dnnRRP.ntivfl. At least twothirds of the time during which school is taught. Connecticut. 8 to 14 1882. Atleast 12 weeks, or 60 full school days. 6 weeks at least consecutive. Dakota. 1 8 March, 1883. 10 to 14 12 weeks. 6 weeks to bo consecutive. Atleastl2weoks Illinois.* 1883. consecutive. 8 to 14 .. Atleastl2weoks Unless— (a) Mental or bodily condition prevent attendance or application to study, or (b) A proven acquaintance with tho ordinary branches of learning taught, or (c) A distance of two miles from public school. Penalty 5dols. to 20dols. 8 to 14 .. At least 12 weeks Same provisions as Illinois, except— (a) That the twelve weeks' attendance must include six weeks' consecutive attendance, and (b) Penalty at least 5dols. and not more than lOdols. first offence, and not less than lOdols. or more than 20dols. for subsequent offence. 9 to 15 .. Atleast 12weeks I Unless child excused for reasons in laws of California and Illinois, except where a public school not taught for three months in the year within 1A mile by shortest road of child's residence, or within district where child resides. Penalty not more than Sdols. for parent and costs. Penalty not more than Sdols. for child for each offence. 8 to 14 .. At least 20 weeks Unless excused by reason of— of 2 terms each, (a) Poverty, if practicable j (b) Bad mental or physical condition, of 10 consecu- j (c) Or instruction elsewhere, or previously for like period in aptive weeks. proved schools. Penalty not more than 20dols, Since 1876, State forbids employment of children under 10 years in manufacturing, mechanical, or mercantile establishments, also employment (except during school vacation) of anj' child under 14, unless he has for twenty weeks in year preceding such employment attended approved school for term equal to requirement of public school law; and sco C. rep., 1885, p. 128. Since 1878, no child under 14 who cannot read or write may be employed during public school sessions. Penalty 20dols. to SOdols. to go to use of public schools ; and see C. rep., 1885, p. 128. 8 to 14 .. At least 4 mo's, Unless excused for reasons given in tho several preceding cases— of which C (a) No child under 14 allowed to be employed unless he has rcweeks must be ceived proper instruction for at least four of the twelve consecutive. months preceding employment; and see also C. rep., 1885, p. 144. (b) Child from 8 to 14 years temporarily discharged from employment must go to school for period for which child discharged unless excused for before-mentioned reasons ; and see also C. rep., 1885, p. 144. Penalty in either case 5dols. to lOdols. for first offence, and not less than lOdols. subsequently. 8 to 14 .. Atleast 10weeks. Unless excused for reasons as in Michigan. Special provision for At least 8 w'ks informing School Board through principal of school re absentees, to be consecu- i so that Board may recover fine, SOdols. to lOOdols. for first tive. offence, lOOdols. to 200dols. subsequently. 8 to 14 and 16 12 weeks. At Unless excused for reasons indicated in preceding cases. But to under cer- least 6 weeks render child liable, nearest school in district must be within taincircum-j to be consecu- two miles of child's residence. Under amendments of 1881, no stances. tive. child under 16 years employable in manufacturing establishments— (a) Unless he has attended school at least twelve weeks in preceding year, and (6) Can write legibly and read fluently in Readers of grade usually classed as Third Readers. Nor may any child under 14 years be so employed unless he has attended school for at least six months in preceding school year, or during whole timo school was kept in that year. Penalty for wrongful employment 20dols. for each offence. 8 to 14 .. | Atleast 12weeks. Unless— I 6 weeks con- (a) Children instructed at homo for at least 12 weeks in year in secutive. branches usually taught at public schools, or (6) Unless physical or mental condition of children renders attendance inexpedient or impracticable. Penalty 2dols. first offence, afterwards Sdols. a week for not more than twelve weeks in any year during which, after written notice, therehas been failure to comply with Act. 8 to 14 Kansas. 1874. 8 to 14 At least 12 weeks Mains. 1875. 9 to 15 At least 12 weeks I I Massachusetts. 3 1873. 8 to 14 At least 20 weeks of 2terms each, if practicable j of 10 consecutive weeks. Michigan. Enacted 1871. Eepealed 1881. Ee-enaoted 1883. 8 to 14 At least 4 mo's, of which G weeks must be consecutive. Nevada. 1873. 8 to 14 At least 10 weeks. At least 8 w'ks to be consecutive. 12 weeks. At least 6 weeks to be consecutive. New Hampshire. 14 July, 1871. 8 to 14 and 16 under certain circumstances. New Jersey. 27 March, 1874, and amended 9 April, 1875, and 1883. 8 to 14 Atleast 12 weeks. 6 weeks consecutive. 1 By decree of U: of Boyal Geographic 2 Law never enfc s See also S. and days and sclioolhoui 11—I nitcd States Senate, oroctod into a Stato in February, 1S86. For boundaries, population, ice., soe " Proceedings sal Society, 111 April, 1880, p. 270. >rcerl. See S. and R.I,, 21st October, 1881. But note present condition, C. rep., 188", p. 00 and seq. B.I,, 6th September, i884. But note enforcement directed not against parents but against children. For hollies see same paper. For results see C. rep., 1885, p. 127. 3. 12.
E.—l2.
O O 1-3 O
TABLE RELATING TO COMPULSORY EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT OF UNEDUCATED CHILDREN— continued.
82
Name of State or Territory, and Date of Law. Age limit. Term in Year. Kemarks. New Jersey— continued. New York. 1 May, 1874. Amended 1876. Ohio. 3 877. 8 to 14 8 to : i At least 14 weeks 12 weeks. 6 weeks to be consecutive. Law not operative where school accommodation insufficient. Penalties added to public school money. No boy under 12 nor girl under 14 may be employed in any factory, mine, or workshop; nor shall any child between 12 and 15 be so employed unloss such child shall have attended some public or private school for at least twelve consecutive weeks or two terms of six weeks each within the year preceding such employment ; but no child under 14 years of age shall be employed in any such establishment longer than an average of ten hours a day. Unless— (a) Child attend private school for same term, or instructed regularly at homo for same period in spelling, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, and arithmetic, or (6) Mental or physical condition of child makes attendance inexpedient or impracticable. Employment of children under 14 years, not instructed as aforesaid, restrained, and school trustees or officers appointed for purpose, must examine all manufacturing establishments within their jurisdiction to see whether restrictions complied with. Penalty Idol, for first offence, and 5dols. for every week, not to exceed thirteen in any year there was, after written notice, continued violation of law ; and see 0. rep., 1885, p. 192. Text books provided for children unable to pay. If child cannot be induced to attend school, parent may be relieved of penalty, and child dealt with as habitual truant. Unless— (a) Excused for reasons in preceding cases given, or (6) Because time and labour of child essentially necessary to support indigent parent, brother, or sister. Provision against employment under 14 during school hours unless— (a) They have had above twelve weeks' schooling, and (b) Have delivered to their employers a certificate to that effect. Text books supplied to children too poor to pay. Penalty not less than 2dols. and not more than 5dols. for first offence, not less than 5dols. nor more than lOdols. subsequently. If Clerk of Educational Board fails to prosecute every offence, he is liable to penalty of not less than lOdols. nor more than 20dols. for each case. Two weeks' attendance at halftime or night school made equivalent to one week at full day school. No child from 13 to 16 to be employed in factory unless child has attended school at least three months within year of employmont. Penalty for employer or parents SOdols. for every offence. No child under 15 to be employed in factory unloss child has had at least three months' schooling in year preceding employment, and not to be employed for more than nine months in year (calendar). Penalty for employer or parent 20dols. for each offence. Unless— (a) Child otherwise furnished with moans for education for like period, or (6) Has already acquired necessary learning. Child offending liable to arrest and delivery to school teacher, notice thereof being given to parent, who, if he does not send child to school within six days of receiving notice, liable to penalty of lOdols. to 20dols. Fine goes to school funds. Child from 10 to 14 who has lived in the State for one year not to bo employed in mill or factory unless has attended public school at least throe months during preceding year. Penalty for employment lOdols. to 20dols. Unless excused for reasons before specified. Text books free to children unable to pay. Penalty Sdols. to lOdols. for first offence, and lOdols. to 20dols, subsequently. Pennsylvania. 1849. Rhodk Island. 2 1854, and amended recently. Every child 3 months. Vermont. 21 Nov., 1867. Amended 23Nov. 1870. Wisconsin. 1 Sept., 1879. 7 to 15 .. At least 12 weeks TERRITORIES. Arizona. There was a compulsory school law passed 9th February, 1875; but it has been dropped by amended school law of 1883. Unless — (a) Parent could not send child, or (6) Was sending child to private school, or (c) Child shows such physical or mental inferiority as made school attendance inexpedient. Penalty not to exceed 20dols. District of Columbia. 23 Juno, 1864. 8 to 14 .. 12 weeks. 6 weeks to bo consecutive. New Mexico. 5 months. Washington Territory. 1877. G to 16 .. 6 months. 6 weeks to bo consecutive. This law only applies to towns and villages containing more than 400 inhabitants. Attendance not compulsory if— («) Mental or bodily condition prevents it, or (b) If children engaged in labour necessary for their own support, or that of others dependent on them, or (c) Are taught necessary branches in private school, or (a) Already have acquired them. No penalty. Unless — (a) Excused on physician's certificate of sickness, or (6) By District Board, if attendance would work great hardship. Penalty not to exceed 25dols. Wyoming. 1873. i 6 to 21 .. j At least 3 mo's. 1 See also S. and 2 By the amende truancy upon the tn Notr.—This tab 1685, p. xv. E.I., 14th October, 1881. But special «l law of 1883 "tho responsibility fc uants themselves."—C. rep., 1885, p. 5 ile docs not purport to show tho " legi ly see tho C. rep., 1884, p. xxx. and seq., and p. 191 and seq. >r non-attendance at school is placed upon the paront or guardians; fo/ S43. il school ages;" for which see Amer. Cominr. Bcp., 1885, for 188J-84; C, rop.,
E—l2
CONCLUSIONS.
CONCLUSIONS.
How empty learning and how vain is art, But as it mends the life and guides the heart."1 —Young : Night Thoughts.
The table herewith marked 82* shows the main features of eacli system. 2 Thus, in Germany and Switzerland 8 there is, in addition to the exceptional division of each nation into independent sovereignties, a conjunction of the following amongst other 4 circumstances, which conjunction does not occur in any other country treated of, viz. :— (1.) Religion as a rule considered the basis of education in elementary schools, 5 with protection for nearly 0 all objectors, and the primary subject in school programmes ■? (2.) No substantial friction between the State and citizens, in respect of religious instruction in elementary schools, 8 owing to the feelings of (virtually) all being fairly considered ; 9 (3.) Elementary education compulsory 10 and no school-age limit; 11 but (4.) Infant schools not universally public institutions, and attendance there only voluntary ; 12 (5.) Local control by locally-elected authorities over all educational matters primarily affecting the respective localities, including those relating to— (a) Religious instruction (subject to protection of the interests of objectors) ; (b) Income (including main support by separate direct 13 local taxation) ; (c) Expenditure (with aid from superior Government when needed) ; and (d) Administration regulations—such control ensuring such universality, thoroughness in detail, thrift, and adaptation to local. circumstances as would not otherwise be practicable. 14 (6.) Protection of children against injurious employment; 15
Conjunction of circumstances in Germany and Switzerland.
Religion considered the basis Absence of frici! onq,s betweon citizens on re-
ligious subjects. Elementary eclu- ' cation compulsory and no school age limit. Infant schools. Local government.
Provisions against improper • employment of r children.
1 " Education, in its true sense, must have two distinct aims—to inform and develop the mind and to inspire and influence the heart. The success of each of these depends largely upon the success of the other ; and upon their united and harmonious action will depend the strength and excellence of the character, and the purity and value of the life. All knowledge is like good seed—it cannot be too highly prized or too widely disseminated; but, to realize its possibilities, it must bo placed in fruitful soil prepared to receive and to vitalize it." " A school is a shop in which young wits are fashioned to virtue."— Comenius. "To awaken right emotions, to present worthy motives, to instigate to right actions, so that the desires and the conduct shall keep pace with the knowledge imparted, is the great work which every one who would build up or fortify character should sot himself to accomplish." - The number of school children per 1,000 inhabitants in the principal countries is as follows: United States, 197; Switzerland, 179; Austria-Hungary, 172 ; France, IG6 ; Germany, 157 ; Norway, 154 ; United Kingdom, 143; Sweden, 143; Netherlands, 125; Denmark, 128; Spain, 10G ; Italy, 87 ; Greece, 72 ; and Russia, 14. „_.__ . Jg d H o J Out of every 100 Persons fl !S " I fc, 9 '1 the following Si » U § S '3 % a!3al u I £ a s &| < Klfe j m m Ph 1 Can read .. .. 94 88 91 88 74 C9 53 Can read, write, and do a little arithmetic .. 89 75 81 77 63 49 39 Know a foreign language 69 Gl 34 29 28 13 23 Have some knowledge of the classics .. 32 13 21 20 16 7 2 J China has long anticipated the work of the School ' Board. At six years of ago boys of all ranks are
supposed to attend school ; and Japan has now 37 papers devoted to educational work. But see " Sunday at Home," Oct., 1880, p. 654. For " Education in Japan," see Circulars of Information, No. 4, 1885, Washington Govt. Printing Office, 1885. ! 3 " The common schools of the Continent, in short, arc an influence as well as a system."—London Daily News, 31 July, 1886. 4 For instance, Hitzferien, or heat holidays, see " Germany," supra. '■> The only exceptions to the rule are a few places in Switzerland. " The schools in Germany are distinctly denominational." In German schools "there is too much dogmatic teaching."—M. Arnold, R.E.C., 5310 and 6101. 6 See R.E.0., Mr. M. Arnold, 5318 and seq., and 580G and 5307. J 7 These are the only countries treated of to which these propositions apply. 8 This cannot be said of Prance, Belgium, Italy, or America, although it applies substantially to Great Britain. ' J None other of the countries shows such consideration, whilst France is strictly secular. 10 This applies to Great Britain and France (virtually), but not to Belgium, only partially to America, and not nominally to Italy. 11 This is also the case in Great Britain and France, but not so in America or Belgium. 12 In Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Italy they are public institutions ; in America they can scarcely be termed so. As an instance of such schools being a compulsory stage, see " Italy " Summary Table, p. 50. 18 See " Principles of Political Economy," by J. S. Mill, Gth-ed., p. 4G7. 11 Local government has been more or less adopted in all the other countries. 15 Children are also protected more or le.;s in Great Britain and France; but not in Italy, Belgium, OX America —unless exceptionally.
83
E.—l2.
REPOET UPON STATE EDUCATION,
(7.) No pupil-teaching j 1 (8.) Female teaching not favoured, especially for higher classes ; 2 (9.) Gratuitous training given by State at normal schools, at least to those studentteachers who are too poor to pay, 3 and term of study there at least three years j* (10.) Teachers thoroughly qualified before they teach in public schools/ and fixed salaries only ;° (11.) Methods of teaching exceptionally gradual, natural, and rational; 7 (12.) Co-operation of teachers in inspection; 8 (13.) Marked recognition of national importance of physical training ; 9 (14.) Superior inspection; 10 ; (15.) School necessaries not generally gratuitous ; 11 (16.) Excellent supplementary school arrangements whereby in all cases preparation for industrial pursuits given ; 13 (17.) In addition to supplementary schools, promotion of technical instruction; 13 (18.) Scholarships, when given,l4 granted solely to those who are not only deserving, but require them in order to pursue study; 15 (19.) Over private schools, State supervision ; 10 (20.) Pensions to teachers. 1" This conjunction in these two countries only, seems significant; and it is for the student to consider whether the national strength and vigour of Germany and Switzerland arc not only to 18 be attributed to the exceptional division into sovereignties referred to, but substantially to («) the individual merits of the factors mentioned, and (b) to their concurrence. Of course, there are commendable features in each of the other systems; for instance in— (1.) Great Britain 19 — (a) Consideration for the religious feelings of all, or nearly all; (b) A certain amount of power vested in locally-elected authorities, in respect of religious instruction, fixing compulsory-age period, direct local taxation, &e.; (c) Compulsory-attendance laws; (d) Provisions against injurious employment of children; (e) Infant schools; (/) Promotion of technical instruction; and (g) Pensions to teachers (although only to a limited extent). 20 (2.) France — (a) " Morale " in the courses of study ; (b) Certain powers of local management, including powers of local taxation;
No pupiltcaohing. Female teaching. Normal school advantages.
Qualification of teachers and fixed salaries. Methods of teaching. Co-operation of teachers in inspection. Importance of physical training recognized. Excellent inspection. School necessaries. Supplementary schools. Further promotion of technical instruction. Scholarship conditions. Private school supervision. Pensions. The conjunction worthy of study. Each system commendable features. Some of the commendable features in British system.
In French system.
1 This applies to Belgium and (virtually) to Prance; but not to Great Britain or the United States. 2 There is not the same objection in any other country ; whilst in America tbo majority of females is very large. 3ln Switzerland entirely gratuitous. Tuition is also gives gratuitously by the State in France, Italy, and Belgium ; and in America free tuition is very general. In Great Britain institutions voluntary ; and fees are charged. 4 In Dresden College six years; see 1.E.C., vol. 16, p. GO ; and for further details see Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 188G) rep., p. 10, and R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5147. The text also applies to Prance, Belgium, and Italy; but not to Great Britain or America. 5 This applies also in respect of diploma to Prance, Belgium, America (nominally), and Italy; but not to Great Britain. " The instruction is better in foreign popular schools than in ours, because the teachers are better trained." —M. Arnold's (May, 188G) rep., p. 13. "In Germany and Switzerland the teaching is certainly better than in England; and the teaching is acquired in the Training Colleges."—M. Arnold, E.E.C., 5512, 5513 and seq., 5839 and seq., and 5913. "In Prussia they say, 'As is the teacher, so is the school.' In Holland they say, 'As your Inspector is, so is your school.' With us it would be more fundamentally true to say, 'As is your School Board, so are your schools.' " —Dr. Piiilbrick, p. 14. 6 This applies also to Prance, Belgium, and America ; but not to Great Britain. 7 This applies also to Prance. —See Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., p. 13 and seq., also p. 15. Referring to Switzerland: "The object set before a toaehor is not to pass on a schedule, but a definite
development of a scholar's mental and mechanical powers in each branch of study." —" Journal of Ed.," 1 Nov., 1886, p. 446. 8 This does not apply to any other country. 8 This applies also to France and Belgium. 10 Also in Prance and America, and Italy exceptionally inferior. " France only country where school necessaries universally free. 12 This applies also especially to Prance and Belgium. 13 This applies also especially to Prance and Belgium ; and more or less to all. 14 There are no State scholarships in Germany in primary or secondary schools. But State scholarships given in Prance, Belgium, and Italy; but not in the United States or Great Britain, where there are no public money scholarships, except in Science and Art Department. 15 This also applies to Belgium and Italy. And note the special conditions attached to the "National" Science and Art Department Scholarships in Great Britain. 1(! Tiiis also applies to France and Italy, but not to Great Britain, America, or Belgium; except in Great Britain and Belgium in the cases of State-aided schools. 17 In Germany and many Swiss cantons. This also applies to Great Britain, Prance, Belgium, and Italy. 18 Note remarks of Michel Breal.—Dr. Philbrick, p. 7. 13 But note Mr. M. Arnold's evidence, R.8.0. : " What wo should do well to lay to heart is that foreign schools with larger classes, longer holidays, and a school-day often cut in two, nevertheless on the whole give, from the better training of their teachers and the planning of their school course, a superior popular education to ours." jo ii There is a regular pension fund in Ireland, with which the vast majority of teachers are connected."
84
E.—l2
CONCLUSIONS.
(c) Compulsory-attendance law, and a remarkably high percentage of attendance at primary schools; (d) Methods of teaching exceptionally gradual, natural, and rational; (e) Provisions against injurious employment of children ; (/) No pupil-teaching, excellent arrangements for training teachers, including visiting specialists at normal schools, higher normal schools, requirements in respect of qualification of teachers, and fixed salaries ; (g) Superior organization for teaching and inspecting infant schools and classes 1; (h) Systematic promotion of technical and physical training, including blending of industrial theory and practice into the primaiy course of study, and excellent evening schools; (i) Superior inspection ; 2 (J) Pensions to teachers ; and (k) Scholarships. (3.) Italy — (a) A large amount of consideration for the religious feelings of all, or nearly all; (b) A certain amount of local control ; (c) Compulsory-attendance law, although nominal to a great extent; (d) Gratuitous training given by the State at normal schools for a term of three years ; (e) Teachers must possess qualification before they teach; (/) Infant schools; (g) The work proper to each institution must be performed in it before a pupil is allowed to proceed to a higher institution; (h) Excellence of higher, and art schools ; (i) Pensions to teachers ; (j) Scholarships; and (k) Superior excellence of deaf-mute " pure oral" institutions. (4.) Belgium — (a) Consideration for religious feelings, so that religious and moral instruction is given at the option of communes, with what is virtually a conscience proviso; (b) Local government to a great extent, including power of direct local taxation ; (c) Absence of pupil-teaching, excellent provisions for training teachers, strict qualification, and fixed salaries ; (d) Infant schools; (e) Special promotion of technical, art, and physical training; (/) Scholarships; and (g) Pensions to teachers. (5.) The United States — (a) Large powers of local government, including powers of direct local taxation; (b) Compulsory-attendance laws, although not in majority of States ; (r) Provisions, although only to a limited extent, against injurious employment of children ; (d) Teachers have fixed salaries, and must, in New York, Michigan, and Connecticut at least, have knowledge of the effects of alcohol upon the human body f (e) Instruction in such knowledge obligatory in New York, Michigan, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island; (■/) Promotion of technical instruction ; and (ff) Excellent law in New York providing for regulation of ventilation, heat, and lighting of schoolhouses. It is unnecessary to indicate defects in any system, unless where it is advisable to point: out mistakes to be avoided. But as perfection is impossible except by the avoidance of error,' and as there is everywhere some lesson to be learnt from errors which should be shunned— which is frequently of far more importance than any example to be followed—some important defects are here indicated :— (1.) Friction between the State and religionists, of which Belgium supplies a recent
In Italian system.
In Belgian I system.
In the United States systems.
Defects in different systems.
Some important defects indicated.
■ Note. comments on Mdlle. Loizillon's rep.-Dr. PhilUric , P' ° '
' " "' *° 8 Dr. Richardson's is the text-book used in Nov/ York.
85
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
warning, but of which France, Italy, the United States, and England also afford examples; (2.) Absence of compulsory-attendance laws, exemplified especially by Belgium, the United States, and (virtually) Italy; (3.) Need of protection for children against injurious (including premature) employment, particularly noticeable in Italy, Belgium, and the United States ; (4.) Pupil-teaching, and payment of teachers by results, as witnessed in England; (5.) Want of a systematically-organized system of training and qualifying teachers, exemplified especially in the United States; (6.) Insufficient attention to physical training, as shown particularly in " Overpressure " results in England, Germany, and the United States j 1 (7.) Want of thoroughly-organized State systems of infant schools, as, for instance, in America; (8.) Inefficient inspection, especially in the United States and Italy; (9.) Incomplete supplementary school arrangements as exemplified, for example, in Italy and Great Britain; (10.) Want of State scholarships for primary-school scholars, as, for instance, in Great Britain; (11.) Absence of recognition of the importance of instructing teachers in the knowledge of the effects of alcohol and tobacco on the human body ; and (12.) Need of national aid for deaf-mute institutions, applicable especially to Great Britain, but also somewhat to Italy. 2
" We have loft undone those things which we ought to have done, And we have done those things which we ought not to have done." — Anglican Prayer Booh. I recognize that grave charges should not be proposed without grave causes, 3 and the ■wisdom of the injunction— " Never prophesy unless you know." But the results of my investigations, coupled with my knowledge of education and finance as existing in this Colony, 1 induce me to believe that at no distant date public opinion—that omnipotent factor which upholds our Constitution and dictates its mandates ■ —• will decree that the following propositions and questions be seriously considered. Although experience indeed teaches that " knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers/' and that faith—fanatic faith—once wedded fast to some dear falsehold hugs it to the last. 5 The fact that a Royal Commission 6 has been appointed to inquire into the working in England and Wales of the Elementary Education Acts, may, I hope, suggest that a similar course is advisable in respect of State education generally, not only for this Colony, but for Australasia, so that a system uniform and advantageous may be adopted. I.—RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTIONS (1.) That School Committees, or some such popularly-elected local bodies, be empowered to decide, in respect of their several localities, what shall be the course adopted respecting religious instruction, subject to—
Religious and moral instruction.
' In addition to previous references see also " Journ. of Ed.," 1 Nov., 1886, p. 453 : " The question of overpressure is beginning to attract notice in (lermany," &c. 2 See Special Report infra. 3 Mr. Gladstone's definition of experimentation in politics —" proposing grave changes without grave causes."— Home Rule Speech— P. M. Budget, 13 May, 1886. * In addition to the official publications (herewith) relating to all the Australasian Colonies, for account of system in New South Wales, see paper read by Mr. E. Coombes, C.M.G., at Royal Colonial Institute, 8 Dec, 1885, The Colonies and India, 11 Dec, 1885; and address by Mrs. Dr. Garrett-Anderson, Australian Times and Anglo-New Zealander, 6 Nov., 1885. Victoria—see Australian Times and Anglo-New Zealander, 1 Jan., 1886, p. 12 ; and Tasmania—Address by Chief Justice Dobson, before the Royal Colonial Institute, The Colonies and India, 14 May, 1886, p. 28. 5 The story of the pious Brahmin, as told by Lord Macaulay, naturally suggests itself. —Essays, &c, 1885, p. 122. " Be of good courage in your attack on deep-seated prejudices, even if our descendants should see the firstfruits of it."—Privy Medical Councillor Esniarsch of Kiel.
I 6 For names of members, see Ist report, 1886 (herewith). 7 See New Zealand 1877 Act, sec. 84, subsecs. 2 and 3. In tho New Zealand system it is noteworthy that even " morale " is not in the programmes. But observe other secular systems, espec. Prance; and in Hawaiian Islands—" Morals and Manners." For difference defined between moral and religious training, see R.E.C. Mr. M. Arnold, OOGB and sec{. For value of religious instruction in training colleges, see R.E.C, Inspector Sharpe, 4896. " A Christian people can bo perpetuated only by Christian education. Schools without Christianity will rear a people without Christianity. A people reared without Christianity will soon become anti-Christian." —Cardinal Manning, see Daily Telegraph, Lond., 10 Oct., 1885. For us in New Zealand, with only our secular experience, the words of Calderon in one of his charming comedies seem not inappropriate : " A man who has novel seen tho sun cannot be blamed for thinking that no glory can exceed that of the moon. A man who has seen neither moon nor sun, cannot be blamed for talking of the •unrivalled brightness of tho morning star." " If the staircase of our house has been cut away, or
86
E.—l2
CONCLUSIONS.
(a) A conscience clause similar to the one in force in England/ with some verbal alterations ; 2 (6) And to the clause in the main English Act/ or a similar clause, forbidding any religious catechism or formulary, which is distinctive of any particular denomination, to be taught in any State school. I3ut that, in any event, " Morals and Manners " be obligatory in all standards. 4 (2.) That, in the case of any conscientious objection to the course which may be adopted in a locality by the school-governing body, aid be granted to denominational schools 5 to such extent and subject to such a conscience clause, State inspection, examination, control, audit, &c, as may be just. 0 lI.—GRATUITOUS EDUCATION. 7 (1.) That elementary education be not gratuitous after the Fourth Standard. (2.) Whether it should be so even to that extent ? 8 (3.) Where fees are payable, (a) what conditions and privileges, if any, should attach to certificates of proficiency; and (b) generally what exemptions, if any, from fees should exist ?
Denominational ai
Gratuitous education.
left out, wo must begin by replacing the staircase j before we can go up higher."—Rev. E. Thring, M.A., " Journal of Education," Juno, 1886. See also " Criticisms on State Education in Victoria," by Pairfield (Ballarat: J. Curtis, Nov., 1886). " Many years of controversy should at least have i taught us this, that with bare secularism the public conscience is not, and cannot be, content. It requires little political foresight to see that a system of public education, with which the religious bodies are unanimously discontented, can count only on a troubled and precarious future."—A. R. Pitchett, M.A. Judging from the most recent statistics issued, it would appear that crime in Victoria has been on the increase since 1880.—Bishop Thornton. ' English Act, 1870, s. 7. Sentences over the study-door of the late Prof. Story, at Jena— In dubiis, libertas; In necessariis, unitas; In omnibus, caritas. For origin and history of the conscience clause in Great Britain, see Mr. Cumin's evidence before Royal Ed. Com., 1886, 460 and seq. Por " Very likely the most drastic conscience clause which any education code in the world contains," see Sir P. J. Keenan's Address, p. 55. 2 The following are some of the "verbal alterations" referred to :— (a) It is suggested that the words " to be approved by the Education Department, and " occurring in the 2nd subsec. of the 7th sec. of the English 1870 Act, be omitted; (6) That after the words " ho may be," occurring in the 1st subsec. of the said sec, the words "absent with the permission of his parent, or " bo inserted, and that after the words " that he shall, if" the same words " absent with the permission of his parent, or if," be added ; (c) That after words "may be," occurring in the said 2nd subsoc, the words " absent with the permission of his parent, or be," be inserted. 8 1870, sec. 14. Note R.E.C., the significant query by Cardinal Manning to Mr. M. Arnold, 5792 : " Have you at all considered the possibility of a syllabus of Biblical instruction which would be acceptable to all denominations being introduced into our schools?" and his reply ; and see 5793 and seq. 4 For the moral teaching which is contained in the English code, see R.E.C., Mr. Cumin's evidence, 880 and seq., and 1617 and scq. ; and Mr. M. Arnold, 6068 and seq. 6 See English Act, 1870, sees. 3 and 7, and code, 1886, arts. 3, 4, and 87. Up to 1832 the whole system of elementary education in England was apparently denominational, and supported entirely by voluntary contributions. —See Mr. Cumin's evidence, R.E.C., 464 ; and see also 513. 6 In part of Canada there is a State concession that any person liable to be taxed may, if he pleases, have the
right to elect to support a denominational school, and be thereupon, to a certain extent, exempted from public rates. A representative conference, convened by " The Bible in State Schools League," of Victoria, has (188C) passed resolutions in favour of the Canadian system, as being applicable to the solution of the question in Victoria. By the Manitoba School Act (herewith also report including regulations for year ending 31 Jan., 1886, of Superintendent of Education, Manitoba) the educational interests of the province "are placed under the direction and control of the Board of Education, a body appointed by the State Governor in Council, and consisting of two sections —the Protestant, composed of 12, and the Catholic, of 9, members. Each section has exclusive control of the schools of its own denomination; the number under the direction of the Protestant section of the Board at the close of the school year now reported being 426, and the number under the direction of the Catholic section 53." The report states (p. 7): " It is gratifying to all lovers of good citizenship as well as of educational progress to note that, from the organization of the system of management in 1871, at which period the Protestant schools numbered 16, and the Catholic 17, up to the present, there has been an almost entire absence of the friction and disagreements that has marked the progress of education in some of the sister provinces." In addition to authorities already quoted, note that, according to Visct. Powerscourt, " The primary or national schools have owed whatever success they have attained to the circumstance that practically they have been worked on the denominational principle." Art. on " Irish Education," " N.G.," 26 Jan., 1886, p. 127 ; see also pp. 128, 136. ' See N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 84, ss. 6. Last year (1885) the Legislatures of South Australia and Tasmania rejected the proposition of gratuitous primary education for all. Prom the official publications (herewith) it will bo noticed that it is only, outside New Zealand, in Victoria and Queensland that public education is gratuitous for all in the Australasian Colonies. Bishop Moorhouse, who has had ample opportunity of observing the working of the Victorian system strongly opposes free education. But see, in addition to references already made, ospec. Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., particularly p. 24; R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 6269; " Journ. of Ed.," ] Nov., 1886, pp. 441 and 452; P.M. Budget, 11 Nov., 1886, p. 4. Lord Norton "N.C.," Nov., 1885, p. 804 and seq. ; and see " Journ. of Ed.," Nov., 1886, p. 441; and I.E.C., vol. 16, p. 169 and scq., and espec. pp. 183-185. On providing free schools for wastrels (neglected children), see R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 6296 and seq. Note " Farthing Dinners for School Children," P.M. Budget, 25 Nov., 1886, p. 20. 8 In addition to previous references, note " Criticisms on State Education in Victoria," by Pairfield (Ballarat: J. Curtis, Nov., 1886), who speaking of the Government of Victoria, says : " The worst work it ever did in this colony, and the dearest, has been that of education," p. 15, and see espec. p. 17.
87
8.—12.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
(4.) That State education be supported solely by direct local rates levied by School Committees ; reserving, however, to the Government power to aid sparsely-settled districts under such circumstances as by statute may be provided. lII.—COMPULSORY EDUCATION. (1.) That elementary education be not, as at present, provisionally compulsory, but absolutely so to the extent of, and including, the Fourth Standard, and that in pursuance thereof section 95 of the 1877 Act and section 6 of the 1885 Act be repealed. 1 (2.) That the words "at least one-half of," occurring after the word " for," in section 89 of the 1877 Act, be repealed, and that in lieu thereof there be added between subsections 3 and 4 of section 90 the following clause: "That his or her services are required temporarily for the necessary operations of husbandry or the ingathering of crops ;" and that at the end of section 90 the following additional proviso be inserted: " Provided also that no exemption from attendance for the purposes of husbandry or the ingathering of crops shall be granted unless the child be over eight years of age, or for a period at any one time of more than one calendar month." (3.) That subsection 1 of section 90 be amended by the omission of all the words occurring after the words " child is," and by the insertion in lieu thereof of the words " under such efficient instruction otherwise as is at least equivalent to what is obligatory for children in the public elementary schools of the Colony. 2 IV.—MEDICAL SUPERVISION. " Salus populi suprenia est lex." (1.) That a system of medical supervision over, and teaching in, both normal and children's schools be arranged j 3 including teaching girls how to care for the sick. 4 (2.) That no schoolhouse be provided, enlarged, or improved until the plan, so far as ventilation, heat, lighting, and other sanitary arrangements are concerned, shall have been approved of by the Medical Supervisor of the district. 5 (.'s.) That no teacher be appointed to any school except after passing, satisfactorily to the Medical Supervisor of the district, a strict examination in respect of physical fitness. (4.) That no Inspector be appointed to any district except after passing, satisfactorily to a Medical Supervisor, a strict examination in respect of physical fitness. (5.) That the Medical Supervisors be appointed by, and be solely under the control of, the Government; that they be, in addition to special qualifications, as physically, morally, and otherwise suitable as if they were merely ordinary teachers ; that in such appointments, cceteris paribus, preference be given to total abstainers from alcohol; that provisions for pensions be made ; but that intoxication or bankruptcy ipso facto cancel any appointment, and any claim to notice, compensation, or pension. V.—PROTECTION OF CHILDREN. That children under the age of fourteen be not allowed to work as full-timers in factories or workshops. 6
Compulsory
Medical supervision and
Protection of children.
' See N.Z. Act, 1877, ss. 89-95, and 1885 Act, ss. 6-8. As to whether education should be compulsory, or wholly or partially so, the authorities already quoted deserve careful study. For instance, note Sir. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., espec. p. 13; " Great Britain," "Summary" supra; E.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 6260 and seq., where Mr. Arnold vindicates compulsion. And contra, espee. see, for instance, R.E.C., Inspector Stewart, 2554, 2669, 2736, &c. " Compulsion or the Voluntary System," by Hon. Auberon Herbert, P.M. Budget, i Nov., 1886; supra" ltaly," "Belgium," and " The United States." See also " Criticisms on State Education in Victoria," by Fairfield (Ballarat: J. Curtis, Nov., 1886). 2 See N.Z. Act, 1877, ss. 84, 85. 3 For Hungarian system, see note 8 N.Z., " Great Britain " supra, Comparative Table 17*; and "Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 297; and resolution of Congress at Tours.—Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 209.
Mark proposed contrivance to reduce strain on eyesight.—" Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 296; and " Germany " supra, footnotes. See also " Journal of Ed.," on " Over-pressure," 1 Nov., 1886, p. 453 ; and see " On the Physiology of the Child," p. 454. Note that at the domestic economy, school at Radolfzell in Germany, a physician teaches girls how to care for the sick. —Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 212. 5 Sec "The United States" supra, footnote relating to New York. 6 Sec B.O., vol. 1, p. 537, and also pp. 524 and 525 ; and compare with N.Z. 1877 Act, sec. 90, and " The Employment of Females and Others " Acts, 1881 and 1884. Also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., espec. pp. 21-24 ; and comments thereon in " Journal of Ed.," 1 Sept., 188G, p. 354.
88
E\—l2.
CONCLUSIONS.
VI.—LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 1 (1.) That Education Boards be abolished. (2.) That the sole control —except inspection and medical supervision—of State elementary education, including normal schools 2 in the several districts, be entrusted to School Committees, 3 or some such popularly-elected bodies, 4 with full powers not only in respect of religious instruction as above, but to — (a) Provide, enlarge, improve, or fit-up school-buildings, 5 subject to such provisions in respect of providing funds for the purpose as may be enacted. But that no schoolhouse shall be provided, enlarged, or improved until the plan, so far as ventilation, heat, lighting, and other sanitary arrangements are concerned, shall have been approved by the Medical Supervisor of the district; (5) Levy, with the approval of the Government from time to time, direct local 6 rates for the purpose of providing any funds necessary for the support of the schools or school, or (if there be any other source of income) to meet any deficiency in the school fund;' (c) Make such by-laws 8 as may be necessary for the purposes of such control, subject only to the afore-mentioned conscience and unsectarian clauses; reserving, however, to the Government power to aid sparsely-settled localities as by statute may be provided. 9 Power should also be given to School Committees to unite, by leave of the Government, for the purpose of founding or supporting a school. VII.—TEACHERS. 10 (1.) That no new engagements in respect of pupil-teachers be entered into. 11 U (2.) That, except for needlework and domestic economy—including cooking 13 and care of the sick, and infant schools or classes — the employment of women be not encouraged, especially for the higher classes. (3.) That no teacher if not now engaged be hereafter employed, unless certificated ; 13 and not even then unless physically, 14 morally, and otherwise 10 suitable; and that, cceteris paribus, preference be given to total abstainers from alcohol. (4.) That no teacher be certificated unless after having passed the necessary curriculum at a training college. 16
Local government.
Teachers.
1 " Nothing, in fact, in education is more pernicious than centralization, and the lust of prescribing all things from above." — Prof. Blackie, "On the Philosophy of Education," " Journal of Ed.," May, 1886, p. 201. See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, espec. 6231 and seq. 1 See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5616 and seq. 3 " The Boards in their annual reports bear testimony to the satisfactory manner in which the Committees generally have performed the duties entrusted to them by the Education Act."—N.Z. rep., 1885, p. 14. See also " Journal of Ed.," May, 1886. .On not entrusting Committees until sufficiently educated, note Lord Macaulay's remarks on cognate subject.—Essays, &e., 1885, p. 19. * But note the great importance of securing competent local school bodies as commented on by Dr. Philbrick. —Dr. Philbrick, p. 14 ; and see supra, " The United States" footnote on illiteracy of school-governing bodies in country districts in U.S.A. h For English provisions, see E. Act, 1873, see. 10. 6 For English provisions, see E. Act, 1870, sees. 53-56 ; and R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, G209. ' Compare present N.Z. 1877 Act, sees. 42 and 80. 8 For English provisions, see E. Act, 1870, sec. 74. " Urban and rural schools are not and cannot be, and perhaps need not be, the same in all respects."—Dr. Philbrick, p. 8. And see R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5339. 'See note relating to Highlands of Scotland — "Great Britain " supra, p. 13. 10 In addition to references already made, see espee. Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., pp. 16-21; and comments on it, "Journ. of Ed.," 1 Sept., 1886, p. 354. See also 1.E.C., vols. 14, 16. As an instance of the best teacher, and the reason why, see notice of Archbishop Trench, " Macmillan's Mag.," May, 1886, p. 1. See also Presidential Address, by Rev. R. H. Quick, to Education Society, 22 May, 1886, "Journ. of Ed.,"
12—E. 12.
June, 1886 ; " Athenaeum," 5 June, 1886, p. 757 ; and Address by Eev. E. Turing, M.A., " Journ. of Ed.," June, 1886. In the last report of the Massachusetts Board of Education eight books are recommended to teachers for study of education: 1, Hopkin's "Outline Study of Man " ; 2, Sully's " Outlines of Psychology"; 3, Joseph Payne's " Lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching"; 4, Laurie's Comenius; 5, Pitch's "Lectures on Teaching"; 6, Quick's " Educational Eeformcr" ; 7, Hailman's "History of Pedagogy"; 8, Browning's "Educational Theories." And see No. 6, " Circular of Information," 1884, U.S.A., for list of books appropriate for a library for teachers— " Rural Schools," p. 81 and seq. 11 See N.Z. 1877 Act, sees. 50 and 100, subs. 4; and also p. 4, footnote, supra, relating to views of teachers in this colony. In addition to references already made, see espec". R.E.G., Mr. M. Arnold, 5231 and seq., 5100--5104, 5110 and seq. ; and Inspector Sharpe, 4395 and seq. '- But note Mr. M. Arnold opposed to teaching cookery, R.E.C., 5925. 13 In addition to references already made, see R.E.G., Mr. M. Arnold, 5613 and seq. ; Mi. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., espeo. pp. 21-24, and comments on it in "Journ. of Ed.," 1 Sept., 1880. 14 This involves strict examination by the Medical Supervisor of the district, who must report satisfactorily in respect of physical fitness before any appointment, oven to a new post, can be made. 15 " A boy compelled for six hours a day to see the countenance and hear the voice of a fretful, unkind, hard, or passionate man, is placed in a school of vice."—Dr. Channing. What, then, must be the result for a girl? lfi In addition to references already made, see R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5399 and 5968. " I regard the quality of the teaching as the root of the whole matter."—Mr. M. Arnold, 5963.
89
E".~-42..
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
(5.) That sufficient knowledge of — (a) Gymnastic exercises 1 to conduct physical training-classes ; (b) Physiology and hygiene ; and (c) Competent knowledge of the actions of alcohol and tobacco upon the human body, 2 be indispensable for all certificates. (6.) That the most skilled teachers be allotted to the youngest children. (7.) That provision be made for pensions3 and gratuities. (8.) That, especially in view of the power of example, intoxication or bankruptcy ipso facto cancel the appointment of a teacher, and all claim to notice, compensation, or pension. (9.) That a Chair of Education be established, and pedagogical degrees granted by the New Zealand University.* VIII.—NORMAL SCHOOLS. (1.) That each school aim to— (a) Train teachers; (b) Elevate the educational ideals of the people ; and (c) Assist in formulating a body of educational doctrine. 0 (2.) That the term of study be at least three years, and that practice in teaching under guidance of a normal schoolmaster, judiciously apportioned over the term, be indispensable. 0 (3.) That, in addition to the ordinary course of training, female teachers receive special training, not only in needlework and domestic economy, including cooking and care of the sick, but for infant school tuition. 7 (4.) That the main teaching be conducted by visiting-specialists. 8 (5.) That periodic examination and inspection be by Inspectors specially appointed for the purpose. (6.) (a) The question of fees ; (b) Whether these schools should be, in this Colony, residential institutions ? But that if they are, day-scholars should be admitted ; 9 (c) That the present courses of study be amended, especially in respect of religious instruction (adjusted on same basis as heretofore suggested in respect of children's schools), 10 "morals and manners," medical teaching, industrial theory and practice, physical training, domestic economy (including cooking and care of the sick), and effects of alcohol and tobacco; and that there be a proportionate curtailment of merely literary studies. (7.) Whether the practising schools should be on the premises ? But that, in any event, such schools not to exceed 200 children. 11
Normal schools,
1 In addition to references already made, see 1.E.C., vol. 16, p. 43. 5 In New York Dr. Eichardson's is the text-book used in respect of alcohol. See also the " United States " supra. There is an Anti-Tobacco League in France, and the Minister of Public Instruction there is " so far in sympathy with the league that he allows it to supply all the public schools with tracts on the evils of juvenile smoking." For further details, see P.M. Budget, 13 May, 1880. For recent facts relating to consumption of tobacco in different countries, see P.M. Budget, 21 Oct., 188G, p. 22. 3 In addition to references already made, see— (a) Provisions for retiring allowances in Victoria—the Public Service Act, 1 Nov., 1883, s. 70, and note compulsory age (GO) for retirement; (6) K.E.G., Mr. M. Arnold, 5108, and G293 and seq. ; (c) Dr. Philbrick, p. 116 and seq. ; (d) Canon Cromwell's remarks, 1.E.C., vol. IG, p. 67 ; (c) Sir P. J. Keenan's Address, p. CO; and (/) S. and R.1., 7 Oct., 1884. 4 Not only are there Professors of Education at St. Andrew's and Edinburgh, but " chairs of pedagogics, or didactics, have been established in the Universities ofMichigan, Missouri, lowa, Nebraska, and Wiscon-sin."-—Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 112; and see, for details, p. 115 and seq.
6 See very interesting Manitoba rep. for year ending 31 Jan., 1886 (herewith); R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5G22 and seq. " I think that in some respects more might he done for what you may call the science of teaching. But then the best part of what is called pedagogy abroad, in my opinion, is the history of education, and the biography of educators."—Mr. M. Arnold, R.E.C., 5395. " The gathering up of the educational experience of the past," 539G. And see also Address by Dr. Ed. Brooks, Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 11l and seq. c " A training school without a practising school is nothing but a monstrosity."—Stoy. See also Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., espec. pp. 16-21, and comments thereon in " Journ. of Ed.," 1 Sept., 1886, p. 354; and R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5142, 5485 and seq., and 5529. 7 See " Great Britain " supra, espec. notes on p. i. 8 Note R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, espec. 5111 and 5112. 9 See also R.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5419 and seq. 10 "In every country I have visited but France you may take it there is what we should call denominational or confessional instruction given."—Mr. M. Arnold, R.E.C., 5749. For value of religious instruction in training colleges, see R.E.C., Inspector Sharpe, 4896. 11 See also " Great Britain " —" Teachers " supra.
90
E.—l2
CONCLUSIONS.
IX.—INFANT SCHOOLS. 1 (1.) That infant schools or classes" be established in connection with, but separate from the ordinary elementary schools, and under female teachers specially certificated. (2.) That the " school age " limit defined in section 83 of " The Education Act, 1877/ be amended accordingly. (3.) That such schools or classes be examined and inspected only by women. X.—CLASS NUMBERS. That the numbers in a class be limited. 3 XL—SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION. 4 " How to live ? That is the essential question."s —Heebebt Spencer. (1.) Such religious instruction as may be ordered by School Committees, within their powers. (2.) That " morals and manners " be obligatory in all Standards/ and that pupils be specially impressed with the importance of honour and truthfulness in word and act, justice, cheerful obedience to parents and law, manliness and womanliness, benevolence, resolution, industry, perseverance, punctuality, good manners and language, cleanliness and neatness; that dishonourable dealing, falsehood, deceit, trickery, unfairness, disobedience, baseness, vacillation, idleness, and faintheartedness lead to disaster; and that " sin is a logical sequence of false principles." (3.) That Standards,''' Regulations, and Instructions be revised, not only in respect of morals and manners, but with the object of— (a) Reducing the number of subjects ; 8 (Z>) Rendering the course more healthful, more disciplinary, more practical, and with less of fact-lore ; and
[nfant schools.
Class numbers.
Subjects of instruction.
1 "Infant School Management, with Notes of Lessons on Objects and on the Phenomena of Nature and Common Life," by Sarah ,T. Hale, late Teacher of Method, St. Kaiherine's Training College, Tottenham, now at Newnham, in now in the press, and is said to contain valuable hints and suggestions; published by E. Stanford, London. 2 In addition to references already made, see 1.E.C., vol. 13, p. 78 and seq. 1 See also R.E.C., espec. Mr. M. Arnold, 5927 and seq. * See N.Z. 1877 Act, sees. 84 and 85, and N.Z. Regulations j of 16 June, 1885. On " The Order of Studies," sec Art. by Mrs. Dr. Bryant.—" Journal of Ed.," 1 Sep., 1886, p. 359. On the quality and price of books which should be used J in national schools, see Sir P. J. Keenan's Address, . p. GO. 1 " What is the root-notion common to Secularists and Denominationalists, hut the notion that spread of knowledge is the one thing needful for bettering behaviour. Both having swallowed certain statistical fallacies, there has grown up in them the belief that State education will check evil-doing. Thin faith in lesson-books and readings is one of the superstitions of the age."— Herbert Spencer. " Are not fraudulent bankrupts educated people, and getters-up of bubble companies, and makers of adulterated goods, and users of false trade-marks, and retailers who have lightweights, and owners of unseaworthy ships, and those who cheat insurance com- ! panics, and those who carry on turf-chicaneries, and the great majority of gamblers ? Or, to take a more extreme form of turpitude, is there not among those who have committed murder by poison, within our memories, a considerable number of the educated."— | Herbert Spencer. * See, for instance, courses of study in France and Ha- ! waian Islands. And also, in addition to previous references, note England, E.E.C., Inspector Stewart, 3289 and seq., and 3423 and seq. ; discussion at State Teachers' Associa- i
Won, Cal., U.S.A., 26 and 28 Dec, 1883.—Amer. Oommr. Rep., 1885, p. 25. And " Criticisms on State Education in Victoria," by Fairfleld (Ballarat: J. Curtis, 1886). ' Mr. Matthew Arnold advocates their abolition, R.E.C., 5S33, and 0250, 5827 and seq., thus :— " I should much prefer to sweep them away altogether, and to prescribe the work for each class so many hours in each subject, to approve the books, and to have the teachers better trained." Again, " I think the Standards interfere with intelligent learning." And see 6014 and seq. The difference between the Standard system and the Continental system, as described by Mr. M. Arnold, is—" Our Standards prescribe what every individual child is to do on the examination day in certain subjects. The foreign Lehrplan merely lays down what subjects are to be taught, and how many hours in the week are to bo given to each of them."—B.E.O., 56,930, and see 0130. But see "A Bernese Village School," " Journal of Ed.," 1 Nov., 1886, p. 446. 8 It has been asked, " What is the use of half the subjects taught in a national school to an ordinary artisan? Charles Reade, . . . who was President of the London School Board, and who devoted much of his time to educational matters, after years of careful examination of the matter, came to the conclusion that a common-school education was not an aid to pecuniary success. He did not find after long inquiry that labourers who had had the advantage of instruction in schools received any higher wages or were entitled to better pay than those who had never been at school," &c. In addition to previous references, see Inspector Stewart's evidence, R.E.C., 2367 and 3357; discussion at State Teachers' Assoc, Cal., U.S.A.— Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 25. And Superintendent MacAlister's remarks : " The great need of our educational system of to-day he held to bo simplification, unloading school courses of superfluities that make them heavy, and making sure of reading, writing, and arithmetic," p. 241. But note B.E.C., Mr. M. Arnold, 5340,
91
E.—l2.
92
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
(c) Impressing Inspectors and teachers that education mainly consists in proper influence on 1 and discipline of the child, so as to fit him lo be useful to society and to himself; not in cramming with facts and figures, 1 I also offer the following suggestions 3 : — 1. That ventilation, temperature, light, and other sanitary arrangements be thoroughly regulated and insisted upon. 2. That discipline be strictly enforced, as against teachers and children. 3 3. That grounding be thorough, and processes " more gradual, more natural, more rational." 4 4. That physical training on scientific principles—that is to say, regular and systematized gymnastic exercises, as well as military drill, be increased in quantity and frequency, with the view of developing symmetry of form and strength of body, 0 and so that it be not only obligatory but especially prominent. 5. That industrial theory and practice be blended in and obligatory—thus, not only in respect of manual trades, but in— («) Agricultureo—teach fruit-growing, butter- and cheese-making, poultry-rearing, bcc-culture, &c.; (b) Domestic economy —instruct girls systematically and thoroughly in all the duties of a housekeeper, 7 including how to cooks and how to care for the sick. 9 6. That a love of reading be inculcated; and that children be taught not only how to read but ichat to read. 7. That the effects of alcohol, tobacco, and narcotics generally be taught. 10 8. That lessons from historical experiences be imparted, rather than a mere collection of facts; and that the amendment of " Geography "be considered. 11 9. That any omission or curtailment of other subjects which any of the foregoing propositions and suggestions, if adopted, might require, be at the expense of all matter which would have merely the effect of increasing literary attainments, and of fact-lore. (4.) That the text-books be carefully revised, with the view of carrying out the foregoing propositions and suggestions, and with special reference to this Colony and the practical needs of New Zealand life. (5.) That home-lessons be limited. (G.) That black slates be abolished, and school desks, tables, &c. ; so inclined as to prevent myopia and scoliosis. 13
1 In addition to previous references, see " Journal of Ed.," 1 Nov., ISBG, p. 454—thus : " True education is not a mere memorising of dead facts, it is the right training of the heart and will, and the development of a power of critical judgment by the mind."—Prof. Ernst Haekel of Jena. k In my original report, a reference was also made here to " drawing," but in view of the regulations of 16 June, 1885, mention of it in the text is now omitted. But as the footnotes then inserted may still possibly be useful, they are here given—viz., (a) 1.8.C., vol. 14, p. 2 and scq. ; and (6) R.C., vol. 1, pp. 530, 511, 517, 519, 520, 524, 538, and vol. 3, index, "Drawing." 3 Note address on " The Training of the Will," by Dr. Schseffer. —Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 241. And seo " Journal of Ed.," 1 Nov., 1880, p. 454. 4 See Mr. M. Arnold's (May, 1886) rep., p. 13; and "A Bernese Village School," "Journ. of Ed.," 1 Nov., 1886, p. 446. • " We want a regular system of physical training, from a scientific standpoint, with the view of developing symmetry of form and strength of body."—President S. A. Baer, Pennsylvania Teachers' Assoc, Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 241. In addition to references already made, see— (a) R.C., vol. 1, p. 537 ; (b) 1.E.C.. vol. 14, p. 347 and scq. ; (c) G.R., 1882-83, 18S3-84, p. 25, and 1885-86; (d) Provisions for teaching horticulture in Baden. — " Journ. of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 297. "Autant vaut l'homme autant vaut lo terrain."
7 Note espec. school at Radolfzell, in Germany, referred to in Amur. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 212, " where the aim of the institution is to teach country girls all the duties of the housekeeper in the most systematic manner possible." s Observe provisions for teaching cooking by Brussels Municipal Council.—" Journ. of Ed.," July, ISB6, p. 297 and supra. In the Girls' Normal School at Philadelphia cooking has been substituted for mythology. But note Mr. M. Arnold's disapproval of cooking, K.E.C., 5925. 9 At the school at Radolfzell, a physician teaches girls how to care for the sick.—Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. '212. 10 It may be mentioned, as an addition to previous references, that neither alcohol nor tobacco is allowed to be used in the Normal College for the Blind, L pper Norwood, London. Observe the new disease — "Morphiomania."— P. M, Budget, 25 Nov., 1886, p. 4. Note Bishop Moorhouse's recent remarks on necessity of alcohol in certain cases.— P.M. Budget, 25 Nov., 18S6, p. 3. 11 See "The Placo of Geography in Education."—Proceedings of Royal Geog. Soc, Nov., 188G, p. G9B. 12 Note the new kind of slate of nearly white material proposed, to reduce strain on eyesight. —See " Journ. of Ed.," July, 188G, p. 29G; and Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 23G and stipra. It may be worth while to notice the recent discussion at the London School Board on flogging, and Dr. Arnold's opinion.—See P. M. Budget, 25 Nov., 1880, pp. 6 and 19, and 2 Dec, 188G, p. 11.
E.—l2.
CONCLUSIONS.
XII.—TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 1 (1.) That a system of technical instruction bs established, 2 including a substantial blending of industrial theory and practice into the course of study in all public schools, and including continuation schools 3 —having special reference to developing the agricultural and other material resources of the colony. (2.) Whether there be not scientific talent now available in the Colony which might be utilised for the purpose ?* (3.) Whether it be advisable to establish a central technical college ? 5 XIII.—INSPECTION. 0 (1.) That Inspectors be appointed by, and be solely under the control of, the Government. 7 (2.) That only persons of the highest class, in respect of physical, 8 moral, and scholastic qualifications, and possessing the requisite temperament, be employed j" that appointments in the first instance be probationary; and that, cceteris paribus, preference be given to total abstainers from alcohol. (3.) That needlework and domestic economy, and infant schools and classes, be inspected only by women. (4.) That no school be visited by the same Inspector for more than two years consecutively. (5.) That provision for pensions be made, (6.) That intoxication or bankruptcy ipso facto cancel any appointment, and any claim to notice, compensation, or pension.
L Technical I instruction. I
Inspection.
1 In addition to references already made, note— (a) 1.E.C., vol. 14, espec. pp. 6, 67, &c.; and vol. 13, p. 160; and (6) 8.C., vol. 1, p. 522; vol. 2, and vol. 3, answers 1373 and 7735-7737; and see also review of these reports in Circular of Information, No. 3, U.S.A., 1885, Government Printing Oilice, Washington. Noto school at Radolfzoll, in Germany, " where the aim of the institution is to teach country girls all the duties of the housekeeper in the most systematic manner possible."—Amer. Commr. Rep., p. 212. Attention is also invited to the speech by the Hon. Sir R. Stout, delivered 21 July, 1885, to the House of Representatives, espec. pp. 14 and 17, and to the official correspondence of 1885, and the Circular, dated 19 Jan., 1885, from the Secretary for Education. For " industrial education " among the Hawaians, and the promotion of agricultural and industrial pursuits in the public schools of the Hawaian Islands, see Biennial Report, Honolulu, 1884, p. 15 and scq. ; and Statute 1874, sec. 1. 2 Note the following unanimous resolution passed at the recent (Sept., 1886) Bordeaux Congress : " That it is desirable that manual labour in primary schools of all grades, already established by French law, should be imposed by the Legislatures of other countries." 3 On advisability of such schools, see, in addition to previous references, Sir P. J. Keenan's Address, p. 67; Mr. M. Arnold's opinion, P.M. Budget, 30 Sept., 1886; and " Our Craftsmen," " Nineteenth Century Review," Oct., 188G, p. 530. 1 See R.C., vol. 1, pp. 522 and 537; vol. 2, p. 538; and vols. 3 and 4. 5 For account of technical college recently established in Sydney, see The Colonies and India, 13 Nov., ISBS, p. 22, and 11 Dec, 1885, p. 35; and Australian Times and Anglo-New Zealander," 11 Sept., 1885, p. 26. 6 See N.Z. 1877 Act, s. 97 and se%. ; and Regulations of 16 June, 1885. In addition to references already made, see— (a) British Report of Select Committee on Education, 31 July, 1884; (i) R.0., vol. 3, 3035-3700, Mr. Fitch's evidence; and espec.
(c) B.E.C. In Holland the}' say, " As your Inspector is, so is j'our school." —Dr. Philbrick, p. 14. " Take care how you choose your Inspectors ; they are men whom you ought to look for with a lantern in your hand."—Van den Ende, formerly a chief administrator of the Dutch educational system when the Dutch common schools were the best in Europe; and it is stated that " all authorities agree in attributing their superiority to the exceptional excellence of the supervision."—Dr. Philbrick, p. SG. The instructions to Inspectors in the Manitoba regulations (herewith), are worthy of notice. On inspection in Victoria, sec " Criticisms on State Education in Victoria," by Fail-field (Ballarat : J. Curtis, 1886), espec. p. 24. The farewell address of Mr. Matthew Arnold on his recent retirement from the office of a Senior Inspector of Schools, after an experience of 35 years, when the schoolmasters of the Westminster district presented him with a testimonial is, of course, not only charming, but well worthy of careful attention. For instance, he says: " I think I have had two qualifications for the post—one is that of having a serious sense of the nature and function of criticism. I from the first sought to see the schools as they really were," &c. " And I have been fair, and I have been sympathetic." For further details sec P.M. Budget, 18 Nov., 1886. " The function of educationalists is to discover methods of instruction, the function of Governments, is to discover tests of efficiency."—Sir P. J. Keenan's Address, p. 62. This involves strict examination by a Medical Supervisor, who must report satisfactorily to the Government in respect of physical fitness before any appointment can be made, even to a new district. See " Medical Supervision " sjq>ra. But, in addition to references already made, noto E.E.C., espec. Mr. M. Arnold, 5094 ; and resolution passed at Congress of over 1,000 elementary teachers, held at Hanover, 15 June, 1886: " That no Inspectorship be held by anyone who has not been a practical teacher," &o. See " Journ. of Ed.," 1 Aug., 1886, p. 320 ; and also 1 Sept., 1886, p, 354; and Iv.E.C, Inspector Stewart, 2289 and set}.
93
E.—l2.
EEPOET UPON STATE EDUCATION.
XIV.—HOLIDAYS AND RECESSES. (1.) That, instead of Saturdays, Wednesday and Saturday afternoons be substituted. (2.) That at least ten minutes' recess be allowed during each session. 1 (3.) That the nrid-day interval be never less than one hour. (4.) That lessons cease on thermometer reaching such point as may be fixed for a district by the Medical Supervisor. XV.—SECONDARY AND UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 2* (1.) That no further grants be made except for the purpose of liberally assisting, by means of scholarships 3 and certificates of proficiency (free studentships), such scholars as ought to be aided ;' 1' and even then only if the income of the present endowments be not sufficient to cover the cost of such assistance. 5 (2.) That the income of present endowments be appropriated for the purposes of the general revenue of the colony, except to the extent of such assistance. (3.) That scholarships and certificates be only granted not primarily as rewards, but mainly as a means for, or towards, enabling the pursuit of study. XVI.—SUNDAY OPENING OF MUSEUMS AND LIBRARIES. 6 I also invite attention to the — (a) Recommendation 7 of the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction : " That museums 8 of art and science and technological collections be open to the public on Sundays ;" and
Holidays and recesses.
Secondary and university education.
Sunday opening of museums and libraries.
1 In addition to references already made, the report to the National Council of Education, Wisconsin, July, 1884, on " Recess or no Recess," deserves careful attention. —Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 9C. See also result of omitting recess in New York, p. 192. ■ Note illustration of cost to the colony of university education, p. 4, " Great Britain " supra, footnote. 8 " Mr. Andrew Wilson, the new headmaster of the Melbourne Grammar School, pleads very sensibly for the admission of colonial candidates to the competition for Oxford and Cambridge scholarships."—"Journal of Ed.," July, 1886, p. 372. 1 See N.Z. 1877 Act, sec. 51; and Regulations, And in addition to references already made, see R.C., vol, 3, 7783-7785 ; R.E.C., Inspector Sharpe, 6416 and seq. " I may add I do not think it desirable to mako superior education too cheap and too easily attainable." — Prof. Monck, Trans. Nat. Soc. Sc. Assoc, Dublin, 1881, p. 448. But read Dr. Philbrick, cspec. p. 22. 5 "All State-education should be quite rudimentary, modest in its aims," &c. —F. Harrison, "Contemporary Review," 1 Feb., 1886, p. 277. 0 For mass of recent facts and figures concerning libraries, see "Free Public Libraries," by T. Greenwood (Simpkin and Co., London, 1886), and P.M. Budget, 6 May, 1886, and 2 Dec, 1886, p. 19. See resolution "in favour of well-ordered public libraries as aids to school-work," at Connecticut State Teachers' Assoe., 18-20 Oct., 1883.— Amer. Commr. Rep., 1885, p. 42. " The fact is that the instruction given at the Board Schools may be said to lose half its value unless the desire thus incited to gain knowledge can be gratified by free libraries." Sec Illustrated London News, 24 April, 1886. The eloquent words of Lord Macaulay naturally suggest themselves.—Essays, &c, 1885, p. 347. " In the system of its public free libraries Paris is perhaps unequalled. Next to America, France possesses more free libraries than any other country, for there are now more than I,COO popular free libraries, with over 1,000,000 vols. There arc also 17,500 school libraries, with about 2,000,000 vols." For very full details, see "The Booklover's Paradise." —P. M. Budget, 18 Nov. and 2 Dec, 1860. From the following statement, clipped from the "Publishers' Circular," showing the books published in 1884 and 1885, the relative numbers of educational works can be noted;—
1884. 1885. Divisions. rf g m - § t£ iJO [SJ3 j£O O O QJ £ (DO Q '£ *a *j *a *| Theology, Sermons, Biblical, &c 724 205 030 211 Educational, Classical, Philological ... 543 140 833 119 Juvenile Works and Talcs 603 154 071 142 Novels, Tales, and other Fiction 408 259 455 240 Law, Jurisprudence, &c IG3 ! 11G 72 57 Political and Social Economy, Trade and Coinmerco 203] 3(5 210 4:i Arts, Sciences, and Illustrated Works ... 432 ; 159 204 IC9 Voyages, Travels, Geographical Research 230 05 : in) i 70 History. Biography, See J'.'O ' 18.t S7S 100 Poetry and the Drama 179! 4", 118 140 Year-Books and Serials iu Volumes ... 323 1 ?,'.SI 10 Medicine, Surgery, &c 100 65 Ufl 71 Belles-Lottres, Essays, Monographs ... 100 79 140 74 Miscellaneous, including Pamphlets, not Sermons 208 30 205 35 Totals 4,832 1,541 4,307 1,338 4,832 4,307 Grand totals G.373 ... 5,040 » R.C., vol. 1, p. 538. See also— (a) Presidential Address, 1.E.C., p. 13; (b) Presidential Address, by Mr. Oscar Browning, M.A., Times, 20 Sept., 1884. 8 For papers, &c, on educational value of museums, see 1.E.C., vol. 14, index, "School Museums;" and see Dr. Philbrick, p. 177. For illustrations of the practical results of the Sunday opening of museums, see P.M. Budget, 31 Dec, 1885, p. 21. On 11) March, ISB6, Lord Thnrlow's motion for opening the British Museum and the National Gallery on Sundays was carried in the House of Lords by 76 to 62. Hampton Court picture galleries, the gardens at Kew, and the Painted Hall at Greenwich have been open on Sundays for many years. It has been recently (24 Nov., 1886) resolved, at a meeting of the Beaumont Trustees, London, "That, on completion of the People's Palace, the trustees will open the library and reading-rooms, the swimming baths, and the grounds of the institution during certain hours on Sunday." The workshops and classes will be closed. At the same meeting it was resolved, " That the Beaumont Trustees will not apply for a license for the sale of intoxicating liquors." See, however, in respect of such Sunday opening, opinion of the Secretary of Working Men's Lord's Day Rest Association,—P.M. Budget, 21 Dec, 1886.
94
e;—l6.
CONCLUSIONS.
(b) The tendency of public opinion in Europe in the direction of making public libraries 1 similarly available. I cannot adequately express the anxiety with which I have pursued investigations upon Concluding a subject which so involves the. future prosperity of this Colonyc and the individual happiness romarksof its inhabitants. But exactly because the questions at issue involve so much, lam deeply impressed with the conviction that they should be approached, not avoided. 3 Meantime, I feel " how difficult is this problem of education, and how, in spite of the reforms we have made, and of the activity that prevails in the educational world, we are yet but on the threshold of the question."* " We scatter seeds with careless hand, And dream we ne'er shall see them more ; But for a thousand years, Their fruit appears, In weeds that mar the land, Or healthful store." R. LAISHLEY.
1 " Precious catacombs, wherein are embalmed and preserved imperishably the great minds of the dead who will never die." For opening of British Museum Library, see Lord Thurlow's motion, supra. J " The Comparative Tables of Information as to the Education Systems of " the other Australasian Colonies (copy herewith), compiled some years since by Mr. John A. Hartley, Inspector-General of Schools in South Australia, have not been since revised; and eonsequently some of the statements therein are, as applying to the present time, incorrect. But the most recent Educational Statutes, Regulations, and
Eeports of the Australian Colonies and Tasmania, are forwarded herewith, so that full and reliable information may be obtained therefrom, if desired. The Colonies have been recently designated as " A great educational institution."—See P.M. Budget, G May, 1886. 3 Sap^re aude. —Solon. * Prof. Seeley, Art. in " N.C.," Dec, 1885, on " Insular Ignorance," p. 865. The Professor, however, uses the word "unmanageable," where I have used "difficult." See also "An Address on Education," by Rev. E. Thring, M.A.—" Journal of Ed.," June, 1886.
95
E—l2:
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
CONTENTS. T T PAGF. I-—lntroductory Remarks .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 97 ll.—General and Distinctive Features .. .. .. .. .. .. 98 Features common to all the countries except Great Britain .. .. .. .. 98 Further feature common to Germany, Switzerland, and Italy .. .. .. .. 98 United States .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 08 Germany .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 98 Belgium .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 98 France .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 98 Switzerland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 98 Great Britain .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 98 lll.—National Aid ... ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. ga National duty .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 98 Great Britain .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 99 Franco .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 99 Switzerland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100 Italy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100 Germany .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100 Belgium .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100 United States .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100 IV.—Method .: .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100 " Pure oral " ] "Manual" - .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100 " Combined") Supporters of the different systems .. .. .. .. .. .. 101 Advantages of the " pure oral " .. .. .. .. .. .. 102 V.—Schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 102 Tabular Statement .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 102 Great Britain .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 103 France .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 103 Switzerland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 104 Italy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 104 Germany .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 104 Belgium .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 105 Lnited States .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 105 Tabular Statement of subjects of studies .. .. .. .. .. 106 Vl.—Training Colleges .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 107 Opinion divided re advisability .. .. .. .. .. .. 107 Continent of Europe and the United States .. .. .. .. .. 107 Great Britain .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 107 Italy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 107 Germany .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 107 Belgium .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108 Vll.—lndustrial Training .. .. .. .. ... .. .. 108 Great Britain .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108 Franco .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108 Switzerland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108 Italy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108 Germany .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108 Belgium .. .. .... .. .. .. .. 108 United States .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108 Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 109 Vlll.—London Board Schools, and the Rev. W. Stainer's "Homes" .. .. .. 110 London Board-schools .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 110 "Homes" .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11l IX.—Conclusions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 112 Tabular Statement .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 112* X.—Suggestions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 112 (1.) Special training—compulsory .. .. .. .. .. .. 112 (2.1 Mixed " pure oral" day-schools in each centre .. .. .. .. .. 112 (3.) Boarding-out of scholars .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 112 (4.) General management and inspection .. .. .. .. .. 112 (5.) Supply of specially-trained female teachers .. .. .. .. .. 112 (6.) Drill, gymnastic and Kindergarten exercises .. .. .. .. .. 112 (7.) Fees and industrial instruction .. .. .. .. .. .. 112 (8.) That general education propositions, so far as applicable, be adopted .. .. .. 112 Probable results if propositions carried out .. .. .. .. .. 112 Thanks for aid .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 114 Appendix, List op publications .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 115 Index .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 122
E.—l2,
DEAF-MUTE INSTEUCTION.
DEAF-MUTE INSTEUCTION. 1
I.—INTRODUCTOEY REMARKS. " The expression ' Deaf and Dumb ' is a misnomer, though, strange enough, in almost every European language we find the same terms. Discard the idea from your mind that this means a double affliction. The only defect ia deafness,' dumbness is the unfortunate result."—Van Peaagh.3 It is not within the scope of my report to inquire into the causes of the deaf-mute affliction ; 3 or whether it is a national duty to interfere in order to prevent such as are preventible ;* or to cure any cases that may be curable ; 5 and how such cures may be effected. 0 It is, of course, for me only to present the educational aspects of the question, 7 and for those who desire to inquire further into the subject, I would refer them to the publications mentioned in the Appendix hereto. "It is computed that the number of persons deaf and dumb, of all ages throughout the world, exceeds one million. Taking the proportion as lin every 1,500 s of the world's population, the number has been given as 1,082,132.° Excluding, as we must do, all uncivilized countries, remembering that the education of this class is the product of Christianity and civilization, and is almost entirely confined to Europe, America, and a few British Colonies, 10 it is no wonder, says Dr. Buxton, 11 from whom I quote, that while the approximate number of deaf children of school age would, on this reckoning, be 180,000, 12 the highest tables which have been recorded place the total on the school registers below 30,000." 13 In order to give an insight into the subject, I propose to write, as relating to the different countries, under the following headings : " General Features/' " National Aid," " Method," " Schools," " Training Colleges," " Industrial Training," and " London Board Schools," and " The Rev. W. Stainer's Homes."
Note.— For fuller description of publications quoted, see Appendix. 1 A Royal Commission was appointed this year (1S86) in England to inquire into the Education of the Blind and Deaf and Dumb. — See "Quarterly Review of Deaf-mute Education." London, W. H. Allen and Co. (herein termed Q.R.), April, 1886, p. 55. 2 (a) See Conference papers of 10 Jan., 1878, and 30 May, 1882, pp. 4 and 3, 4 ; (b) Official Report of Conference held 30 June, 1884, at Health Exhibition, London (called hereafter 0.R.), pp. 3, 22, 28 ; and (c) Presidential address by Prof. Bell at convention of teachers, New York, 25 June, 1884, reported in " American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb " (hereafter termed A.A.), Oct., 1884, p. 239. But note— (a) Distinction between " dumb " and " mute" in Webster's "Unabridged Dictionary," under word " mute ;" and see " Seventeenth Annual Report of Clarke Institution" (hereafter termed C.I. rep.); and (6) Chambers's Encyc. Art., " Deaf and Dumb," by Dr. Buxton (hereafter termed C.E.), re translation " Deaf," " Dumb," and " Speechless." 3 "Deaf-mutism," &c.,by Dr. Hartmann (hereafter termed Dr. H.), see Appendix, p. 51 and seq. ; also work by Fr. Kobrich (see Appendix) noticed in Q.R., Jan., 1886, p. 32. 1 " Legal regulations with regard to the marriage of deafmutes do not exist," Dr. H., p. 191. 5 " On the Education of Incurably-Deaf Children," by Sir W. B. Dalby, see Q.R., April, 1886, p. 47. 6 See— (a) " Diseases and Injuries of the Ear," by W. B. (now Sir) Dalby, F.R.C.S., M.B. (Churchill, London, 1880); (6) Dr. H., p. 97 and seq. 7 Note statement of Mgr. Dupanloup of the true aim of education, A.A., April, 1878, p. 140.
13—E. 12.
s Official Catalogue of International Health Exhibition, London, 1884, Art. by Dr. Buxtdn, p. 43 (hereafter termed 0.G.). See also— («) Dr. 11. ; (b) Penny Encyclopaedia; (c) Paper by Mr. Kinsey in " For their Sakcs;" but especially— (a)Articlo by Dr. Buxton, Q.8., Jan., 1886, p. 20, " Statistics : Leading and Misleading ; " and (e) Q.R., April and July, pp. 43 and 93. Note Census Return (hereafter termed C. Eep.) for 1881, N.Z., pp. 15 and 274, 1 in 4,298, excluding Natives. 8 0.C., see also— (a) 0.E., p. 34; (6) Compto-rendu du Congres International, Milan, 1880 (hereafter termed G.R.), p. 255 ; (c) Troisieme Congres International, Bruxelles, 1883 (hereafter termed T.C.), p. 20 ; (d) Dr. 11., pp. 202, 44, and seq. But see— (o) Statisque Generate par Prof. Mottinet, 1883 (hereafter termed S.G.) ; and (b) 1.C., p. 260. 10 Note interesting statistics re India, T.C., p. 120 ; and Q.R., Oct., 1886, p. 125. 11 Vice-President of Conferences of Headmasters of 1877 and 1881, until lately Secretary, Ealing Training College, and now one of the editors of the " QuarterlyReview of Deaf-mute Education," &c. 13 But note Dr. Buxton's estimate in paper read at Sheffield (hereafter called Sheffield Paper), 7 Aug., 1879. 13 0.0., also A.A., Jan., 1883. But notefa) C.R., p. 256; (b) A.A., 7 Oct., 1884; (c) Encyc. Brit., 1877 (hereafter termed E.8.); and (d) Times, 17 Sep., 1884, re Norway. See also espec. Dr. Buxton's recent article as above, Q.R., Jan,, 1886, pp. 17-20; "Further Observations on Statistics," Q.li., April, 1886, p. 43, and Q.R July, 1886, pp. 93 and 94.
97
E.—l2.
KEPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
lI.—GENERAL AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES. There are certain general features, and in each case at least one distinctive feature, in the countries written of in my General Report, which deserve attention. In all of them, except Great Britain, 1 a certain number of the institutions, and where . necessary, the pupils at them, are maintained or aided by public grants. In Germany, 2 Switzerland, :i and Italy I —perhaps with one exception o —all the institutions are conducted upon the " pure oral '' system. Italy, in relation to that system, is especially noteworthy, for there on the whole 0 the best results have been obtained. 7 The Milan training institution is probably the best in Europe, although the United States, for general excellence, notwithstanding the majority of its institutions are not conducted upon the lip-reading principle, has not been approached; and deaf-mutes, rich as well as poor, are there adopted as " wards of the commonwealth." 8 In Gekmany, whence the " pure oral" method originally sprang, we find far more schools than in any other country 9 —indeed, more than in all the New World; although in Belgium, according to area, there are more institutions than in any other country. 10 France also presents an interesting feature, inasmuch as notwithstanding that the " manual" system had its origin there, and that Germany gave birth to and has fostered the rival process, she has adopted the " pure oral" method in her three national institutions, and, indeed, in sixty out of the remaining sixty-seven of her other schools; 11 whilst at " Riehen," in Switzerland, there is, probably, the best school in Europe. 6 So that there seems to be at least one phase calling for notice in each country ; that in Great Britain being the absence of State support or aid. lII.— NATIONAL AID. 12 " The education of the deaf is more expensive than that of other children, for two reasons—viz., they require more individual attention, and, being sparsely scattered over the country, it is necessary that they should in most cases be boarded and lodged, as well as educated." 13 State aid is therefore requisite. But "deaf-mutes have peculiar claims upon our sympathy; they are with and among us, and yet not of us ; untaught, they are a race apart; and to bridge over the gulf which separates them from their fellow-men^ to reduce their awful disadvantages to a minimum, and, so far as is possible, to administer instruction to them through that one entrance from which it were else shut out, and place them fairly on a level with ourselves, is surely one of the noblest works which man can perform." 14'
The feature comcountries exoent Great Britain. Further feature common to (Jermany, Switzerland, and Italy. United States
Germany.
Belgium. Franco.
Switzerland.
Great Britain,
National duty.
1 Until January last (188G), when the first number of " The Quarterly Review of Deaf-mute Education" was issued in London* there was no periodical publication in Great Britain devoted to the subject of " Deafmutism ; " although in the United States (" Annals of the Deaf and Dumb"), Germany, France, and Italy, it was otherwise. See paper " Tho State in Relation to the Deaf," by Mr. Ackers, hereafter mentioned. Note tho new "International Keview " —" Lo Surdopkonej" Q.E., April and July, 1886, pp. Gl and 94. s See S.G. 3 See (a) S.G. ; and (6) A.A., Jan., 1883. i See— (a) S.G.; (b) " Nineteenth Century," Oct., 1884, " Our Deaf and Dumb " (hereafter termed N.C.); (c) A.A., April, 1878, p. 99 ; and \d) C.E., but note. 6 A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 239, and Jan., 1883, p. 61. 6 Perhaps a solitary instance of superiority at Eiehon, Basle, see Dr. H., p. 186. ' See also— (a) C.E., pp. 207 and 201 ; (b) A.A., Jan., 1879, p. 35; icj April, 1878, p. 99 ; (d) Dr. Buxton's paper in " For their Sakes," p. 199 ; (c) Times, Milan Correspondence, 10, 13, 22, and 25 Sept., 1880, and Art. 28 Sept.; and (/■) Paper by Mr. Elliott on Milan Congress of 22 June, 1881, pp. 7 and 19. s E.8., see also Dr. H., p. 183 ; and Amer. Commr. Eep., 1885, Washington Govt. Printing Office. » See (a) T.C.; (6) A.A., Jan., 1883, p. 61; and
(c) Paper by Mr. Sehontheil, " On Some Schools for the Deaf and Dumb in Germany, and the Training of Teachers there." — Proceedings of Conference, London, July, 1885, p. 70. For review of those Proceedings, see Q.8., April and July, 1886. For Austrian statistics, see Dr. H., p. 214. 10 See T.C., p. 24. I' See— (a) S.G.; (b) A.A., Jan., 1883; (c) " Rapport du Oongres do Paris de 1878 ; " and (d) Q.R., July, 1880, p. 98. But note Dr. H., p. 187. On teaching the system in France, see "Le Sourd Parlant eours methodique et intentif de langue Francaise a l'usage des etablisscments des Sourds-muets," par M. Snyckers, Director of tho Royal Institution at Liege. Paris, Geo. Carre ; Brussels, A. Maneeaux, 1885. " It is really astonishing in how short a time France has laid aside her old mode of teaching, and adopted the oral system."—Q.R., July, 188G, p. 9G. 12 A parliamentary return is shortly to be made—if it be not yet made—of the public contributions in each principal country of Europe (except Russia), and the United States. See Q.R., April, 1886, p. 55. 13 Times, 2 Sept., 1884; see also Dr. H., p. 183. Note New Zealand expenditure, N.Z. rep. ( 188G. 14 For " May an uneducated deaf child bo a competent witness?" see A.A., Oct., 1886, p. 272; Mr. Van Praagh, 0.R., p. 12 ; and see Q.R., Oct., 1886, p. 114. "It is emphatically a religious work," Dr. Buxton, Q.K., July, 1886, p. 81; and see " The Importance of Special Religious Services for Deaf-mutes," A.A. Oct., 1886, p. 237.
98
DEAF-MUTE INSTEUCTION.
E.—l2
National Aid. The recognition of national duty was unanimously expressed at the Milan Congress 1 in the form of the following resolution : " Considerant qu'un grand nombre de sourds-muets ne recoivent pas lc bienfait dc l'instruction qu'elle provicnt dc l'impuissance des families ct des Instituts Emet le voeu Quc les Gouvcrnements prenncnt les dispositions necessaircs pour que tous les sourds-muets soient instruits." 3 It will be interesting to show how far the different nations support, or aid, deaf-mute education. (1.) Great Britain is the only country where the Government does not maintain on assist. The Right Hon. A. J. Mundella, in replying to a letter on the subject, stated that "At the present time no cognisance whatever is taken of the deaf by the Education Department;" 3 and Dr. Buxton, in his "Notes of Progress in the Education of the Deaf," writes: 4 "It is certainly not to our credit to know that in every country but our own, wherever the deaf are educated at all, they arc educated with State aid. Even our fellow subjects, when they live under a colonial Government, 5 freely tax themselves for the education of their deaf children. The British tax-payer alone, among all civilised Christian men, enjoys immunity from taxation for the instruction of those who, under the name of the abnormal classes —those without hearing, without sight, and without ordinary mental power—are the special care of even such a poor country as Norway, that country having as recently as 1881 consolidated, reaffirmed, and developed all its previous beneficent legislation for the compulsory education of the classes named." fi There arc, however, nine schools, or classes, maintained by the London School Board, founded under the following circumstances : The Board, finding it to be practically impossible to teach " deaf and dumb children along with the ordinary day scholars," 7 and that there were some hundreds of children requiring special educational treatment, for which no provision had been made, determined to supply the need, and appointed the Rev. W. Stainer to superintend the general organization and conduct of separate schools, or classes, for the purpose. These will be treated of more particularly hereafter. 8 There are nine other Board Schools in Great Britain which have been established under similar circumstances. 9 (2.) In France, deaf-mute institutions, carried on for purposes other than those ofp private profit, are liberally maintained, or aided, by the State. 10 There are three national establishments —Paris (boys, founded 1760), Bordeaux (girls, 1785), and Chambery (1841), which are solely sustained by the Government, and to which there is an annual grant made of about 700,000frs. Besides this, the General Councils of the Departments vote each year a certain number of snms ("bourses"), which they distribute amongst various deaf-mute institutions : and also send annually some deaf-mutes, who are unable to pay, to institutions; and to these scholars are allotted 400frs. or SOOfrs. each for training and maintenance. The Government, however, does not charge itself with the care of pupils after they leave the institutions. The system really amounts to this : that all deafmutes in France who ought to have, can have, special training, and board and residence whilst receiving it, if too poor to pay. 11
Great Britain,
Franco,
1 Nearly 200 experts were present " from almost every country in the world where the education of the deaf is carried on at all " (Germany alone excepted). —Dr. Buxton in " For their Sakes," p. 197. The next International Congress is to be at Frankfort-on-the-Main, in Aug. or Sept., 1887. 2 C.R., p. 195 ; and see — (a) " International Congress Proceedings," by A. A. Kinscy (herein termed 1.C.P.); and (b) Report of Doncaster Conference, 30, 31 May, 1882 (herein termed D.R.), pp. 9 and 60. 8 0.R., p. 33; and see Times, 17 March, 1885 ; and espec. paper by Mr. Ackers, " The State in Relation to the Deaf," Proceedings, London Conference, July, 1885, p. 106; and see resolutions passed, p. 126. * Reprinted in A.A., Jan., 1883, pp. 34-37. 8 See, for instance — (a) "New Zealand report," 1886 (hereafter termed N.Z. rep.), see 1885 report, which gives a brief history of the Sumncr school; (6) Times, 2 Sept., 1884, re Nova Scotia; (c) N. C.; (d) 0.E.; le) D. E. ; (/) B. B. 6 See also Dr. Thompson's letter, Times, 17 Sept., 1884. Note, however, hopo for the futuro : see Mr. Gladstone
on State-aid, Q.R., April, 188G, p. 55; that a Royal Commission, as above-mentioned, has been appointed in England; that three of H.M. Inspectors have, in accordance with instructions, reported ; and tiiat Manchester School Board have passed resolution. See Q.R., April, 1886, pp. 56 and 57. 7 See "Circular issued by London School Board," 4 Feb., 1884 (hereafter termed Circular). 8 See infra. 9 Leeds, Sheffield, Nottingham, Leicester, Bradford, Bristol, Glasgow (Govan), Greenock, and Dundee; and see table of Public Institutions in the United Kingdom for the year 1885, in " Proceedings" of Conference held at London, July, 1885 (W. H. Allen and Co., London). 10 See espec. "Rapport au Ministre de l'lnterieur sur le resultat des examens pour la delivrance des certificats d'aptitudo concernant l'enscignement des sourdsmuets." — Imprimerie des journaux officiels, Paris ISS6; and see Q.R., July, 1886, p. <JB. " See— (a) Address by Mr. Woodall, M.P., President of Conference, London, July, 1885, " Proceedings," p. 123; (b) "Revue Internationale," &c, as above, Feb., 188G, p. 283 ; and (c) Q.R., July, 1886, p. 98,
99
E.—l2.
EEPOET UPON STATE EDUCATION.
National Aid. (3.) There are no Federal institutions in Switzerland: but in some cases, as at Frienisberg (Berne) and Hohenrcin (Lucerne), the establishments are administered at the sole expense of the respective cantons. Those at Moudon (Vaud) and Geneva (town) are private institutions, but receive bursary pupils from the cantonal Governments; and the others, including those at Zurich, Riehen, St. Gallon, Berne, Aarau, Zoringcn, Baden, and Geneva, have been founded, and are maintained, by benevolent societies ; but the several cantons, in which the respective establishments are situated, accord to them small subsidies. (4.) There are three Royal deaf-mute institutions in Italy, but only the one at Milan is maintained solely by the Government, and it receives an annual grant of about 9O,OOOlire ; the other two, one at Genoa and the other at Naples, with nine other similar institutions, merely receiving State subsidies. But, nevertheless, many children who ought to be instructed are not educated for want of means. 1 (5.) In Prussia, as I am informed by Dr. Treibel, the Director of the Royal School at Berlin, in addition to it and a normal college for training teachers annexed, both supported entirely by the State, there are thirty-four schools provided for out of the State purse, and seventeen by towns, villages, or associations, or by legacies, or private persons ;~ and the arrangements are such that in several of the German States, as in the United States, all deaf-mutes receive special instruction. 3 (6.) The institutions in Belgium are all private ones, except one at Ghent, maintained by the province of Brabant; 1' and to these the Government give considerable subsidies from time to time. Aid is also granted in all individual cases requiring it; so that all deafmute children, unable to pay, can enter a school and have the entire cost of education, board, and clothing defrayed by the provinces and the communes, except in the case of the provinces of Brabant and Namur ; 5 and these public contributions are now regulated by a law of the 14th March, 1876. (7.) The schools in the United States are voluntary, but the Government is most liberal in supporting them. 0 "Deaf-mute instruction is gratuitous for all classes, as well for the rich as for the poor; 7 and it is the only large country in which such arrangements arc made that all deaf-mutes can be instructed." 8 But, apart from any question of State frugality, such indiscriminate liberality seems quite unnecessary; and, moreover, tends to weaken the feelings of parental duty and personal self-reliance. Indeed, one of the ablest workers in the cause said, at a recent conference, " One of the commonest fallacies of the parents of deaf children, and particularly of those who belong to the poorer classes, is that they ought to be released from the expense of procuring board for their deaf children, and send them to asylums where everything will be gratuitously provided for them. Now, this is plainly a pauperising system as regards the parents, and a demoralising one as regards the children." 3 IV.—METHOD. There are three methods 10 of teaching deaf-mutes, namely: (1) "Pure oral" (German or lip-reading) ; (2) "Manual" (French or silent); 11 and (3) "Combined."
Switzerland.
Italy.
Germany.
Belgium.
United States.
" Pure oral." " Manual." " Combined."
' See C.E., p. 166. 2 See also " Beitriigo zur Geschichto und Statistik des Taubstummen-Bildungswesens in Prenssen" (hereafter termed Beitriige), p. 112, and compare with Dr. H.'s figures, p. 183. For notice of it see Q.R., Jan., 188C, p. 31. 3 See also Dr. H., p. 183, for further details ; and also paper by M. Schontheil as above, and " Revue Internationale," &c, as above, Feb., ISBG, p. 271. 4 See— (a) " Inspector General's Report, 1883 " (hereafter termed I.G. rep.), p. 4 ; (b) S.G.; and (c) " Institut Provincial de Sourds-Muets du Brabant," " Revue Internationale," as above, Feb., 1886, p. 275. * See T.C., pp. 32 and 83. e See Amer. Commr. Rep. on Education, 1885, Government Printing Office, Washington; and for laws of New York State see " Eighteenth Annual Report of New York Institution," 1885 (hereafter termed N.Y. rep.), pp. 43-47. ' Dr. T. Gallaudet, of New York, see T.C., p. 214. 8 Dr. H., p. 183. Noto also Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Nova Scotia. (a) C.R., pp. ICS and IG6 ;
(b) Times, 2 and 17 Sept., 1884; and (c) N.Z. rep., 18S6. 11 Mr. Van Praagh, see Q.R., p. G. See also Mr. Pitch's memorandum on Dr. (now Sir) C. Brown's Rep., p. 77. 10 See, for instance— (a) Conference paper as above of 10 Jan., 1878, p. 7, and (6) 0.K., pp. 4 and 19. For clear definitions see Amor. Com. liop. on Eduoation, 1884, for ISB2-83, p. 192 ; (c) Article on " Lip-reading," by .Mr. Van Praagh, Q.R., Jan., 188G, p. 4 ; and paper by Mr. Van Praagh, on " The Pure Oral, or German, System : How to Ensure and Maintain its Success," Proceedings, London Conference, July, 1885, p. 79 ; (d) Paper, " Since 1881," by Dr. Buxton, read at London Conference, July, 1885, see Proceedings, pp. G and 7 ; and (e) Paper "On Teaching Language to Deaf-mutes," by Itev. T. Arnold, p. 34. See also paper by him, written for Paris Congress of French Teachers of Deaf-mutes, Aug., 1885, Q.R. July, 188G, p. G9. 11 "I'll speak to thee in silence."—Cymb., act v., sc. 1. See espec. a curious and bijou work, "The Manual Alphabet," by Professor Gordon, Washington, New York, and Chicago: Brentang Bros., publishers, 1886; and also " The Manual Alphabet as a part of the Public School Course."—A.A., Oct., 188G, p 233.
100
E.—l2
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
Method. The " pure oral" now prevails in by far the greater number of the deal-mute institutions of the world: 1 but not in the majority of those in Great Britain; although it is the system pursued in the training colleges, and in the Board schools. It is to be noted, however, that the divergency in regard to method, and other processes, between deaf-mute institutions in different countries is yearly becoming less, in consequence, mainly, as I infer, from international congresses- and national conferences and conventions; where the proceedings of experts arc compared, and a common course of procedure in all essential particulars recommended. The main supporters of the " pure oral" method are the Germans, 3 Italians, Austrians ! (including Hungarians, Dutch, and Swiss), in whose countries all deaf schools, with, perhaps, \ the one Italian exception already referred to, arc taught upon that system :'* whilst those who mainly disregard it are the Americans, who have only, in the United States, 15 "pure oral" schools 5 out of 61 there; Swedes, who in ]883 had only 3 out of 17 f' Sjxiniards, Brazilians, Japanese, Mexicans, and Portuguese: none of whose schools were in 1881 conducted upon the lip-reading principle. 0 The three Australian institutions do not appear in the " pure oral" list, 0 which accounts, I conclude, for the fact that deaf-mutes are sometimes sent from Australia to be educated at Surrmer. 7 But I understand that in each of the institutions of Melbourne and Sydney there is an orally-taught class. There was an almost unanimous declaration in favour of the " pure oral" method, after very full discussion, 8 at the International Congress held, at Milan in 1880, which declaration was not disturbed at the subsequent congress held at Brussels. 9 The authorities, pro and contra, on method are innumerable : 10 it is a main point of discussion; but the orally taught, 11 when the system is. thoroughly acquired, have the immeasurable advantages— 1 («) Of being able to hold communication with the general world, instead of with only a limited class, and that in a natural way; (b) Of ceasing to feel singular or isolated; 12 and, moreover, (c) Arc physically thereby greatly improved in health, and in many cases saved from premature death. 13 On the question, whether equal facility in conversing can be, apart from exceptional instances, 14 acquired by the deaf as is practised by the normal, I can only say that opinion is not unanimous; and that, as yet, I have not seen such proficiency as enables me to answer the question in the affirmative. But the permanent retention by the pupils of the acquirements of lip-reading and speaking seems established according to the authorities; and the very explicit declaration of the Milan Congress, and the discussions which preceded it, arc well worth noting. 1"
Supporters of t»e different systems.
Advantages of tlie "pureoral,
1 See— (a) S. G.; (b) A. A., Jan., 1883, p. 61, Oct., 1884, pp. 317 and 239 ; (c) Dr. Buxton's paper in "For their Sakes," espec. p. 201. "Hearing with the Eyes," see article on "Lip-reading" as above. Note espec. the progress in France, Q.R., July, 1886, p. 98 ; and " Lo Sourd Parlant," &e., as above. 3 (a) Paris, 1878 ; (6) Milan, 1880 ; and (c) Brussels, 1883. Note some of the wonderful consequences of Milan Congress given by Dr. 8., in " For their Sakes," pp. 199 and 200. The recent discussion on this subject at London Conference, July, 1885, deserves careful attention. See " Proceedings," p. 19. 3 See M. Sohontheil's paper, as above. 4 Seefa) S. G.; (6) A. A., Jan., 1883, p. 61, and Oct., 1884, p. 239; and (c) Dr. Buxton's paper in " For their Sakes," p. 201. But note also France, Q.R., July, 1886, p. 98; and "Le Sourd Parlant," &c, as above. s A. A., vol. 29, No. 1, p. 25 (1884), and compare with A. A., Jan., 1883, p. Gl, and Oct., 1884, espec. pp. 317 and 318. » See (a) S. G.; and (6) A. A., Jan., 1883, p. 61. But note Norway six out of seven " pure oral." » See N.Z. rep., 1886. Thero is one pupil now (1880) from South Australia. • Four dissentients (3 Americans, 1 English) out of 161 experts (of whom none wero Germans, save perhap3 one) on first declaration, and loss tha 16 out of 150 on second; see
{a) I. C. P., and Times, Sept., 18 W ; (b) C. R., pp. 37-102, and 103-116 ; (c) O. o.| p. 44 (although votes given incorrectly) ; ami (d) O. It., p. 19. Note remarkable exhibition of proficiency at Milan, Times, 10 Sept., 1880, and for admirable account of whole congress, Times, 13, 29, 25, and 28 Sept., 1880. But note that Pro.f Fornari stated certain votes of minority given under misapprehension. 9 See Dr. Buxton's paper in "For their Sakes," p. 200. 10 For some interesting authorities seo M. in appendix. 11 It is estimated that 99 out of 100 can acquire the pnro oral methodi (a) Paper of 10 Jan., 1878, as above ; (b) O. C, p. 46 ; and (c) Quotation by Mr. (now Sir W. B.) Dalby on p. 22 of his 1872 pamphlet. 12 Seo O. It., p. 5. 1° See— (a) O. C., p. 46; (b) C. rep., 1881, for England and Wales, pp. 63 and 64 ; (<?) Note espoc. Paper written by Dr. Symes Thompson for Milan Congress, pp. 135-141, and espee. 113. H N o te— (n) Brilliant instances in Times, 19 Sept., ISS4 ; and (6) M. Havstadt, a deaf-mute, of Christiana, conversed in Dr. Buxton's presence in three languages, in London,lBB3; (c) But on this subject seo valuable Papers, by Mr. R. Elliott, on "Tests of Work," Proceedings, London Conference, July, 1885, p. 11 and seq., and noto discussion thereon; on " Teaching Languages to Deaf-mutes," by Itev. T. Arnold, p. 34; and " Our Pupils and their Future," Q.8., April, 1886, p. 33, 15 See C. R,, pp. 195 and 196.
101
E.—l2.
BEPOET UPON STATE EDUCATION.
V.—SCHOOLS. 1 In order that it may be realised what schools should exist in each country for the education of deaf-mutes, a tabular statement is here presented, made up according to the latest returns that I have been able to procure.
Tabular Statement of Population Statistics relating to Deaf and Dumb.
Tabular statement of populn.' tion statistics.
1 For " Des conditions d'Admission des Sourds-Muets a l'ecole" par C. Perini, see " Revue Internationale " de I'cnseignement des sourds-muets, Feb., 1886; Paris, G. Carre. And for a recent paper on " School Management," by Mr. Thomson, including the Teacher, the Schoolroom, Classification, Organization, and Discipline, see " Proceedings, London Conference," July, 1885, p. 30, and " Revue Internationale," Feb., 1886, as above, p. 261. 2 Dr. Buxton states that the number of deaf children of the school age is always reckoned as 16 per cent, of the whole deaf population, Sheffield paper, p. 8. But see Dr. Buxton's recent article as above, Q.R., Jan., 1886, p. 18; and also Q.R., April, 1886, p. 43 and seq., and July, 1886, p. 93. 8 C. rep., vol. 2, Gen. Rep., pp. 64 and 65, and vols. 3 and 4, p. 45, and compare with (a) C. rep., 1871, showing 11,518=1 in 1,972; and (b) N.Z. C. rep., pp. 15 and 274, showing only 1 in 4,298. But 1886 returns not yet published. But refer to valuable article by Dr. Buxton, Q.R., Jan., 1886, pp. 17-20. " Statistics : Leading and Misleading," as above, Q.R., April-July, 1886, pp. 43 and 93. 4 Compare with N.Z. C. rep., prior to 1886 ; 1886 returns not yet published. 102 per million. 5 See Times, 4th Sept., 1884, Mr. Barrett's letter. But see (a) C. rep., vols. 3 and 4, p. 26; and (6) Rep. Conference held at London, 22-24 Juno, 1881. " The actual number of deaf children of school age in this country is not known, nor can it be accurately ascertained from any existing data."—Dr. Buxton,
Q.R., Jan., 1886, p. 17. But see "Further Observations on Statistics," Q.R., April, 1886, p. 43 and seq. ; and Q.R., July, 1886, p. 93. The deaf-mute population of London for 1886 is said to be 1,972; see Q.R., April, 1886, p. 63. The number of blind children reported on the rolls of public schools in Great Britain, 21 War., 1884, was 130. These receive special instruction in special classes. c C. rep., pp. 14 and 15, and compare with C. rep., 1871, showing 2,087=1 in 1,610. For what is being done for the blind in Great Britain, see article on " The Normal College for the Blind," " Sunday at Home," March, 18SG, p. 169. The blind arc there taught on the Kindergarten system. ' C. rep., p. 53, but note Dr. H., p, 187, 22,610, 5,652 school age, and note great decrease since 1853 return, lin 1,212 persons. E.B. 8 For further details re Prussia, see Beitmge, pp. 7 and 12, and compare with (a) Statistics in Dr. H., p. 204, for 1875; (6) T. C, pp. 117 and 118; (c) G. R., p. 255, and for 1871 ; Id) K B. But there was a census taken in Germany on 1 Doc, 1885; see preliminary results in "Proceedings of Royal Geog. Soc," April, 1886, p. 270. 9 See T. o.| p. 24, and compare with B. B. statistics for 1835,1,746=1 in 2,226. Note superior average even now. 10 See A. A., Oct., 1884, p. 326, and compare with 1870 statistics in E. 8., 16,150,1 in 2,388, and note Dr. H., 1870, 16,205, p. 188.
102
Name of Country. Date. Total number Deaf and Dumb Malcs- Femalee. of all ages. Proportions and General Remarks. (1.) England and Wales 3 1881. 14,874 8,043 6,831 Between 5 and 15 years of age, 3,508 (1,862 males and 1,646 females), equal to 590 per million. 4 Of all ages the proportion of deaf and dumb to the population is 1 in 1,572 males, and 1 in 1,952 females-—1 in 1,746 persons. Out of equal numbers there would bo 124 males to 100 females. Of the abovementioned 3,508, 488 are in London (344 at public schools, and 46 at private). 3 (2.) Scotland 6 1881. 2,142 1,149 993 Between 5 and 15 years of age age, 447 (226 males and 221 females)=l in 1,744 persons of all ages. (3.) Prance" Deo., 1876. 21,395 11,460 9,935 Between 5 and 15, 6,939 (3,764 males and 3,175 females) —1 in 1,754 persons=570 per million of all ages. (4.) Switzerland .. I am informed that there returns ; but for previous n was n< turn (11 special 170) see ! classification of deaf and dumb in last census >I. H., p 202, 6,544—1,309 of school age. (5.) Italy ,. I 31st Dec, 1881. 15,300 8,707 6,593 Between 6 and 12, about 7,000; but note Dr. H.'s figures, p. 187 : total number of deaf and dumb, 18,070 —3,615 within educational period. (0.) Germany 8 only) (Prussia 1st Dec, ! 27,794 1880. No complete late rcturr. all Germany ; see partial c 32, 184, 185", and 203. 15,168 I .s obtain >nes, Dr, 12,026 table for . H., pp. The proportion is 102 in every 10,000 persons— i.e., 99 Protestants, 10'4 Roman Catholics, and 14'4 Jews. (7.) Belgium 9 Jan., 18S3. 2,934 1,003 ' 1,331 i The proportion is estimated at 1 in 1,870 persons. (8.) United States'" 1881. 33,878 18,567 15,311 1,437 under 6, 10,046 between 6 and 16, 5,013 over 16 and under 21, and 17,382 21 and over.
E.—l2
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
Schools. Notwithstanding that the British Government does not take cognisance for educational G purposes of deaf-mutes as such, there arc in Great Britain, according to the last published returns for 1885, in addition to the nine London Board schools (containing 313 scholars, and employing 26 female teachers), 29 boarding-schools, although 3 day-scholars are taken also, containing 2,353 boarders and 50 day-scholars, and employing 195 (88 male and 107 female) teachers j 1 and 10 2 day-schools (including three in Scotland, 3 and one from -which the children are boarded-out into private families), 1' containing 192 scholars, and employing 19 (5 male and 14 female) teachers. So that there are now, according to the returns just quoted, 46 schools, including six private ones, containing 2,908 children, 5 and employing 240 teachers; but it is estimated that there should be now at least 4,000 children attending school. 0 Of the above-mentioned 29, 24 and one^ of the 10 day-schools have been established by, and the deficit of current expenditure is contributed by means of, private benevolence, whilst nine of the ten day-schools arc Board schools similarly conditioned to those in London. Of the 24 institutions, two have been founded and are supported by Roman Catholics for the especial benefit of those belonging to that religion, 8 and one 9 by those of the Jewish persuasion for members of their body. With one exception, fees are paid on behalf of the deaf at all the schools: the London Old Kent Road Asylum (the oldest of all the institutions, established 1792) alone supplying education, board, and clothing free; and so benefiting, according to the annual report for 1883, 327 children. 10 The institutions in France, public and private, including the three national ones already Fi mentioned, are estimated to number 70, 11 with 3,655 pupils, under the charge of, say, 364 teachers ; 13 and the public schools, that is all those which, so far as can be ascertained, are not kept by private individuals for the purposes of profit, number 52 out of the 70. 13 Attendance by deaf-mute children at special institutions is not compulsory in France, except so far as the obligatory law in force now applies to all children : but strangely enough deaf-mute institutions are within the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior, and not of the Ministry of Public Instruction. It is asserted, however, by M. Chaveau, InspectorGeneral of Benevolent Institutions, " That nearly all the deaf-mutes of France, who are of suitable school-age, are now receiving the benefit of education. The total number between the ages of eight and fifteen is 3,996, and it is reasonable to suppose," he says, " that most of the 341 not in schools either have private instruction at home, or are incapable of education." 14 Therefore the Inspectors are not necessarily of pedagogic ability, much less deafmute specialists ; but merely Inspectors of ordinary charitable institutions. 15 In the national institutions the children arc generally admitted about the ages of ten or twelve years; but in private schools the admission-age usually ranges from about the age of six. In addition to the three national institutions, 61 of the other schools are conducted upon the " pure oral" system. 16 The term of primary studies in the national institutions is six
reat Britain
''ranee.
1 See— (a) Statistics by Rev. W. Stainer in " Charity Organization Reporter," 1 Nov., 1884 (hereafter termed CO. rep); (6) S.G.; (c) A.A., Jan., 1883, pp. 52 and 53 ; (d) Report of London Conference, 22-24 June, 1881; and (c) But see Dr. Buxton's article " Statistics: Leading and Misleading," Q.R., Jan., 1886; and Q.R., April, 1886, p. 43 ; and July, 1886, p. 93. 2 Oral Association, Fitzroy Square, and Sheffield, Leeds, Nottingham, Bristol, Bradford, Leicester, Greenook, Glasgow, and Dundee Board Schools. 3 Groenock, Dundee, and Glasgow. 4 Fitzroy Square. 5 See also (a) Notes of Progress, p. 8, and (6) 0.0., p. 43. For reference to number of children under instruction, see Paper by Dr. Buxton " Since 1881." —Proceedings of Conference, London, Jan., 1885, p. 6. 6 See, besides last references— (a) 0.R., p. 34 ; (6) Mr. Barrett's letter, Times, 4 Sep., 1884 ; and (c) A.A., Jan., 1883, pp. 52 and 53. ' Fitzroy Square. But see Dr. Buxton's recent article as above ; and Q.R., April and July, 1886, pp. 43 and 98. B (a) St. John's, of Beverley, Boston, Spa, Tudcaster, and (6) Smythum Orphanage, Scotland. 1 Notting Hill, London. For further details see Table of Publio Institutions in
Great Britain for the year 1885.—Proceedings, Loudon Conference, July, 1885 ; W. H. Allen and Co., London. '.<• See report dated May, 1884. This was the first public institution for deaf-muto education established in Great Britain.—Q.R., Jan,, 1886, p. 2. The old building has recently been demolished ; but a new one is to be erected on a smaller scale.—Q.R., April, 1886, p. 57. 11 See Q.E., July, 1886, p. 98, where note full details, and (a) S.G.; (b) T.C.,p. 24; (c) A.A., Jan., 1883, pp. 50 and 51, and compare with la) Dr. H., p. 187 ; (6) C.E. ; And espec. " Rapport au Ministre de I'lnterieur sur le resultat des examens pour la delivrance des certificats d'aptitude concernant l'ensignements des sourdsmuets."—lmprimerio des journaux officiels, Paris, 1886 ; particularly Appendix. 12 See T.C., p. 76. But noto (a) S.G.; (b) A.A., Jan., 1883, and (c) Dr. H.,p. 187. 13 See also Q.R., July, 1886, p. 98, and S.G. But note A.A., Jan,, 1883, pp. 50 and 51; and Oct., 1886, p. 293. [ " See A.A., Oct., 188C, p. 293. 13 See also M. La Rochollo (Appendix). 16 See Q.R., July, 1886, p. 98, where note full details, also (a) S.G.; (6) A.A., Jan., 1883; and
103
E.—l2.
EEPOET UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Schools. years, and for the diligent there is an additional course of two years available. In private institutions the course generally extends over eight years ; and the rich often keep their children even longer there. The plan of studies will be found as noted at foot hereof. 1 There is no obligation for deaf-mutes to attend special schools in Switzerland. There are there about fifteen schools, estimated to contain 369 children, under the charge of, say, 43 teachers. 3 But all schools, private as well as public, arc liable to Government inspection and supervision. The pupils reside in the institutions; and the one at Riehen, near Basle, at least when under the late M. Arnold, was looked upon as a model institution. 3 The age of seven to eight is the usual one for the first attendance, and the course of instruction generally extends over seven to eight years. After the age of twelve, admission is only very exceptionally granted, and the age of sixteen or seventeen is considered the extreme age-limit. It may be interesting to notice that, after Belgium, Switzerland, proportionally to area, has more deaf-mute schools than any country in the world.' 1' It is to Italy, hoAvever, so far as Europe is concerned, that one must (with perhaps the exception of the above-mentioned school in Switzerland) look for the model institutions f and Professor Mettinet, in his " Statistiquc General" for 1883, says, "En Italie, Messieurs, nos trouverons nos maitres et nos modeles." Of the 15,300 deaf-mutes in Italy in 1881 only 3,411, 6 however, were in institutions, whilst 6,626 males and 6,263 females were not being taught; and there are only about 1,877 newly-placed in institutions each year. The Royal School at Milan is a truly noble institution, probably the best in Europe, 7 and is both a training-college for teachers and a school. In Italy there are thirty-five schools, 8 employing about 238 teachers; all are boarding-schools, and nearly all are in the hands of the clergy, 8 but the Government is beginning to introduce into them a lay-teaching element. Eighteen of the thirty-five arc considered charitable institutions, and as such ate under the control of the Ministry of the Interior, as in France, whilst seventeen are deemed institutions of instruction and education, and therefore are under the supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction. 10 The whole contain about 1,500 pupils, 11 of whom 910 are enjoying free, and 127 semi-free, education. The ordinary Italian law relating to compulsion is the only obligatory Act which applies, and it seems to be compulsory only in name. 12 Usually the age of admission is between the age of six and eight, and the term of study six to eight years ; but in view of the extension of the " pure-oral" method, Professor Fornari informs me that it may be said to be eight years nearly everywhere. There are about ninety-six schools in Germany, containing about 5,892 pupils, and employing, say, 595 teachers. 13 Some are boarding- and some day-schools. 14" Of the ninetysix, there are in Prussia about forty-seven, 15 with about 4,418 pupils 16 between the ages of ten and fifteen, and employing, say, 331 teachers. There is a peculiarity at Berlin which deserves mention—viz., evening schools 17 have been established there for deaf-mutes, available for adults as well as for children. All schools, private as well as public, are inspected and
Switzerland.
Italy.
Germany.
(c) Rapport du Congres do Paris de 1878. But note Dr. H., p. 187. For 1884 Congress, see "Congres National pour I'amelioration du sort des sourds-muets ; " noticed in Q.R., April, 1886, p. 67. For 1885 Congress, see " Troisiemo Congres National pour l'amelioration du sort dos sourds-muets," Q.R., July, 1886, pp. 03, 04, 69, and 94. The next French Conference will be held in 1893. 1 C.R,, pp. 301-304. See also " Revue Internationale " as above, Feb., 1886, p. 283. 2 See also S.G. But note— (a) T.C., p. 24; (6) A.A., Jan., 1883, p. 61; and (c) Dr. H., p. 180. 8 See also— (a) Dr. H., p. 186; and (6) A.A., Jan., 1879, p, 35. 4 Note remark by President of Brussels Congress: "pays le mieux dote sous ce rapport apres la Belgiquo," T.C.,p. 24. 4 See 0.R., pp. 207 and 211; and A.A., Jan., 1879, p. 35. 6 But note Dr. H., only 1,000, p. 187.
i See (a) T.C., pp. 127, 129, and (6) Last rep. of institution. 8 See also S.G. But note— (a) C.R., pp. 47-38, and (6) Dr. H., p. 187. " Dr. H., p. 187. 10 Note list of State institutions) Dr. H., p. 187. 11 See also 0.K., p. 48. 12 C.E., p. 166. 13 See S.G. But note A.A., Jan., 1883, p. 61, and oonlpare with Dr. H., pp. 212 and 213. See also Paper by Mr. Schontheil, " On some Schools for the Deaf and Dumb in Germany, and the Training of Teachers there." — Proceedings, London Conference, July, 1885, p. 70 ; and " Organization des Etablissements de Sourds-Muets en Allemagne."— " Revue Internationale," Feb., 1886, as above, 271. 14 See also T.C., pp. 184 and 209. 16 See BeitrSge, &c, p. 104; and note Dr. H., p. 183. 16 See Beitrage, pp. 100 and 101. But see Dr. H., p. 183. For Saxony, see " Technical Education in a Saxon Town," by H. M. Felkin, p. 27. '•t See also Dr. H., p, 178.
104
E.—l2
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
Schools. controlled by the Government ■} but in most of the German States 2 there is no compulsory law beyond that applicable to all children. The age of admission is generally between the ages of six and eight. The term of study for deaf-mutes is not the same in all the institutions/ but it is visually six or eight years. 1 There arc in Belgium proportionately more pupils in the institutions than in most other; countries :" and altogether about 738 boys and 701 girls, under 21, are receiving instruction, cither in institutions or at their parents' houses. The schools number about 11/ of which the first was established in 1819, and they contain at least 931 scholars 7 (508 boys and 423 girls), and employ about 82 teachers. With the exception of one, 8 or perhaps two, they arc all private religious ones; but all are under Government inspection and surveillance. 0 The "combined " system mainly prevails. 10 The condition of deaf-mute education in the United States is peculiar. 11 For in no' country in the world is the Government more liberal, or are the workers more enthusiastic, or the genera] results so wonderful ; and yet, by reason of the tenacity with which some of the principal professors cling to the " manual," or the " combined " system, 13 their institutions are precluded from being set forth as models ; 13 there being nothing, so far as I can ascertain, to warrant, by reason of climatic or other conditions, any deflection from " purcoralism."u But the " lip-reading " system seems to be rapidly advancing in the United States, and, curiously enough, it is there that the mechanical inventions of "Visible Speech" and " Phonautograph " have been devised in its aid.' 0 Meantime, if with an inferior method of teaching such superior results can be obtained, how much more might be achieved if the principle of procedure were the best !' G There are now 61 deaf-mute schools in the United States, 1? estimated to contain more than 7,500 pupils, and to employ 508 teachers. 18 Nearly all the schools arc boarding schools, 10 and some of them are magnificent edifices; 20 but of the Gl schools there are only 15 21 which are conducted on the " pure oral " system. 23 The period of instruction in the American schools is generally longer than elsewhere; especially at Washington, where the school and college terms together may extend to a period of 15 or 16 years. To the Americans must be conceded the credit of the first systematic successful attempt to inaugurate a system of secondary education for the deaf.- 3 The National College for the purpose was established at Washington in 186i; the Government aided it liberally, and now it gives an excellent course of college instruction extending over a period of five years/" 1' and grants degrees. The method pursued is not the "pure oral," and the President has given his reasons for not adopting that system. 20
Belgium,
United States.
1 Beitriige, p. 41 ; but note Dr. H., p. 183. | 3 It seems to be otherwise in Schleswig-Holstein, Olden- | burg, Saxo-Coburg-Gotha, and Reuss (Younger Branch). (a) BeitrSge, p. 42 ; and (b) Dr. H., p. 190. 3 See also T.C., p. 209. 4 See also Dr. H., p. 183. 5 See S.G., and for explanation T.C., pp. 23 and 24. 6 See also (a) S.G., and (6) T.C., p. 24 ; but note Dr. H., p. 188. 1 See also (a) S.G.; (b) T.0., p. 24 ; (c) E.8.; and (d) C.E. f T.C., p. 34 ; and S.G. ' Seo T.C. rep. p. 7. i" See S.G., and note T.C. pp. 36 and 37. i' Seo A.A., Oct., 1884, pp. 287, 288, 289-302, 324, and32s. See also " Proceedings of National Educational Association," held at Madison, Wis., 10 July, 1885, "To consider the subject of Dcaf-Mute Instruction in relation to the work of the Public Schools " (Gibson Bros., Washington, 1885); and Convention held in California, 15-23 July, 1886.—Q.R., Oct., 1886, p. 249. " Seo (a) C.8., pp. 73 and 109 ; (b) A.A., Jan., 1879, p. 57; and (c) E.B. « Note Prof. Boll's remarks, A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 317. 14 See (a) C.I. rcpt.; (b) A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 317; and (c) T.C, p. 328. But note " Deaf-Mutea and the Public Schools from 1815 to the present day," by Prof. J. C. Gordon, Washington (Gibson Bros., 1885) ; and editorial notice in New York Daily Tribune, 15 Sept., 1885. » See E.B. )• But note resolutions passed at Eleventh Convention of American Instructors, held at California.!! Institution,
1-i—E. 12.
Berkeley, Cal., 15-23 July, 1886, approving and confirming present methods.—See Q.R., Oct., 188G, p. 249, where seo also memo, of papers read at Convention. 17 A.A., Jan., 1885, vol. 30, pp. 84 and 85, and compare with (a) S.G ; (6) N.C. ; (c) A.A., Jan., 1879, p. 60 ; \d) Dr. H. p. 188 ; f«j G.E.; and (/) Amer. Commr. Kept., 1885, on Ed., deaf-mutism, interesting statistics, &c, pp. 57 and 59, showing there to be seven schools for the coloured race, with 29 instructors and 123 scholars; and pp. 186, 187, and 742-719, containing very detailed information ; and see for State particulars under heading of each State. • m A.A., Jan., 1885, vol. 30, pp. 84 and 85 ; but note— (a) p. 238 ; (b) S.G.; (c) Dr. H., p. 188; and (d) Amer. Commr. Kept., 1885, p. 186. Note. —Some of the teachers in the school connected with the Washington College are deaf-mutes. 10 See also C.I. rept., containing course of studies, &c. 20T.C, p. 214. s > S.G. 2i Note Mr. Greenberger's paper, A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 241. 23 Dr. H., p. 188. For history and present condition, plan of studies, &c, see O.K. pp. 260-266. si See C.R., p. 264. For information re Norwegian and French deaf-mute university students, seo p. 166. ]?or progress of deaf-mute education in South Africa, see The Colonies and India, 3 Nov., ISBS, p. 16. 25 See 0.8., pp. 260-266. When I visited the institution in January last (1886), I had the advantage of hearing Dr. Gallaudet explain his views,
105
E.—l2.
BEPOKT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Schools. The following tabular statement shows the subjects of study pursued in each country : —
TABULAR STATEMENT SHOWING THE SUBJECTS OF STUDY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
106
Great Britain. France/ 1 Switzerland.'^ Italy.' Germany.s Belgium." United States. 10 United States.™ United States.io I.OKDON SCHOOL BOARD PROGRAMME.' Articulation and Speech Reading Writing Arithmetic PRIMARY COURSE. PRIMARY COUI Articulation Language RSE. COMMON OR GRAMMAR COURSE. Articulation j Language HIGH COURSE. Articulation Articu- 1 —in cur- Italian language I German language lation' rent Ian- oral and and Reading j guage of Writing j canton Written Handwriting Arithmetic I Arithmetic Object lessons German Memory exercises History History of Italy, I History &c. | Geography Geography ; Geography Religion Religion j Religion Flemish language oral and Articulation Language Articulation and elocutionary exercises. Reading Writing Arithmetic 2 Written Arithmetic (elementary) metrical system I Writing Arithmetic (the four elementary rules) Kindergiirten exercises Writing Arithmetic (the four mentary rul Kindergiirten exercises Geography Drawing Arithmetic (mental and ele- written) through interest les) Manual of commerce Grammar (elements of) History of the U.S. Outlines of general history ; Geography j Lessons in general subjects ] Physiology (elements of) Zoology (elements of) Botany (eiements of) i Natural philosophy (elements of) ! Physical geography (elements of) Drawing (object and cast) Arithmetic (completed). Algebra. Grammar and analysis. Rhetoric. History —ancient and modern. English literature. Political economy. Physiology. Psychology. Zoology. Botany. Natural philosophy. Grammar History of France History of Belgium Geography 1 Religious teaching 4 (Subject to Act and London Board regulations) Geography Religious teaching Geography Religion Geography FITKROY SQUARE INSTITUTION, 1 All the subjects of an ordinary education, and Natural history & natural and phyeal science Natural and phy- | Natural science | Natural science sical history (no- (notions of) tions of) ADVANCED PUPILS. Physical science j Chemistry French and Drawing Geometry I Geometry (elements) Manual work j Needlework Natural history & Physics (elementary notions) Physical geography. Geology. Astronomy. Chemistry. Geometry. Drawing Painting Needlework (plain and fancy) Drawing Drawing Gymnastics I —cast, instruDrawing fc^^ (colour. See Circular. The items re Pitzroy Square Institution have been supplied to mo by Mr. Van Praagh. See also — (a) A.A., Oct. 1884, pp. 255 and 256, and (b) Old Kent Road Asylum rept., showing curricula, &c. Compare with New Zealand course of instruction. —New Zealand rept. For article on " Preparatory Drill in Figures," see A.A., Jan., 1879, p. 1. Note reference in Old Kent Road Asylum rept. for 1883. But see especially " Fmseignement dc la Geographic : Rapport presente a MM. les Mcmbres de la Conference des Professeurs de l'lnstitute Nationale des Sourds-Muets," " Revue Internationale," as above, Feb., 1886, p. 2G7. i See paper on " Religious Privileges for the Deaf and Dumb," by ' Professor Fornari has supplied this programme as that of the Mr. B. H. Payne. —Proceedings London Conference, July, Milan Institutions ; see also C.R., pp. 24-26. For programme 1885, p. 86. of college at Madrid, see T.C., p. 2G6. " It is emphatically a religious work." —Dr. Buxton, Q.R., 8 Dr. Treibel informs me that the above fairly represents the July, 1886, p. 81. subjects generally taught. See also Beitriige, p. 182; and And see " The importance of Special Religious Services for i " Revue Internationale," Feb., 1886, as above, p. 273. Deaf-Mutes." — A.A., Oct., 1886, p. 239. 9 The programme here given is that of the institution at Antwerp 6 For plan of studies in the National School of Paris for an eight conducted upon the " pure oral " system, but programmes in years' course, see C.R., pp. 301-304. Belgium considerably vary. See collection in — The Faculty has decided to introduce a series of lessons on the (a) T.C., rept., and common law as a part of the last year's course of instruction. ' (b) T.C., pp. 38-53. —See A.A., Oct., 1886, p. 290. [ 10 These are the courses of study at the Clark Institution for " The programme varies in different institutions ; but the one [ Deaf-Mutes at Northampton, Massachusetts. — See Amer. here presented is fairly representative. Commr. Rept., 1884.
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
VI.—TRAINING COLLEGES. Although the teaching of deaf-mutes is clearly a speciality/ opinion on the advisability of colleges for the training of teachers is very divided. 2 Great Britain has two, Germany but one, and Italy only one, but there is not one in France, 3 Switzerland, 4 Belgium/ or the United States, 6 and it is reported that the large majority of professors, at least in England, France, Switzerland, and the United States/ do not sympathise with the establishment of normal schools for training deaf-mute teachers. 8 The two training colleges in Great Britain arc respectively at Fitzroy Square, London, founded in 1872, by Baroness Mayer de Rothschild —to whom the public introduction into England of the "pure oral" system is due—and superintended by Mr. William Van Praagh; 9 and at Ealing, near London, established in 1877, by Mr. B. St. J. Ackers—who has been a most benevolent friend to the deaf 10 —and superintended by Mr. A. A. Kinscy, 11 of which college Dr. Buxton was the Secretary. 1- According to the return for the year 1885, there arc at these institutions one male and 26 female students. A two years' course is recommended; but the average length of stay at the respective colleges is 18 or 15 months. 113 As supplementary, but expressly for the purpose of examination, not for training, there was established in London, in July, 1885, a College of Teachers of the Deaf and Dumb; the training colleges " to prepare the teacher for the work, the examining college to test the teacher and the work." 14 The course at the English colleges consists of one year's study, and the finger alphabet, and all artificial signs arc rigidly excluded ; 18 for it is urged that the " combined system " must be an utter failure. 16 By the courtesy of Mr. Van Praagh I was present at one of his lectures to students on the proper method of imparting instruction, 1^ and also visited the classes of deaf-mute pupils in the institution; and the ingenuity of the " pure oral" system, and the apparently intense anxiety of the deaf-mute pupils to learn, greatly impressed me. Whether the method be applicable to all the deaf, whether its use is practicable in everyday life afterwards for all purposes, and whether all pupils arc sufficiently quick witted to be able to utilise their knowledge after leaving school, I had, of course, no practical means there of testing. But I saw and heard sufficient at this and the London Board schools, to which I will refer presently, to convince me that the boon for those who can acquire the system thoroughly is invaluable; and that it is of vital importance that a teacher do not articulate with such exaggerated facial expression as to render intercourse with others strange. The Royal College at Milan is the recognized one for Italy. 1 s There young teachers in an " ecole de methodc " are trained for one year; and if successful at the ensuing examination, a special certificate is granted for the teaching of deaf-mutes. They usually belong to normal hearing schools, and arc sent to the Milan college at the expense of the State : 19 and between 1865 and 1879 the college issued diplomas to 96 students, of whom 53 devoted themselves to teaching deaf-mutes. It was in view of the above circumstance that the professor (Fornari) at the head of the institution said at the Milan Congress : " Voila done l'ltalie a la tete de l'enseignement des sourds-muets, du moins pour ce qui regarde les ecoles normales." 20 In Germany there is only the Royal school at Berlin ; 21 nevertheless it is reported that there are to be found a good number of excellent professors who have not been trained in a
Opinions very aJwbiHty? Continent of *tul'°P? 2fcl tlie United States,
Great Britain,
Italy.
Germany.
1 See T. C. for full discussion, pp. 93-114, and espec. 129, 133, and 140. But note a medium course recommended— (a) Official Report of N. Y. Convention, 1884 (hereafter termed N.Y.O.R,), pp. 17-23; and (b) A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 255. 2Note(a)T.C, p. 11G; (b) O.R., pp. 44 and 48; (<•) Paper as above of 30th May, 1882 ; (rf) O.K., pp. 9 anct 31. ( . See also T.C., pp. 124 and 259. < T.C., p. 124. 6 T.C., pp. 124, 129, and 135. 6 This is also the case in Holland, Austria, and Spain. See T.C., pp. 124 and 259. ' But see— (a) A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 255; and (b) Paper by Mr. Kinsey in " For their Sakes," p. 157. 8 See also T.C., pp. 110 and 259, and note the Low Countries also, a See (n) Report for 1883, p. 10 ;
(6) O.O., p. 44 ; and (c) D.R., p. 32. 10 See (a) Dr. B.'s paper as above, pp. 192 and 193 ; and (b) Paper by Mr. Ackers in " For their Sakes." 11 O.C., pp. 43 and 44; pamphlet by Miss Hull, 1884. 12 Note presentation to him on giving up Secretaryship, Q.R., April, 1880, p. 54. 13 For fuller details see Table for 1885, above referred to. 14 See Q.B., Jan., 1880, pp. 8-17. "O.O., p. 44. 18 See, for instance, Conference paper as above of 10 Jan., 1878, &c. 17 See " Lessons for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Children in Lip-reading and Writing," by Mr. Van Praagh, p. 1; C.R., p. 190. 18 See also— («) T.C., pp. 127 and 291; and (6) Last Rep. ' 9See alsoT.C, p. 28. :o T.C., p. 128. " t.c, p. no,
107
E.—l2
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Training Colleges. normal school, but in ordinary schools for deaf-mutes; 1 and indeed it was said at the Brussels Congress by Professor Fornari, "je dois avouer que les meilleurs professcurs de la nietliode orale sont dans la grandc patrie d'Armmius." 3 In Belgium, although there arc no training colleges, yet instructors must give evidence of a qualification before teaching. VII.—INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. In the course of a controversy in the Times tho establishment of industrial schools for deaf-mutes was strongly urged : 3 and it seems important that the subject should not be overlooked. At none of the institutions in Great Britain is technical instruction given; but there arc some institutions, such as the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, Old Kent Road, London, and the Jews' Deaf and Dumb Home, Notting Hill, London, where the onus is undertaken of placing children as apprentices for the piirpose of acquiring a trade. 3 Industrial training for deaf-mutes is not overlooked in France; and some of the institutions there, including the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Paris, 4 and those at Bordeaux, Caen (private), Larnay (private), St. Etiennc, Soissons/ and Le Puy (private), in addition to the ordinary course of deaf-mute instruction, either qualify the scholars to earn their own living on quitting the institution —so that they may at once work upon a trade—or receive them as workers at the expiration of their term of school study. 0 Indeed, so excellent are some of those institutions said to be in this respect that those at St. Eticnne and Le Puy were described at the Milan Congress as ideal ones. 7 The schools in Switzerland, with the exception of those at Baden and at Fricnisberg B —— where they devote a part of the day to field work—do not teach industrial occupations; but the pupils, when they arrive at the termination of their school studies, are placed out, either in tow Tn or country, as apprentices, under the control of a " Committee of Patronage." y There are some schools in Italy in which industrial training is given ; such as the Royal Institution at Milan, where it is obligatory that the boys learn —in addition to the ordinary deaf-mute subjects—wood-carving, modelling, and sculpturing; and they have also the option of being taught painting. Girls there have to learn drawing and needlework. 9 In Germany technical instruction to deaf-mutes is not given in all the schools, except in the case of girls. 10 Formerly many institutions instructed their pupils in trades while they Avere at school, and some still do so; and several take care of their scholars when they leave school, and procure suitable employment for them. 11 The State at all events in Prussia contributes an honorarium (about .€8) to the master-tradesman after the apprenticeship of a deaf-mute has expired. 13 Suitable occupations are found for girls in asylums established for the purpose. 13 Trades are taught in some of the deaf-mute schools of Belgium; but proceedings took place at the Brussels Congress in respect of further organization, which it is interesting to note. 14 It has been said by a leading authority upon the subject 1" that the political men of America desire that all deaf-mute children learn even at school a trade or a profession; and, with a few exceptions, nearly all the institutions in the United States have industrial departments. 10
Belgium.
Great Britain.
France.
Switzerland.
Italy.
Germany.
Belgium.
United States,
1 T.C., p. 291; and see rule re qualification, p. 292. 2 T.C., p. 128; and see Mr. Schbntheil's paper as above. 8 See— (a) Rev. W. Stainer's letter, Times, 17 Sept., 1884; and (b) Mr. North's letter, 20 Sept., 1884. See also (a) Discussion New York convention, A.A., Oct., 1884, pp. 283-285 ; and (I) D.R. Note " Object Lessons in Science," A.A., Oct., 1886, p. 254. « See also E.B. » See also T.0., p. 220. 0 See " L'Enseignement des Travaux Manuels dans les Institutions de Sourds-mucts," par M. Snyckers, Director of the Royal Institution at Liege ; Paris, George Carre; Brussels, A. Manceaux, 1885. For notice of this work, see Q.R., Jan., 1886, p. 32. ' See C.R., p. 167. 8 But see— (a) Dr. H., p. 186 ; and generally (b) E.B. 9 See also— (a) T.G., p. 210 ; and (6) E.B.
10 See also— (a) T.C.,p. 209; (b) Dr. H., p. 178; but note E.B. For occupation of deaf-mutes, see Dr. H., pp. 180-182. 11 See Dr. H., p. 177. 15 This seems to be well worthy of note, as constituting a pledge, or at least affording a substantial inducement, for considerate and competent treatment. Respecting the consideration needed, see " Tests of Work," Proceedings, London Conference, Julv, 1885, p. 16. 13 Dr. H., p. 178. 14 See T.C., pp. 19-37, 192-216, and espec. 198; and see also E.B. 15 Dr. Gallaudet, in T.C., p. 214. 16 See also— (a) T.C., p. 214, and (b) A.A., Oct., 1884, pp. 273-275, and 283. See paper and discussion on " Trades and Occupations," at Minnesota Conference, July, 1884; Min. Instit. Report, 1884, p. 99 (hereafter termed Minn. rep.). For employments cf the deaf in tho U.S.A., see A.A., Oct., 1886, p. 290.
108
E.—l2
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
Indiistrial Training. Mr. Van Praagh, at the Conference held last year at the " International Health Exhibition/' 1 said :— " Let us now consider the position as regards the prospect of employment of children educated on the ' pure-oral' system as compared ■with that of others who are educated under other systems. My own experience again enables me to give you proofs, and if necessary to introduce to you living proofs, of what lam about to say. Deaf boys and girls once able to express themselves in spoken and written language, and to follow what is said by others, can be apprenticed in the same way as hearing boys and girls. " Their employers can explain to them, and that too by word of mouth, the secrets of their handicraft. Their fellow-workmen can enter into conversation with them ; and in their turn the apprentices can become masters able to employ hearing workmen. In fact, to all intents and purposes the deaf apprentice taught on the 'pure-oral' system is almost on a par with his hearing fellow-workman. 2 The kind of occupation for which a deaf lad is fitted will to a large extent depend upon the class of family to which he belongs; but care should be taken not to apprentice him to anything that is subject to the change of fashion, but to some industry of a permanent character." 3 Thus the issue is distinctly raised whether, assuming the ordinary deaf-mute school instruction be thorough in its character, it is desirable to also give at the school technical instruction to the deaf-mute—because he is a deaf-mute —gratuitously or otherwise to enable a livelihood at a trade to be earned immediately after leaving the school ? Such a course necessarily involves additional outlay, either at the cost of the State or otherwise ; and the question naturally arises, Are there corresponding advantages to be gained by such additional expenditure ? I have, therefore, anxiously endeavoured to ascertain, verbally and from printed documents, 4 the opinions of experts, and have had conversations with Mr. Van Praagh, Rev. W. Staincr, and others on the subject. The result is that, assuming the ordinary school instruction to be thorough in its character and that the disadvantage of the continuous intercourse amongst pupils in boarding-schools be avoided, it is deemed to be perhaps unnecessary to adopt a policy of treating the pupils as requiring industrial training in institutions. But the authorities seem to be of opinion that, in order to secure that a deaf-mute learn properly a trade, extraordinary care should be taken in the selection of a suitable master or mistress, and unusual precautions adopted to ensure that the requisite amount of additional attention be given to teach a pupil who is necessarily an abnormal one.'' I may add that one of the six important questions discussed at the Brussels Congress •was, " Where and when can the industrial instruction of a deaf-mute be carried out with the most success ? Is it at the institution during the course of scholastic studies, or in industrial establishments after leaving the school-house ? " The full discussion will be found in the report, 6 and the resolution, viz. : — " Le Congres emet le vceu que dans les grandes institutions peuplees d'enfants en majeure partie indigents, et pourvues de ressources suffisantes pour entretenir des ateliers parfaitement outilles, l'instruction professionelle soit donncc aux eleves dans l'interieur dc l'institntion pendant les dcrnieres annees de leur sejour. "En ce qui touche les institutions k effectif pen nombrcux on ;\ ressources limitces, ainsi qu'en ce qui concernc les externats, le Congres emct le vceu que l'instruction professionelle soit donnee au dchors des institutions apres la sortie des eleves, ou pendant leur sejour, mais dans ce dernier cas par l'envoi quotidien des enfants dans quelques-ivns des ateliers de la villc."
Summary.
1 See— {a) 0.E., p. 8 ; (6) Annual report for 1883 of Old Kent Road Asylum; and (c) Note Dr. H., pp. 177, 180, and 181. 2 Note testimony to efficiency as workmen in " Our Pupils and their Future," by J. Howard, Q.R., April, 1886, p. 37. 3 For occupations generally availed of, see, for instance— (a) Census rep., Eng. and Wales^vol. 2, pp. 64 and 66 ; and vols. 3 and 4, p. 14 ; (h) Scotland, pp. 14 and 15 ; (c) C. rep., N.Z., pp. 5 and 274 ; (d) Dr. H., pp. 180 and 181. Also see— (a) Rep., 1883, Old Kent Road Asylum, and (6) A.A., Oct., 1884, pp. 283-285, &c. Note farming is deprecated, Dr. H., p. 177.
And on subject generally, see " Our Pupils and their Future," as above, espec. p. 33. For occupations for the blind, see Art. on " The Normal College for the Blind," in " Sunday at Home," Mar., 1886, espee. p. 173. Note especially adaptability as organists and tuners. 1 For instance see— (a) A.A., Jan., 1879, pp. 26-30 ; Oct., 1884, pp. 283-285, 267, 277, 285-288 ; (6) Dr. H., p. 177 ; to) T.G., pp. 192-216; (d) Institution Eeps., as above, including Minnes. rep., p. 99; (e) Letters in Times, as above. 1 Note German plan of paying for apprenticeship —honorarium after expiry of term. 1 T.0., pp. 192-216, and note on p. 192 procedure at Rotterdam.
109
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION'.
VIII.—LONDON BOARD SCHOOLS AND THE REV. W. STAINER'S HOMKS. 1 Through the courtesy of the Rev. W. Stainer, 2 I visited with him two of the London Board deaf-mute schools, 3 cacli of which consists of boys and girls/' one in Winchester Street, Pcntonville North, and the other in Summerfield Street, Bethnal Green East. The latter one was cxjiressly selected because the building has been specially constructed as a model building for the purpose. It consists of four class-rooms, formed so as to afford more than ordinary light by means of skylights in addition to windows, in order that the lips may be narrowly watched," and so as to accommodate twelve pupils in a room. The teachers (thirteen) at the Board schools, who receive £80 a year, and the pupil-teachers (ten), who receive .€25 to £45 per annum 15 arc all, with one exception/ females; and the majority of the teachers have been trained either at Fitzroy Square or Ealing. Females, I may add, seem to be generally preferred, 8 as being more patient and sympathetic, 0 and procurable at lower salaries. The hours of instruction are every day (except on Saturday avid Sunday) from 9.15 a.m. to 1.2.30 p.m., and from 1.30 to 3.45 p.m.;'° the hour's interval being for the mid-day meal, which the children bring with them. 11 The fee charged is the same as in the other London Board schools, 2d. each per week. The classes are not examined, or inspected, by any Government Inspector, and no Government grant has been made for their support, or aid; 12 but the Superintendent reports half-yearly to the Board. "The children sit at speciallyconstructed desks, which are arranged in a circular form, so that they may easily observe the movements of the lips of their teachers and of each other —an important arrangement to facilitate lip-reading :" 13 and these desks arc designed after a pattern in use at Riehen, altered by the Rev. W. Stainer. Circular desks, however, arc not preferred, and therefore arc not to be found at Fitzroy Square, where the desks are placed longitudinally, with a slope on both sides, so that the children face each other, with the teacher at the top end. 11 At the circular desk the teacher sits outside of the circle, whilst objects forming the subject of objectlessons are placed in the centre, on a small table within the circle; and the number of pupils so taught at one time docs not usually exceed ten, which is in accordance with the declaration made at the Milan Congress : —■ " Considerant que I'cnscignement des sourds-muets par la parole a de particuliercs exigences; considerant les donnees de I'cxperience dc la presque unanimite des instituteurs des sourds-nmcts ; " Declare " Qu'un professeur ne pent enseigner efficacement avee la methode orale pure plus de 10 eleves." 15 A similar declaration had been made at the International Congress held in Paris in 1878; and the subject formed the second of the six questions submitted for discussion at Brussels, 10 which resulted in the following resolutions : — (1.) " Qu'au debut de l'enseignemcnt le nombrc des eleves a instruire par le meme professeur, et d'apres la methode orale pure, nc depasse par 8 a 10;" (2.) " Que, dans les classes superieures le nombre des eleves ne depasse pas 12." (3.) " Que l'enseignement mutuel ne soit pas admis." 17 But the majority of the teachers to whom I spoke seemed to hold that no teacher should have more than six or eight, at least in the elementary stages; ls and Mr. Van Praagh appears
London Board schools.
' For list and particulars of Metropolitan charities, see " Caution to Benefactors of Deaf and Dumb," 1885, compiled by Rev. W. Stainer. The deaf-mute population of London for 1886, is said to bo I,972—see Q.R., April, 1886, p. 63. Note recent presentations to him.—Q.R., April, 188G, p. 54. See also " School Guardian," 25 Feb., 1882, Art. by Canon Smith, " On a Visit to a Deaf and Dumb Board School." In the new school opened at Rueil in France, under Mr. Magnat as Director, the sexes are separated.—A.A., Oct., 1886, p. 286. Note Mr. Kinsey's remarks in Paper for Congress, 1.C.P., p. 100. 6 See Circular. ' Mr. Campbell. See Q.E., April, 1886, p. 54. 8 But experts are not unanimous upon this question. See, however, testimony to the ability and enthusiasm of lady teachers, by Dr. Buxton, Proceedings of Conference, London, July, 1885, p. 4 ; and
Note the relative numbers in Great Britain, 107 females as against 88 males in Table for Year 1885. —Proceedings, London Conference, July, 1885. 9 Note Mr. Kinsey's remark quoted in N.C. 10 See discussion at Brussels Congress, T.C., pp. 143-IGS. 11 See Circular. 11 See Circular. 13 See (a) Circular ; and (6) 1.C.P., Paper by Mr. Kinsey. 11 On School furniture, refer to— (a) Paper on "School Management," Proceedings, London Conference, July, 1885, p. 32 ; and (b) "Revue Internationale," as above, Feb., 1886, pp. 262 and 263. 15 C.8., p. 197, and I.CrP. 16 T.C., pp. G and 143-105. " See (a) T.C.; (6) I.C.P. See also (a) Prof. Bell's address A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 315; and (6) Mr. Kinsey's opinion C.R., p. 291. 1S Note also T.C., p. 145.
110
E.—l2
DEAF-MUTE INSTEUCTION.
London School Boards and the Rev. W. Stainer's Homes. to incline to the number eight. 1 A suggestion has been revived" lately that small schools might be advantageously initiated in England : and if this suggestion be worthy of consideration in a country where there is no paucity of deaf, is it not especially worthy of being weighed where population is far more limited, and infinitely more scattered, as in this colony? At these Board schools I was again impressed with the eagerness of the children to learn, and was much pleased to find, on taking a class in dictation, that the ability of the scholars in lip-reading did not, at all events to any appreciable extent, depend upon any enunciation, facial expression, or gestures peculiar to their teachers. 3 The Superintendent informed me that the children are admitted at 4, and that his experience is that the best age for commencing deaf-mute school education is from 5 to 9, because he finds early training is important in moulding disposition, and also on account of the early age at which the majority of British children are taken from school. But the Milan Congress, at which the Superintendent was present, resolved as follows : — " Considerant quo l'enseigncment dc sourds-muets par la parole a de particulieres exigences ;" " Considerant les donnecs dc l'experience de la prcsque unanimite des instituteurs des sourds-muets; " Declare (I°.) " Que I'iige lc plus convcnable pour que lc sourd-muct soit admis a Fecolc cst de 8 a 10 ans. (2°.) " Que la duree des etudes doit etre dc 7 ans au moins, et mieux encore de 8 ans." 1 Mr. Yan Praagh, however, informs me that he considers six years is the preferable age for the admission to a school, 0 and that eight years should be the term of study. 1 It is estimated that about two years' instruction is needed before a pupil can be expected to answer simple questions on ordinary subjects; and in at least the early stages individual teaching, in addition to daily class teaching, is considered to be indispensable." The Superintendent told me that he considers that girls in the early stages learn more readily than boys, but that boys retain and ultimately succeed best. But this proposition is not universally admitted. I was very anxious to ascertain whether the oral teaching at these Board schools developed and strengthened the reasoning faculties, but upon this the Superintendent told me he was not as yet prepared to express a confident opinion. The authorities, however, seem to agree that a proper course of " pure oral" training has generally such effects. 7 It seems to be deemed an open questions whether day schools with "homes," boarding1 schools, or day schools and boarding-out scholars, is the preferable course as a general rule. \ At a conference held in London in 1881 under the presidency of Mr. Wooclall, M.P., it was deemed that for London the most advisable course was to supplement the day schools by " homes." These were founded in 1875 by the Rev. W. Stainer with the aid of some deafmute ladies for those children attending the schools who cannot return daily to their residences; and their maintenance is mainly due to the generosity and untiring zeal of that
The Rev. W. p t tamer b^
1 Sec D.R., p. 36. For New Zealand, see Eighth Annual Keport of the Minister of Education, p. 24. It will be noticed by the Table for 1885, already referred to, that the average of teachers in Great Britain does not amount to 1 for 12 pupils. 2 Sec — (a) Rev. W. Stainer's remarks at Conference, " School Board Chronicle," as above, p. 198. (b) C.R., espec. p. 246; (c) 1.C.P., pp. 151 and 153 ; \d) 0.R.,p. 7; («) A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 306, and Times, 17th Sept., 1884. 3 See A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 240. " I visited his schools and was delighted with the progress his children were j making," &c.—Dr. Peet on the work of the Rev. YV. Stainer. Sec also— (a) P. 302, remarks of Dr. Gillett; and (b) N.Y.0.R., p. 6. 4 <^ ee (a) C.R., p. 196 ; (b) 1.C.P.; (c) 0.R., pp. 5 and 33; (d) D.R., espec. pp. 47 and 52. s See also Dr. Buxton's article in Q.R., Jan., 1886, pp. 17 and 18. For age of reception, full length of stay at
school according to rules, and average length of stay at schools in the institutions in Great Britain, see Table for 1885, above referred to. Also note in same Table duration of vacations. See also " Our Pupils and their Future," by J. Howard, Q.R., April, 1886, p. 35, where the writer points out that a serious drawback to efficient deaf-mute education is the too short period that the deaf attend school ; and see p. 41, where supplementary education is urged. For "Family Instruction of the Deaf in early Childhood," by Dr. Pcct, see A.A., Oct., 1886, p. 260. 0 See also 1.0.P. ; and Q.E., Oct., 1886, p. 116. ' Note also report of New York Convention, A.A., Oct., 1884, cspec. p. 257. j 8 See— (a) C.R., espec. Paper by Dr. Buxton, p. 246; (6) 1.0.P. ; Icj 0.K., pp. 6 and 31; (d) Fitzroy Square Hep., pp. 10 and 11; (c) Letters in Times, as in Appendix; (/) Authorities quoted in N.C., pp. 594 and 595 ; (ij) "The Early Home Training of Deaf-mute Children," A.A., Jan., 1879 ; and (/i)!;Discusaion on M. Schontheil's paper, as above, Proceedings, London Conference, July, 1885, p. 74.
111
E.—l2.
RErOET UPON STATE EDUCATION.
London Board Schools and the Rev. W. Stainer's Homes. gentleman. In company with him I visited one in the PentonviUe lload North, and although the arrangements seemed plain, yet everything necessary for the children's comfort and health appeared to be there. Some of the deaf-mutes domiciled at these " homes " have been sent and are supported by Poor Law Guardians of different parishes, whom the law permits, but docs not compel, to send deaf-mute children at the ratepayers' expense; and lam informed that the non-obligatory nature of the law renders it, even in many cases of the greatest necessity, too often virtually a dead letter. 1 In the cases of the children sent by the Guardians, ,tl(i a year each is paid. Other children are maintained by private benevolence, or by their parents, who are, when able, required to contribute, commencing at a minimum of 2s. a week, 3 and the deficit is made up as already mentioned. Each of the " homes " lias, of course, resident female attendants, and great care is taken that the food is good and ample; especially as sufficient physical nurture and care are deemed to be indispensable for the mental development of the deaf. 3 In preference to any other course the boarding out of scholars has recently been prominently urged by a lady who takes a great interest in deaf-mutes ;* and this course is warmly advocated by Mr. Van Praagh," and carried out at the Fitzroy Square Institution. 0 The arguments in favour of it seem deserving of the most weighty consideration, and appear to be very analogous to those applicable to the advisability of learning a foreign language only in its native place ; and I may add the llcv. W. Stainer informs me that he agrees in preferring boarding out pupils to " homes," whenever it is practicable. 7 Speaking generally, however, it would almost seem as if this question depended on the relative merits of the lip and sign systems. 8 All authorities appear to concur that there are more favourable conditions for the improvement of deaf-mutes than any that I have alluded to, such as for each pupil to have a separate tutor, and to be in no way allowed to associate with any one similarly afflicted; with other arrangements as to diet and regimen9 which arc out of the question in any national system, and therefore need not be enlarged upon here. Through the indefatigable exertions of the llcv. W, Stainer, the children in the Board schools enjoy a day in the country annually, whilst those in the " homes" also obtain gratuitous residence at the seaside for some weeks. 10 IX.-—CONCLUSIONS. The tabular statement 112*, in conjunction with those already inserted relating to population statistics 11 and subjects of study, 13 supplies a summary of some information relating to the countries in question. The technical conclusions and suggestions in this report have been respectively arrived at and made after («) many discussions with experts who have made the subjects studies of a lifetime; and after (b) repeated perusals of the authorities quoted herein, and of many others. X.—SUGGESTIONS. The results of my investigations incline me to believe that there are certain suggestions which might be profitably considered in the colony with the view of the attainment of increased excellence at a minimum cost, viz. : — (1.) That special training of deaf-mutes between the age of 7vi and 16 14' be compulsory.
Tabular Statement.
That special training bo compulsory.
1 See (a) 0.R., p. 2S; (6) D.R., p. 9. These " homes," however, have been recently (1886) certified under Viet. 25 and 2C, c. 43, " thus facilitating the action of Boards of Guardians in sending deaf and dumb children from their respective districts at a cost to be defrayed wholly, or partially, by the Board. The practice of receiving from the parents pr.ri payment back is becoming more common, the amount being fixed in proportion to their means. Nearly ail the metropolitan Boards of Guardians have already availed themselves of these arrangements." See Q.R., July, 1886, p. 92. 2 See Rept. for 1881. The latest rept. is for 1882, but it does not contain so much information. 3 Note also Rev. W. Stainer's remarks at New York Convention, A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 253. See also Q.R., Oct., 1886, p. 120; and therein note the stress laid upon games and plays. * Miss P. Davenport Hill, see Times, 10 Sept., 1884. See 0.R., p. 6.*
I G See paper on " Lip-Reading," by Mr. Van Praagh, Q.E., Jan., 188G, p. 5. And see D.E., p. 55, for results. Compare with arrangements in New Zealand institutions, N.Z. rept. 7 Surely a very generous and candid opinion in view of his having a most excellent private " homo " under hia immediate care. ] 8 See articles, Times, 19 Sept., 1884. j B Note A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 306. ; 10 Seo, for instance, in 1885, Q.R., Oct., 1386, p. 129. " See supra. 12 See supra. 13 See D.R., pp. 47, 52, and 53. The mean between resolution of Milan Congress and Mr. Van Praagh's opinion, see— (a) CR., pp. 190 and 358. 6) I.C.P. (c) 0.R., pp. 5 and 33. (d) Mr. (now Sir W, B.) Dalby's book, 1880, p. 213. " Note discussion at American conference, seo A.A., Oct., 1881, p. 308.
112
E.—l2
112*
Distinctive Features. National Aid. Method. Schools. Age of Admission to Schools. Continuance of School Terms. Training Colleges.* Industrial Training, in addition to Ordinary Instruction. Country. rBBAT Britain.. Absence of State support or aid. None. But a Royal Com. to inquire into the education of the blind and deafmutes has been recently appointed; three of H.M. school inspectors have in accordance with official instructions reported recently on the education of deaf-mutes in Great Britain ; the Manchester School Board has recently passed a resolution favouring State-aid; and Mr. Gladstone has also sent a hopeful reply to a letter concerning State-aid. Majority of institutions (a) " Combined," or (6) "Manual system." But training colleges and Board schools "pure oral." 48 including six private ones, containing about 2,908 children, employing, say, 240 teachers. Of these 29 are boarding schools, although at three day scholars are taken also; nine are London Board; and 10 are other day (mainly Board) schools. London Board schools, 4 years old. Fitzroy Square practising schools, 6 years old. Nearly all the various other institutions throughout the kingdom admit from 7 to 12 years of age, and in a few cases as late as 13 or 14. London Board schools, 8 to 10 years. Fitzroy Square schools, 8 years. Average length of stay, 5 or 6 years. Two'— (1) Fitzboy Square, superintended by Mr. Van Praagh. (2) Ealing, superintnd. by Mr. Kinsey. One year's course of study in each case, "pure oral." But in 1885 there was established in London an Examining College. 3 There are no institutions where technical instruction is given, but some where onus is undertaken of placing the children as apprentices for the purpose of acquiring a trade on their leaving the charity. France Notwithstanding source of " manual system," yet "pure oral" adopted in national institutions, and in sixty out of the remaining sixty-seven. Three national institutions maintained by State, besides other institutions aided with public moneys. All deaf-mutes unable to pay for special training can obtain it gratuitously, and board and lodging whilst receiving it. "Pure oral" in the three national institutions. Altogether, sixty-three institutions " pure oral," six "manual", and one "Phonomhne." 70 3,655 scholars, under charge of, say, 364 teachers. National institutions, at about the age of 10 or 12. Private schools, at about 6. National institutions, 6 years, and additional course for diligent pupils of 2 years. Private schools, over 8 years, and the rich often longer. None.' Some institutions — (a) Qualify scholars to earn their own living on quitting institution, and (6) Others receive them as workers at expiration of school study. Some institutions notedly excellent. SWITZTERLAND .. All institutions " pure oral." Has probably the best school in Europe at Riehen. Proportionately to area has more deafmute schools than any country in the world, except Belgium. No Federal institutions, but some solely supported by cantons. Others receive aid in the form of bursary pupils from cantonal governments, and in other cases small subsidies are accorded. All schools "pure oral." 15 (about) estimated to contain 369 children, under charge of, say, 43 teachers. 7 to 8 years of age. Admission after 12 very exceptional. 7 to 8 years. 16 or 17 years of age considered extreme limit. None. 1 None, except at Baden and Frienisburg, where part of day is devoted to field work; but at expiration of school studies pupils are placed out as apprentices, under control of " Committee of Patronage." [TALI .. Better results obtained in Italy, on the whole, in the "pure oral method " than anywhere; and Milan institution probably the best combined deaf-mute training college and school in Europe. Royal Institution at Milan solely maintained by State. Eleven other institutions receive State subsidies, but many deaf-mutes uneducated for want of means. All schools "pure oral," except, perhaps, one school. 35 schools (boarding) containing about 1,500 pupils, of whom, say, 910 enjoy free, and, say, 27 semi - free, education, in charge of, say, 239 teachers. 6 or 7 years, at the Royal Institution at Milan. In the country, from 9 to 12. 6 to 8 years. 8 nearly everywhere. Only one, the Royal Institution at Milan, in conjunction with which is a school. Given in some schools, such as the Milan one, where it is obligatory that boys learn wood-carving, modelling, and sculpturing, and where they also have the option of being taught painting. Girls have to learn drawing and needlework. \ rERMAS' All institutions "pure oral." Far more schools than in any other country — more than in all the New World. The Prussian State maintains Royal Berlin School, and also thirty-four others; besides which, seventeen are provided for by towns, villages, or associations, or by legacies, or private persons. In several German States all deaf-mutes receive special instruction. All schools "pure oral." 96 (about), containing about 5,892 pupils, employing, say, 595 teachers. Some are boarding and some day schools. Evening school in Berlin available for adults and children. In some German States special training is compulsory. 6 to 8 years. Usually 6 or 8 years ; but not the same in all institutions. Only one, Royal School at Berlin. Not given in all schools, except in case of girls. Formerly many institutions instructed pupils in trades, and some still do so. Several take care of scholars when they leave school, and procure them suitable employment. Prussian State contributes £8 honorarium as apprenticeship fee, payable after expiry of term. Occupation for girls in asylums established for the purpose. More institutions according to area than any other country. All institutions private, except one at Ghent maintained by province of Brabant. Government give considerable subsidies. Aid also granted even to the extent of education and clothing in all individual cases requiring it. Public contributions regulated by law. Majority not "pure oral," but "combined." 11 (about), containing at least 931 scholars, and employing at least 82 teachers. More pupils proportionately than in most other countries. 7 or 8 years, or less if the physical and intellectual development warrant expectation of profit from instruction. 8 to 10 years. None, but instructors must possess evidence of qualification before teaching. Trades are taught in some schools. SBIiGIUM 'kited States.. For general excellence (exclusive of " method ") institutions are beyond all others Only large country in which arrangements made that all deaf-mutes can be instructed. Schools are voluntary, but Government is most liberal in supporting them. Deaf-mutes' instruction gratuitous for all classes. "Deaf-mutes are adopted as wards of the commonwealth." Only fifteen "pure oral " schools out of sixty-one. Balance principally "combined " system. Method which prevails recently approved at Cal. Convention. 61 estimated to contain more than 7,500 pupils, under charge of 508 teachers. 2 Pupils " come to the institution at 10 or 12 years of age." 8 "The actual average is 5 years," a longer term not unusual. At Washington, school and college term together may extend to a period of 15 or 16 years. 4 None.' Nearly all institutions have industrial departments. 1 It is reported that the large majority of profi sssors at least in England, France, Switzerland, 3 md the United States do m For a notice of the Examin qt sympathise with establishment of n< ling College recently established, see sn irmal schools for training deal-mute teachers, see suyra; and T.C., pp. 116, 269. pra, and 2B., April, 1886, p. 672 A.A., vol. W, No. 1, p. 25, Jan., 1884.
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
Suggestions. (2.) That instead of one central boarding institution, as at Stunner, mixed day schools 1 on the " pure oral" system be established in each considerable centre of population for any defined district which can contribute at least, say, six deaf-mute pupils in regular attendance ;" such school to be held, where practicable, under the same roof, but in a separate room, or separate rooms, of an ordinary elementary school, 3 under the sole management of a specially-trained female teacher. "When the number of scholars in regular attendance exceeds ten the teacher to be provided with a trained assistant. 4 (3.) That where the parents or guardians of a child do not reside in such centre of population they should arrange for the board and residence of such child at some suitableprivate house (in or near such centre) where no deaf-mute resides; 0 or, if that be not prac-I ticable, then the head teacher should receive such pupil into her own home (or with her where she resides) at a fixed price for board and residence. (4.) That a competent and experienced gentleman expert —such as Mr. Van Asch 6 — '. superintend the general organization and management of such schools, periodically examine' and inspect them, and regularly report to the Minister of Education. (5.) That in the first instance the additional number required of specially-trained female i teachers be brought from England; and that arrangements be made with the Superintendent' for the technical training of a sufficient number of certificated teachers thereafter.''' (6.) That the code include and make especially prominent systematic and frequent drill 0 and gymnastics, and also include Kindergarton exercises. 8 jj (7.) That the questions— (a) under what circumstances, and to what extent, payment r should be made by parents or guardians for special training, board, and residence, and (b) as e to the advisability of industrial instruction for deaf-mutes being undertaken by the State, be 1 considered. 9 i (8.) That, so far as applicable, the general education propositions submitted be adopted, t in respect of religious instruction, 10 medical supervision, protection of children, local government, teachers, subjects of instruction, scholarships and certificates of proficiency, and holidays and recesses. These propositions, if carried out, should, it is submitted, in addition to the present l benefits conferred by the Summer Institution, and in addition to those which should accrue from the adoption of such of the general education propositions as are applicable, secure— c (a) Compulsory special training for deaf-mute children; (b) Increased individual attention, including medical attention, to a far greater extent than at present, with less expense; (c) Independent technical inspection and supervision; (d) The advantage (in most cases) at the same time of parental home life; and, even where the latter is not practicable, then in all cases the great benefit of practising constant daily speech with normal persons, and the avoidance thereby of the depressing and injurious influences of all-day association with any similarly afflicted. 11 (e) And also, by providing and especially rendering prominent systematic and frequent
That mixed a^gohoou'in centres of established. °
That where parents do not reside in school locality pupils be boarded out.
hat SuporinJppointod°
That supply of teachers be arranged for.
That code include drill for boys, and gymnastics and Kindergarten exercises for all. That tho questions respecting fees and industrial instruction be considered.
iVntieipatod jencfits if propositions arricd out.
1 See (a) A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 314, and (6) C.R., espec. Paper by Dr. Buxton, p. 246. 3 Seo— (a) Dr. Buxton's remarks, C.R., p. 246; (6) T.C., pp. 151 and 153 ; (c) Times, 17 Sept., 1884 ; (d) Letter from Dr. E. Symcs Thompson on expense, 0.R., p. 7. » See (a) A.A., Oct., 1884, pp. 251, 314, and 315, and (6) Doncaster Meeting discussion, D.R., p 63. 4See— (a) Milan Congress decla., C.R., pp. 197 and 291, and I.C.P. ib) T.C., pp. 6, 143-165, and espec. 145; (c) A.A., Oct., 1884, p. 315; \d) D.R., p. 36. * Note espec.— (a) Dr. Buxton's paper at Milan Congress, C.R., p. 216 ; (6) Suggestions re selection of " home," 0.R., p. 7 ; (c) Record of boarding-out expenses of Fitzroy Square pupils, see D.R., p. 55, and 0.R., p. 7. As probably two of the latest publications on home training, see " Practical Hints to Parents concerning the preliminary Home Training of Young Deaf Children," by Prof. J. C. Gordon, Washington, Gibson Bros., 1886; and "Family Instruction of the
15—E. 12.
Deaf in Early Childhood," by Dr. Peet. See A.A., Oct., 1886, p. 260. 6 For a reference by Dr. Buxton to Sir. Van Asch and the work in New Zealand, see " Proceedings of London Conference, July, 1885, p. 4, W. H. Allen & Co., London ; and Q.8., July, 1886, p. 81. 7 Note Paper by Mr. Van Praagh on " Training Colleges : are they practicable, and what are their requisites ? " in D.E., pp. 32-45, and discussion thereon. For scheme of examination at Collogo of Teachers of the Deaf and Dumb, London, see Q.E., April, 188C, p. 67. 8 Note (a) A.A., Oct., 1884, pp. 264 and 265 ; (6) 1.C.P., Miss Hull's paper, p. 87 ; (c) Amer. Commr. Rcpt. 1884, p. 192. 3 Farming is deprecated.—Dr. H., p. 147. 10 " It is emphatically a religious work." —Dr. Buxton, Q.R., July, 1886, p. 81. And see " The importance of Special Religious Services for Deaf-Mutes."—A.A., Oct., 1836, p. 239. n Notefa) Prof. Bell's remarks at American conference, A.A., Oct., 1884, pp. 315 and 317 ; (6) C.R., espec. p. 246 ; (c) 0.R., p. 7; and (d) D.R., p. 55.
113
E.—l2
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
Suggestions. drill and gymnastic exercises, 1 secure the muscular development of a class of persons generally abnormally undeveloped. Moreover, if it be decided that the training, &c, be not gratuitous except in special cases, such decision under altered circumstances should relieve the Colony to a very large extent of the present (comparatively) enormous expenditure. 2
My special thanks are due to the Rev. William Stainer and Mr. Van Praagh for many kind attentions. lam also indebted to Professor Fornari of Milan, Dr. Treibcl of Berlin, M. Ernest La Rochelle'^ of Paris, Frere Cyrille of Brussels and others, for data obligingly supplied. In order to allay my anxiety for reliability, Dr. Buxton has very considerately been at the trouble of perusing my report in 1885; and again very recently (October, 1886). He gives me leave to state that, so far as his knowledge of the subject extends, my statements are correct, and that he entirely concurs in my comments, conclusions, and suggestions. 4 I may add that, during the last perusal, he had the 1886 Sumner report before him. As Dr. Buxton's degree is that of a specialist, and not of a physician, I have discussed this report ■with a medical expert. R. LAISHLEY.
1 Note beneficial effects of gymnastics at New York Institution, N.Y. rept. 2 The education of each pupil, apparently, cost on average for year ending 31 March, 1886, £86 4s. Id., besides share of departmental expenses, of which only -69 6s. Sd. on average was recouped by relatives or friends. So that if the nominal charge to parents of £40 each was recouped, even then each child so paid for would cost the Colony, on the basis of last year's expenditure, £46 4s. Id., besides share of other expenses.— See N.Z. Rep., 1886. Compare cost to guardians at Rev. W. Stainer's "Homes," supra.
For terms of admission and yearly cost (225.25d015.) per pupil at Minnesota Institute, see rep. of institute for 1884. 3 Note recent pamphlet by him, " Congres administratif Francais do 1885, dans l'interet des sourds-muets." Paris, 1886 ; noticed in Q.R., July, 1886, p. 95. 4 For references to this report by Dr. Buxton, see Proceedings of Confercnco held in London, July, 1885, p. 2, W. H. Allen and Co., London ; Q.R., Jan., 188G, p. 81; Q.R., July, 1886, p. 97; Q.R., Oct., 1886, p. 126 ; and " American Annals of the Deaf," Oct., 1886, p. 292.
114
E.—l2.
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
APPENDIX.
List of Publications* relating to Deaf-Mutism, and their writers or compilers, referred to in the course of the Report, or forwarded herewith, including a Catalogue containing a list of additional ones. 1. The publications marked " M." may be advantageously referred to on " Method." 2. All the publications relating specially to deaf-mutism, referred to in the courso of this Beport, and procurable, are forwarded herewith. 3. To further facilitate references, the abbreviations relating to publications used in the footnotes to the text of the report are in this Appendix set opposite to the respective publications. A. M. Ackers, B. St. J.—see " For their Sakes," and " Papers." page M. American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, Washington, Gibson Brothers (A.A.). (1.) April, 1878 ... ... ... ... ... ... 97,98 (2.) January, 1879 ... ... ... ... 98,104-106,109,111 (3.) January, 1883 ... ... ... ... 97-99, 10], 103, 104 (4.) Vol. xxix., No. 1, p. 25, 1884 ... ... ... ... 112* (5.) October, 1884 ... ... ... ... 97,98,101,102,105-113 (6.) January, 1885, Vol. xxx. ... ... ... ... ... 105 (7.) October, 1886 ... ... ... 98, 100, 105, 106, 108, 110, 111, 113 American Commissioner of Education Report 1881 for 1882—83—-) „ „_, ~,,«» T. . . . j /a n -n \ See "Reports," 100, Deal-mute instruction, p. cxci. and seq. (Amcr. Com. Rep.) Y ' ' ' American Commissioner of Education Report 1885 for 1883—84 j ' M. Arnold, Rev. Thomas : Paper "On Teaching Language to Deaf-mutes," London Conference, July, 1885; Proceedings, p. 34 ... ... 100, 101 Austrian Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 B. Barrett, Mr.: " Letter to Times," London ... ... ... ... 102, 103 Beitrage zur Geschichtc und Statistik des Taubstummen-Bildungswesens in Preussen; Berlin, W. Hertz, 1884 (Beitrage) ... ... 100,101-106 Belgium — Report of Inspector-General of Institutions for Deaf-mutes and Blind (I.G. Rep.) ... ... ... ... ... 100 Bell, Professor: Address at New York Conference—see Report in American Annals, October, 1884 ... ... ... ... 105, 110, 118 M, Blackburn, Mrs.—see also "Nineteenth Century Review" (N.C.) 98, 99,105,110, 111 British Asylum for Deaf and Dumb Females, Lower Clapton, London; Report 1883—84 (and Prospectus, forwarded herewith). M. Brussels — (1.) "Troisieme Congres International," 1883—Official Report and Prospectus, published by F. Hayez, Bruxelles (T.C.) See "Reports," No. 6 (2.) "International Congress Proceedings," by A. A. Kinsey, 1883 (1.C.P.) 99, 101, 110-113 Buxton, Dr. D.—see "Chambers' Encyclopaedia," "Papers," "Notes of Progress," &c, " International Health Exhibition," " For their Sakes," " Since 1881," and "Quarterly Review of Deaf-mute Education" ... 97-101, 103, 110, 111, 113, 114
* The publications mentioned in "Catalogus" and not referred to in the course of this Report are not specifically set forth in this list.
115
E.—l2.
EEPOET UPON STATE EDUCATION.
PAGE c. Catalogue, Official, of Int. Health Ex., London, 1884 (0.C.). ... 97, 101, 103, 107 M. Catalogus Bibliothecse Guyotianse, &c, curavit Dr. A. W. Alings, Groningae, Hoit sema, Groningse (forwarded herewith) .* " Caution to Benefactors of the Deaf and Damb," by Rev. W. Stainer, containing List of London Deaf and Dumb Charities ... ... 110 Census Returns —(C. rep.). (1.) England and Wales, 1881 and 1871 ... ... ... ...102,109 (2.) Scotland, 1881 ... ... ... ... ...102,109 (3.) New Zealand, 1881 ... ... ... ... 97,102,109 (4.) France, 1876 ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 M. Chambers' Encyclopaedia (1874), Article on "Deaf and Dumb/' by Dr. Buxton (C. E.) ... ... ... ... ... 97-99,103,105 Charity Organisation Reporter—Spottiswoode & Co., London (CO. rep.) — (1.) 26th April, 1884, Letter and ... ... ... ... 103 (2.) Ist November, 1884, Article by the Rev. W. Stainer ... ... 103 Circular issued by the London School Board, 4th Feb., 1884 ... 99, 106, 110 Clark Institution, Massachusetts, U.S.A.—Report, 31st August, 1884 (C.I. rep.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 97, 105, 100 Claveau, M.: Report ... ... ... ... ... ... 103 " Colonies and India," The, 3rd Nov., 1885 —Progress of Deaf-mute Education in South Africa ... ... ... ... ... 105 " Compte-rendu du Congres, 1880—Congress International," Milan, 1880 (C.R.). See "Reports" (1). D. Dalby, Sir W. 8., F.R.C.S., M.B.— (1.) See "Diseases and Injuries of the Ear " ... .... ... 97 (2.) "Papers" ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 M. "Deaf not Dumb," Article by B. St. John Ackers, Esq., in "For their Sakes" 107 " Deaf-mutes and the Public Schools from 1815 to the present day," by Prof. J. C. Gordon ... ... ... ... ... ... 105 M. "Deaf-mutism," &c., by Dr. A. Hartmann, Berlin; English Translation, Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox, London, 1881 (Dr. II.) 97, 98, 100, 102-105, 108, 109 M. "De Minimis," Notes by, in " Quarterly Review of Deaf-mute Education," July and October, 1886. See " Quarterly Review." "Diseases and Injuries of the Ear," by Sir W. B. Dalby, F.R.C.S., M.8., Churchill, London, 1880 ... ... ... ... ... 97 M. Doncaster Report of Conference of Head-masters, held 30th and 31st May, 1882; Hartley and Son, Doncaster (D.R.). See "Reports" (4). Dupanloup, Mgr.—see "American Annals," April, 1878 ... ... 97 E. M. Elliott, R. : see " Papers." M. " Encyclopaedia Britannica " (1877) 9th cd.—Article " Deaf and Dumb " (E.8.) ... ... ... ... ... 97-99, 102, 105, 108 P. "Family Instruction of the Deaf in Early Childhood," by Dr. Peet ... 111,113 Felkin, H. M.—see "Technical Education in a Saxon Town " ... ... 104 Fitch, J. G., Inspector—Memo, on Dr. (now Sir) C. Brown's Report on "Over-pressure" ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 Fitzroy Square Association (London, W.) ... ... ... ... 106 (1.) Prospectus, 1882 ... ... ... ... ... 107 M. (2.) Report, 1883 ... ... ... ... ... ... 11l Fornari, Professor P.—see " Surdus Bene Loquens" (forwarded herewith).
* "'La Rovuo Blbliograpliiquo Intomationalo' is published in Paris under the editorship of Mons. Belaugor, with the co-oporation of Dr. Alings, Mons, Th. Denis, Dr. Battel, Mr. Van Praagh, and Mons. Villabiolle, at the Libraric Paul Kitte, 21, ruo do Vangirard, and is intended to give an account of all the publications concerning the instruction of deaf-mutes in all countries, and also the sciences which bear on the subject. Its purpose is to continue the work so ably initiated by Dr. Alings—Catalogus Bibliothecse Guyotianaa."—Q. K., Jan. 1886, pp. 30, 31.
116
8.—12.
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
PAGE M. "For their Sakes." (1.) Article by Dr. Buxton, "Past and Present Condition of the Education of the Deaf" ... ... ... ... ... ... 98, 101 (2.) Article by A. A. Kinsey—"Curiosities of Technical Education" ... 97, 107 (3.) Article by B. St. J. Ackers, "Deaf not Dumb;" Chapman and Hall (Limited), London, 1881 ... ... ... ... 107 G. M. Gallaudet, Rev. Thos., D.D.—see Troisieme Congres International Official Report and Prospectus, 1883 ... ... ... ... 100, 108 M. Gallaudet, E. M., L.L.D.—see " International Review " (forwarded herewith.) G£ographie, Enseignemcnt de la—see " Revue Internationale." M. Gordon, Prof. I. C. —"The Manual Alphabet, and Deaf-mates, and the Public Schools" ... ... ... ... ... 100,105,113 M. Greenberger, D. —Article on "The Natural Method"—see "American Annals," April, 1878, January, 1879. H. M. Hartmann, Dr. A.—see " Deaf-mutism," &c. (Dr. H.) Hill, Miss F. Davenport—see Times, 10th September, 1884 ... ... 112 "Homes" for Deaf and Dumb Children, London ... ... ... 112 (a) Prospectus; (4) Reports for 1881 and 1882. Howard, J.—see "Our Pupils and their Future" ... ... 100, 109, 111 M. Hull, Miss S. E.—(l) see "Papers" and "Pamphlets." I. M. "International Congress Proceedings," by A. A. Kinsey, London, 1883 (1.C.P.) ... ... ... ... ... 99, 101, 110-113 International Congress, next at Frankfort ... ... ... ... 99 M. International Health Exhibition, London, 1884— (1.) Special Catalogue (including Article by Dr. Buxton), p. 42, W. Clowes and Son, Limited (0.C.) ... ... ... 97,101,103,107 (2.) Official Report of Conferences on Oral Instruction of Deaf and Dumb, W. Clowes and Son, Limited (0.11.) —see "Reports" (17). M. International Review —A. S. Barnes and Co., New York, Dec, 1881. Article by E. M. Gallaudet, "How shall the Deaf be Educated?" (forwarded herewith). Jews' "Deaf and Dumb Home," Notting Hill, London (forwarded herewith). Report, 1883. K. M. Kinsey, A. A. —see " Brussels " — (1.) International Congress Proceedings (1.C.P.) ... ... 99,101,110-113 (2.) "Papers" ... ... ... ... ... ... 110 (3.) " For their Sakcs" ... ... ... ... ... 97, 107 M. Kobrich, Fr. " Ueber die Ursachenum Wirkemgcn der Tanbheit nebst Natlischlagen fur Eltern zur Erzichungehrcr taubenund Taubstummen Kinder Weissenfels, Ed. Lehmstedts Buchandlung, 1885 "* ... ... 97 L. La Rochelle, E.—Works on " J. Rodriguez Pcreire," &c, and "Le Ministere de l'lnterieur." ... ... ... ... ...103,114 M. " Lessons for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Children in Lip-reading and Writing"—by W. Van Praagh. Parts I. and 11. Triibncr and Co., London, 1884 ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 London — (1.) See1 " Homes for Deaf and Dumb Children"—Prospectus and Report, 1881 and 1882 ... ... ... ... ... 112
* For notice sco Q. 8., Jan., 1886, p. 32,
117
E.—l2,
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
London-— continued. page (2.) "List of Deaf and Dumb Charities"—see "Caution," &c... ... 110 M. (3.) Report Conference, held 24th to 26th July, 1877 (forwarded herewith). M. (4.) Report Conference, held 22nd to 24th June, 1881—see "Reports" ... 102, 103 (5.) School Board Circular, dated 4th February, 1884 (Circular) 99, 106, 110 London School Board—see London (5). M. "Manual Alphabet, The." ... ... ... ... ... 100 Mettinet, Professor T. —see " Statistique Generate" (S.G.). Milan— M. (1.) Compte-rendu du Congres, 1880 —Rome, Heritiers Botta (C.R.) —see " Reports " (1) ; M. (2.) Paper on Congress, by R. Elliott, 22nd June, 1881 ... ... 98 M. (3.) Paper for Congress, by Dr. E. S. Thompson, 1880 ... 101 (4.) " Relazione," &c. (forwarded herewith). (5.) Paper for Congress by Dr. Buxton, see Times, Sept., 1880 ... ... 113 (6.) Correspondence in Times, 10th, 13th, 22nd, and 25th Sept., and article, 28th Sept., 1880 —see Times; (7.) Last Report of Institution ... ... ... ... 104, 107 M. Minnesota —Report of Institution, 1884 (containing also Report of a Conference) (Minn, rept.) ... ... ... ... ...108,114 N. M. National Educational Association—Proceedings of meeting held at Madison, Wis., 16th July, 1885, "To consider the subject of Deaf-mute Instruction in relation to the Work of the Public Schools," Washington, Gibson Bros., 1885 ... ... ... ... ... ... 105 M. New York— (1.) Report Lexington Avenue Institution, 1884 (forwarded herewith). (2.) Official Report of Convention of American Articulation Teachers, 25th June. Albany, E. S. Werner, 1884; see also "American Annals," Oct., 1884 (N.Y.0.R.) ... ... ... ... ... 11l (3.) New York Institute —Eighteenth Annual Report, 1885 (N.Y. Rep.) ... 100, 114 "New York Daily Tribune." ... ... ... ... ... 105 New Zealand —Report for year ending 31st March, 1885, of Minister of Education, including Report on "Sunnier" (N.Z. Rep.)—see "Reports" (8). New Zealand—Report for year ending 31st March, 1886, of Minister of Education, including Report on "Sumner" (N.Z. Rep.)—see "Reports" (9). M. "Nineteenth Century Review"—October, 1884 —Article, "Our Deaf and Dumb," by Mrs. Blackburn (N.C.) —see " Blackburn, Mrs." M. North, S. W. — Letter to Times, 20th Sept., 1884 ... ... ... 108 M. " Notes of Progress in the Education of the Deaf," paper by Dr. Buxton, read 22nd Sept., 1882; W. H. Allen and Co., London ... ... 99, 103 o. Official Catalogue of International Health Exhibition, London, 1884 (0.C.) —see " Catalogue, Official." M. Official Report of Conference of International Health Exhibition, London, 1884 (O.R.) —see "Reports" (17). M. Old Kent Road AsYlum, London—Reports 1883 and 1884 —see " Reports " (13). "Our Pupils and their Future," by J. Howard ... ... 100, 109, 111 P. M. Pamphlet by Miss S. E. Hull: " Teaching the Dumb to Speak," re Baling Training College; Witherby and Co., London, 1884 ... ... 107 Papers by— (1.) Ackers, B. St. J.—Read at London Conference, July, 1885, "The State in relation to the Deaf"... ... ... ... ... 98, 99
118
E.—l2.
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
Papers by— continued. page (2.) Arnold, Rev. T.—On "Teaching Language to Deaf-mutes/' Proceedings, London Conference, July, 1885. ... ... ... ...100,101 (3.) Buxton, Dr.—(fl) Head, at Sheffield Meeting, August, 1879, on "The German Speech and Lip-reading System of Teaching the Deaf," W. 11. Allen and Co., London (Sheffield paper). (b) Head at Milan Congress, 1880: "A Teacher's Testimony to the German System;" see Comptc-rendu. (c) Article in " For their Sakcs," on " Past and Present Condition of the Education of the Deaf," Chapman and Hall, Limited, London, 1884. (d) " Since 1881," Proceedings, London Conference, 1885, p. 6. (e) " Statistics : Leading and Misleading," "Quarterly Review of Deaf-mute Education," Jan., 1886 ... 97-103, 107, 110, 111, 113, 114 M. (4.) Dalby, Sir W. B.— («) On "The Education of the Deaf and Dumb by means of Lip-reading and Articulation," Churchill, London, 1872. (b) Read at International Health Exhibition Conference, 30th June, 1884, on "Education of Incurably Deaf Children," see "Official Report" (forwarded herewith) ... ... ... ... 97, 101 M. (5.) Elliott, R. —On Milan Congress, read 22nd June, 1881, "System of teaching the Deaf." "Tests of Work," read at London Conference, July, 1885 ... ... ... ... ... 98, 101, 108 M. (6.) Hull, S. E.—For Brussels Congress, 1883, see "International Congress Proceedings" ... ... ... ■ ... ... 113 (7.) Kinsey, A. A.—For Brussels Congress, see " International Congress Proceedings," 1883, and " For their Sakes " ... ... ... 97, 107 (8.) Payne, B. H.—"Religious Privileges for the Deaf and Dumb " ... 106 (9.) Schontheil, S.—Paper on "Some Schools for the Deaf and Dumb in Germany" ... ... ... ... 98, 100, 101, 104, 108, 111 (10.) Thompson, Dr. E. S. —For Milan Congress, 1880 ... ... 101 (11.) Thomson, J.—"School Management," London Conference, July, 1885 102, 110 M. (12.) Van Praagh, W.—(a) Read at Teachers' Conference, 10th Jan., 1878, on " The Oral Education of the Deaf and Dumb." (b) Read at Doncaster Conference, 30th May, 1882, on " Training Colleges : are they Practicable ? and what arc their Requisites ?'' (see Report of Conference), (e) Read at International Health Exhibition Conference, 30th June, 1874, on "Oral Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb." (d) " Lip-reading," " Quarterly Review of Deaf-mute Education," Jan., 1886. (e) " The Pure Oral, or German System " 97, 98, 100, 101, 107, 112, 113 M. Paris —Rapport du Congres, 1878... ... ... ... 98,104,112 Parliamentary Return—showing National Contributions in Europe and U. S. A. 98 Proceedings of Conference, London, July, 1885. See " Report," No. 22. " Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society" ... ... ... 102 Payne, B. H., Head-master Swansea Institute—Paper "Religious Privileges," &c, Proceedings of Conference, London, July, 1885 ... ... 106 Peet, Dr.—':Family Instruction of the Deaf in early Childhood" ... 111, 113 "Penny Encyclopedia," 1873 ... ... ... ... ... 97 " Practical Hints to Parents concerning the Preliminary Home-training of Young Children," by Prof. J. C. Gordon; Gibson Bros., Washington, 1886 113 Prussia —For History and Statistics of Deaf and Dumb, see "Beitrage," &c. (forwarded herewith). QM. " Quarterly Review of Deaf-mute Education," No. 1, Jan., 1886 (Q.R., Jan., 1886); W. H. Allen and Co., London, containing articles by Dr. Buxton; " Statistics : Leading and Misleading," and " Lip-reading," by W. Van Praagh, &c. ... ... ... 97, 98, 102, 108, 110-114 April, 1886 ... ... ... 98, 99, 102, 103, 110, 111, 113 July, 1886 ... ... ... ... 98,99,102,103,112-114 October, 1886 ... ... ... ... 98, 105, 111, 112, 114
119
E.—l2,
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
PAGE R. M. Rapport du Congres dc Paris, 1878 ... ... ... ... 98, 104 Relazione sui Real Instituto dci Sordomuti in Milano, 1879—80 (forwarded herewith). " Religious Privileges for the Deaf and Dumb/' Paper by B. H. Payne ... 106 Reports— (1.) Comptc-rcndu du Congres 1880 (Milan) (C.R.) ... 97-102, 104-108, 110-113 (2.) American Commissioner of Education, 1884 for 1882-83, and 1885 for 1883—4. (American Commissioners' Report.) Deaf-mute Instruction, p. exci. and seq. ... ... ... ... 100, 105, 113 M. (3.) Conferences of Head-masters, held— (a) 24th to 26th July, 1877. London, G. Hill, Westminster Bridge Road (forwarded herewith). {b) 22nd to 24th June, 1881. London, W. H. Allen and Co. ... 102,103 M. (4.) Conference of Head-masters at Doncaster, 30th and 31st May, 1882 (D.R.). ... ... ... ... 99,107,108,111-113 (5.) "Homes," London, 1881 and 1882 ... ... ... ... 112 M. (6.) Troisieme Congres International, Brussels, 1883 (T.C.) 97, 98,100-110,112,113 (7.) Inspector-General of Institutions for Deaf-mutes and Blind in Belgium, 1883 (I.G. Rep.) ... .... ... ... ... 100 (8.) Eighth Annual, of New Zealand Minister o£ Education, including Report on Sumner, 1885 (N.Z. Rep.) ... ... 99, 106, 111, 112 (9.) Ninth Annual, of New Zealand Minister of Education, including Report on Sumner, 1886 (N.Z. Rep.) ... ... 98-101, 106, 112, 114 (10.) Seventeenth Annual, of Clark Institution, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 31st August, 1884 (C.I. Rep.) ... ... ... 97,105,106 (11.) British Asylum for Deaf and Dumb Females, Low rer Clapton, London, 1883—84; and Prospectus (forwarded herewith). (12.) Jews' Deaf-and-Dumb Home, Notting Hill, London, 1883 (forwarded herewith). (13.) Old Kent Road Asylum, London, 1883-84 ... ... 103, 106, 109 M. (14.) Lexington Avenue, N.Y. Institution, 1884 (forwarded herewith). M, (15.) Minnesota Institution, 1884 (Minn. Rep.) ... ... ...108,114 M. (16.) Convention of American Articulation Teachers at New York, 25th June, 1884 (N.Y. O.R.)* ... ... ... ... ...107,111 M. (17.) Conference at International Health Exhibition, 30th June, 1884 (0.R.) ... ... ... 97-101, 103, 107, 109, 111-113 (18.) National Education Association. See above under "N." ... ... 105 (19.) New York Institution, Eighteenth Annual, 1885 (N.Y. Rep.) ... 100,114 (20.) Last, of Milan Institution ... ... ... ... ...104,107 (21.) Fitzroy Square, 1883 ... ... ... ... ...107,111 (22.) Conference, London, July, 1885 ... ... 99-104, 108, 110, 111, 114 s. Schontheil, S. See "Papers." u School Board Chronicle, The," London— ... ... ... 11l M. (1.) Report by Rev. W. Stainer on London Board Schools, Ist Sept., 1877 (forwarded herewith). (2.) Paper by Rev. W. Stainer on " The Advantages of Small Numbers in Day-schools over Large Numbers in Institutions." (See same paper in Report of Conference, July, 1877) ... ..» ... 11l M. "School Guardian, The," National Society Depos., Sanctuary, Westminster— Article by Canon Smith on "A Visit to a Deaf-and-Dumb Board School," 25 Feb., 1882 ... ... ... ... ... ... 110 " School Management." Paper by J. Thomson ... ... ...102,110 Shakespeare, " Cymb" ... ... ... ... 100 " Since 1881." Paper by Dr. Buxton ... ... ... ... 103
• See Q.E., Jan,, 1886, p. 32.
120
E.—l2.
DEAF-MUTE INSTEUCTION.
PAGE M. Smith, Canon. See " School Guardian" ... ... ... ... 110 M. Snyckbes, M.— (1.) " L'cnseignement des Travaux Manncls dans les Institutions dc Sourdsmuets " —Paris, G. Carre; Brussels, A. Mauceaux,* 1885; and ... 108 (2.) "Le Sourd-parlant cours metliodiquc et intuitif de langue Francaise a l'usage des etablissements de Sourds-muets " —Paris, G. Carre; Brussels, A. Mauceaux, 1885 ... ... ... ... 98, 101 Staixer, Eev. W. — M. (1.) See "School Board Chronicle" ... ... ... ... 11l (2.) See " Charity Organization Reporter" ... ... ... 103 (3.) Times, 17 Sept., 1884 ... ... ... ... ... 108 (4.) See " Caution," &c. ... ... ... ... ... 110 (5.) Remarks at New York Convention ... ... ... ... 112 State, The, in Relation to the Deaf ... ... ... ... 98-100 Statistics : Leading and Misleading. Article by Dr. Buxton, in Q.R., Jan., 188G ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97, 102 Statistique Generale des Institutions des Sourds-mucts du monde civilise, par Theophile Mettinet, P. X. Saile—Colmar, Alsace, 1883 (S.G.) 97, 98, 100, 101, 103-105 Surdophone, Le ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 Surdus Bene Loquens, by Prof. P. Fornari; Milano, 1883 (forwarded herewith) . T. Table of Public Institutions in Great Britain for 1885 ... ... ... 103 "Technical Education in a Saxon Town," by H. M. Felkin. —Kegan, Paul, and Co., London, 1881 ... ... ... ... ... 10-1 M. " Tests oE Work." Paper by R. Elliott. ... ... ... ...101,108 Thomson, J., Head-master Glasgow Institution : Paper on " School Management " ... ... ... ... ... ... 102,110 M. Thompson, E. Symes, M.D. See " Papers," " Milan," and " Times." " Times, The "— M. (1.) Correspondence on Milan Congress in issues of 10th, 13th, 22nd, and 25th Sept. ; and 28th Sept. (Article), 1880 ... ... 98, 101, 109, 113 M. (2.) Letters and Articles in issues of. Bth, 25th, and 28th Aug. j 2nd, Ith, 6th, 10th, 15th, 17th, 19th, and 20th Sept., 1881, 97-100, 102, 103, 108, 109, 111-13 (3.) Education Department, 17th Mar., 1885. ... ... ... 99 V. Van Praagh, W. —See " Papers " and " Lessons for the Instruction," &c. M. Vatter, J. " Zchn Sprechtapln stoff zur Plfege ernes technisch gutcn und logisch richtigen Sprcchcns bei Taubstummen."—Frankfort, Verlog von 11. Bcchhold, 1885. See Q.R., Jan., 1886. w. Webster's Unabridged Dictionary—distinction between " dumb " and " mute " 97 Woodall, W., M.P.: Presidential Address at London Conference, July, 1885 99
• For Paper on this Convention, see Proceedings London Conference, July, 1885, p. 58.
16—E. 12.
121
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
INDEX TO REPORT ON DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
A. ACKEES, 8., St. J.— PAGE Establishment of Ealing College ... ... ... ... ...98,99,107 Age of Entky— At deaf-mute schools ... ... ... ... ... 103,105,112 Amebica— See " United States" ... ... ... ... ... 100,101,102,105 Annual Treats for London Children ... ... ... ... ... 112 Appendix—Containing list of publications referred to in report ... ... ... 115, 121 Aenold, Eev. Thos. ... ... ... ... ... ... 100,101 Australian Institutions — Not " pure oral," but an orally-taught class at the Melbourne and Sydney institutions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Austria — Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 Austrians support " pure-oral " method ... ... ... ... 101 B. Basle — Superiority of schools at Eiehen ... ... ... ... ... 98 Belgium— Population Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Distinctive Features — (a) More institutions, according to area, than in any other country ... ... 98 (b) Proportionately more pupils than in most other countries ... ... 105 National Aid—■ (a) Schools liberally subsidized by Government ... ... ... 100 (b) Aid granted in all individual cases requiring it ... ... ... 100 (c) Public contributions regulated by law ... ... ... ... 100 Method— (a) " Combined" system mainly prevails ... ... ... ... 105 Schools — (a) Schools nearly all private religious ones ... ... ... ... 105 (6) Numbers of schools, scholars, and teachers ... ... ... 105 (c) All under Government supervision ... ... ... .... 105 (d) Subjects of study in schools ... ... ... ... ... 106 Training Colleges— (a) No training colleges, but ... ... ... ... ... 108 (b) Instructors must possess qualification ... ... ... ... 108 Industrial Training ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Tabulae Statement, containing summary of information ... ... ... 112* Berlin — Evening schools established ... ... ... ... ... 104, 105 Eoyal school ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 See also " Prussia " and " Germany." Blind, Education of ... ... ... ... ... ... 102,109 Board Schools— Nine in Great Britain besides London schools ... ... ... ... gg ( 103 Boys— Eelative capacity of boys and girls ... ... ... .. ... HI Bradford Board School ... ... ... ... ... ... 99,103 Beazil ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Bristol Boaed School ... ... ... ... ... ... 99
122
E.—l2.
DEAF-MT'TE INSTRUCTION.
Brussels Congress— page Discussions and resolutions ... ... ... ... ... 97, 98, 100 Brown, Sir James Crichton ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 Buxton, Dr. David ... ... ... ... 97,99,101-103,107,113,114 c. "Combined" System ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Conclusions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 112, 112:;; Continuance of School Terms ... ... ... ... 103, 105, 112" Convention, Eleventh, of American Instructors, 1886 ... ... ... 105 Cyrille, Fberi: ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 114 Colleges—■ Training ... ... ... ... ... ... 101, 107, 108, 112* Examining ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 107, 112* D. Dalby, Sir W. B. ... ~. ... ... ... ...97,101,112 " Deaf and Dumb " — Expression is a misnomer ... ... ... ... ... 97 Deaf and Dumb Asylum, Old Kent Eoad, London, for Children ... 106, 108, 109 Definition — "Deaf and Dumb" ... ... ... ... ... ... 97 Denmark ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 Desks — Description of desks at London Board Schools and at Fitzroy Square, London ... 110 Dumb — Note distinction between " dumb " and " mute " ... ... ... 97 Dutch ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 106,107 Supporters " pure oral" method ... ... ... ... ... 101 E. Ealing Training College, London ... ... ... ... ... 107, 110 Education— True aim of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97 Employments of the deaf in the United States ... ... ... ... 108 England and Wales — Population statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Large majority of professors do not sympathise with the establishment of normal schools ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 Subjects of study ... ... ... ... ... ... 106 (See also " Great Bbitain.") Examination, scheme of, for teachers ... ... ... ... ... 100 Examining College in Great Britain ... ... ... ... ... 107,113 F. Farming— For deaf-mutes deprecated ... ... ... ... ... 95,113 Female Teachers — Generally preferred, &c, ... ... ... ... ... 110 Fitzeoy Square Institution, London ... ... ... ...103,106,110,112,113 Fornari, Professor ... ... ... ... ...101,104,100,108,114 France — Population Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Distinctive Features ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 National Aid— (a) Three national institutions solely maintained by State ... ... ... 99 (b) Other institutions liberally aided ... ... ... ... 99 (c) All deaf-mutes aided when needful ... ... ... ... 99 Method — (a) Source of " manual" system ... ... ... ... ... 98 (ft) Methods adopted ... ... ... ... ... ... 98
123
E.—l2.
BEPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
France— continued. page Peogeess ... ... ... ... ... ... 98, 99, 103 Schools— (a) Special training not compulsory... ... ... ... ... 103 (6) Numbers of schools, scholars, and teachers ... ... ... ... 103 (c) Age of admission ... ... ... ... ... ... 103 (d) Term of primary studies ... ... ... ... ... 103 (e) Subjects of study ... ... ... ... ... ... 106 (/) Information respecting university students ... ... ... ... 106 Teaining Colleges— (a) No training colleges... ... ... ... ... ... 107 (6) Majority of professors do not encourage such training ... ... ... 107 Industeial Teaining— Tabular statement containing summary of information ... ~, ~. 112" Feench— Method—see "manual." G. Gallaudet, Dr. E. M., of Washington, U.S.A. ... ... ... ... 105 Geneeal and Distinctive Featuees ... ... ... ... ... 97, 98 Features common to all except Great Britain ... ... ... ... 98 Features common to Germany, Switzerland, and Italy ... ... ... 98 Features distinctive of the several countries ... ... ... ... 98 Genoa— Eoyal Institution ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 Geemany— Population statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Distinctive Featuees — (a) All institutions " pure oral" ... ... ... ... ... 98,101 (b) More institutions than any other country ... ... ... ... 98 National Aid— (a) Eoyal school at Berlin, including normal college, solely supported by Prussian State ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 (b) Other schools in Prussia supported by public or private benevolence ... 100 (c) In several States all deaf-mutes receive special instruction ... ... 100 Method— Source of " pure oral" method ... ... ... ... ... 98 Main supporters ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Schools— (a) Details of schools, scholars, and teachers ... ... ... ... 104,105 (6) Evening schools at Berlin ... ... ... ... ... 104 (c) All under Government supervision ... ... ... ... 105 (d) Age of admission and term of study ... ... ... ... 105 (e) No special compulsory law in most German States ... ... ... 105 (/) States where special training is compulsory ... ... ... 105 (g) Subjects of study ... ... ... ... ... ... 106 Teaining Colleges— (a) Only one—viz., Eoyal school, including normal college, solely maintained by Prussian State ... ... ... ... ... ... 100, 107 (b) Some excellent professors not trained in normal schools, but, &o. ... ... 107,108 Industeial Teaining ... ... ... ... ... ... 108, 109 Tabulae Statement containing summary of information ... ... ... 112* For " German " method, see " Pure Oral." Giels — Eelative capacity of boys and girls ... ... ... ... ... 11l Glasgow (Govan) Boabd School ... ... ... ... ... 99, 103 Goedon, Prof. J. C. ... ... ... ... ... ... 91,100 Gladstone, M.P., the Eight Hon. W. E. .. ... ... ... 99 Geeat Beitain — Population Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Distinctive Featuees, National Aid— No State grants ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 Method— "Pure oral" does not prevail in majority of institutions, although it is a system pursued in training colleges and Board schools ... ... ... 101 Schools— Details of schools, scholars, and teachers ... ... ... ... 102,103 Subjects of study ... ... ... ... ... ... 106 Teaming CollegesTwo, and Examining College ... ... ... ... ... 107
124
E.—l2.
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
Gbeat Britain — continued. tage Industrial Training ... ... .. ... ... ... 108 London Board Schools and "The Eev. W. Staineb's Homes" ... ... 110 Tabular Statement, containing summary of information ... ... ... 112* Geeenock Board School ... ... ... ... ... ... 99, 103 Gillet, Dr. : Eemarks on London Board deaf-mute schools ... ... ... 11l H. Havstadt, M.: Brilliant instance of deaf-mute proficiency ... ... ... 101 "Homes" ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 111,112 Physical nurture and care indispensable for mental development of deaf-mutes ... 112 Discussion respecting merits of " homes" ... ... ... ... 11l Conference in London, 1881 ... ... ... ... ... 11l London "homes" ... ... ... ... ... ... 111, 112 Some deaf-mutes sent by Poor Law Guardians to London "homes" ... ... 111, 112 HUNGAEIANS— Supporters of"pure oral" method ... ... ... ... ... 101 I. India— Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97 Incurably deaf children, education of, by Sir W. B. Dalby ... ... ... 97 Industrial Training ... ... ... ... ... ... 108, 109 Great Britain ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 France ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Switzerland ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Italy ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Germany ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Belgium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 United States ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Details, discussion and resolution at Brussels Congress ... ... ... 109 Industrial training in deaf-mute institutions perhaps unnecessary ... ... 109 Trades and occupations best suited to deaf-mutes ... ... ... 109 Extra care should be taken in apprenticing ... ... ... ... 109 Summary ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 109 Introductory Eemarks ... ... ... ... ... ... 97 Italy. Population Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Distinctive Features— (a) On the whole, best•" pure oral " results obtained there ... ... 98 (b) Milan institution probably best in Europe ... ... ... ... 98, 104 National Aid — (a) Three Eoyal institutions ... ... ... .. ... 100 (b) Some other deaf-mute institutions receive subsidies, but ... ... 100 (c) Many deaf-mutes uneducated ... ... ... ... ... 100 Method — (a) All institutions "pure oral," except, perhaps, one ... ... ... 100,101 Schools — (a) No special compulsory law ... ... ... ... ... 104 (b) Details of schools, scholars, and teachers ... ... ... ... 104 (c) Age of admission and term of stndy ... ... ... ... 104 (d) Subject of study in schools ... ... ... ... ... 106 Training Colleges— (a) Only one training college, details ... ... ... ... 107, 108 (b) Term of study ... ... ... ... ... ... 107,108 Industrial Training— 108 Tabular Statement, containing summary of information ... ... ... 112* Index— To abbreviations used in footnotes, see Appendix under various headings ... 115-121 Japan ... ... ... ... ••• ... ... 101 Jews' Deaf-and-Dumb Home, Notting Hill, London ... ... ... 108 K. KINSEY, A. A.— Superintendent of Ealing College ... ... ... ... 97,99,107,110 Kobrich, Fr. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97
125
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
L. PAGE La Eochelle, Eenest ... ... ... ... ... ... 103, 114 Leeds Boakd School ... ... ... ... ... ... 99 Legal Eegulations respecting marriage of deaf-mutes ... ... ... 97 Leicester Board School ... ... ... ... ... ... 99 " Lip-eeading Method"— See" Pure Oral" ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 London— "Homes"—details ... ... ... ... ... ... 111,112 Deaf-mute population ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 London Boabd Schools — Details ... ... ... ... ... 99, 103, 106, 107, 110, 112 London Old Kent Eoad Asylum— Oldest of all British deaf-mute institutions ... ... ... 103,106,108 M. Manchester School Boaed— Eesolution by ... ... ... ... ... ... 99 " Manual " System— Originated in France ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 Marriage— No legal regulations respecting marriage of deaf-mutes ... ... ... 97 Melbouene— An orally-taught class in institution at ... ... ... ... 101 Methods — Three methods — "Pureoral" ... ... ... ... ... ... 100,101 " Manual," and ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 "Combined" ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 " Pure oral" in majority of institutions ... ... ... ... 101 Sole system in British training colleges and Board schools ... ... 101 Divergency yearly becoming less, and reasons ... ... ... ... 101 Supporters of the different systems ... ... ... ... ... 101 Advantages of the "pure oral" ... ... ... ... ... 101 Mexico ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Milan Congress— Eesolutions, &c, respecting national duty to assist deaf-mutes ... ... 99 " Pure oral" method ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Preferable number of pupils for one teacher ... ... ... ... 110,111 Best age for commencing school life, &c. ... ... ... ... 11l Eespecting boarding out... ... ... ... ... ... 113 Milan Institution — Probably best in Europe ... ... ... ... ... 98 Both a training college and a school ... ... ... ... 104 The recognized training college in Italy ... ... ... ... 107 Young teachers trained for a year, and, if successful at examination, get certificate 107 State defrays expense of training teachers ... ... ... ... 107 Particulars of diplomas issued ... ... ... ... ... 107 Provides industrial training ... ... ... ... ... 108 N. Naples— Eoyal Institution ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 National Aid ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98, 100 State aid requisite ... ... ... ... ... ... 98,99 National duty ... .. ... ... ... ... 98,99 Eesolution of Milan Congress ... ... ... ... ... 98, 99 Great Britain ... ... ... ... ... ... 99 France ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 99 Switzerland ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 Italy ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 Germany ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 Belgium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 United States ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 National Educational Association ... ... ... ... ... 105
126
E.—l2.
DEAF-MUTE INSTBTJCTION.
New Yokk State— page Laws of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 Noeway— Liberal aid granted ... ... ... ... ... ... 99 Method ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100, 101 Information respecting university students ... ... ... ... 99 Nottingham Boaed School... ... ... ... ... ... 99 o. Object Lessons in Science ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 P. Paeis— Congress of 1878 ... ... ... ... ... 98,101,104 Congress of 1884 ... ... ... ... ... ... 104 Congress of 1885 ... ... ... ... 104 Payne, B. H., Headmaster Swansea Institution— Paper on " Eeligious Privileges for the Deaf and Dumb "... ... ... 106 Pebt, Dr.— On the work of the Eev. W. Stainer ... ... ... ... 11l Perini, C.— Article in " Eevue Internationale de l'Enseignement des Sourds-muets," Feb., 1886 102 " Phonautogeaph " — Devised in United States, in aid of deaf-mutes ... ... ... ... 105 Physical Nuktuee and Cake — Indispensable for mental development of deaf-mutes ... ... ... 112 Plans of Study— Tabular Statement relating to different countries ... ... ... 106 Portugal ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Population Statistics— (Including computation of numbers of deaf-mutes in the world) ... ... 102 Peussia— Population Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 National Aid— (a) Details of public support ... ... ... ... ... 100 (b) State contributes apprenticeship fees ... ... ... ... 108 Schools— (a) Details of schools, scholars, and teachers ... ... ... ... 104 Tkaining Colleges— Berlin Eoyal School ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 Industrial Training— See also " Germany " and " Berlin." Publications— Eeferred to in course of report, and others, see Appendix .... ... ... 115, 121 Periodic deaf mute publications in different countries ... ... ... 98 "Pure Oral" Method— Superior advantages of ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Proficiency possible to be attained and retained ... ... ... 101 Brilliant instances ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Development of reasoning faculties ... ... ... ... ... 101 Now prevails in majority of institutions, but ... ... ... ... 101 Not in majority in Great Britain although ... ... ... ... 101 System pursued in British training colleges and Board schools ... ... 101 Supporters ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Those who, more or less, disregard it ... ... ... ... 101 The three Australian institutions not "pure oral," but two have each an orallytaught class ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 ft. Eeligious privileges for the deaf and dumb ... ... ... 98, 100, 106 "Eevue Internationale de l'Enseignement des Sourds-muets," fevrier, 1886 98, 99, 100, 102, 104, 106
127
E.—l2.
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION.
EIEHEN— PAGE Superiority of school there ... ... ... ... 98,104,112* Eoman Catholic institution in Great Britain ... ... ... ... 103 Eoyal Commission, 1886, England ... ... ... ... ... 97 s. SchOntheil, Simon, Head-master of Jews' Deaf-and-Dumb Home, Notting Hill 98,100,104,108, 111 Paper on " Some schools for the deaf and dumb in Germany, and the training of teachers there" ... ... ... ... ... 98,100,104,108,111 Schools Proportion of deaf children of school age to deaf population ... ... 102 Tabular statement ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Great Britain ... ... ... ... ... ... 103 France ... ... ... ... ... ...' ... 104 Switzerland ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 104 Italy ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 104 Germany ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 104, 105 Belgium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 105 United States ... ... ... ... ... ... 105 Tabular statement showing subjects of study in different countries ... ... 106 Suggestion as to initiation of small schools ... ... ... ... 11l More favourable condition than schools for teaching deaf-mutes ... ... 112 Computation of numbers on schools registers ... ... ... ... 97, 102 Computation of numbers of school age ... ... ... ... 97,102 Scotland — Population statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Secondaby .Education ... ... ... ... ... ... 105 Sexes Sepakated at new French school ... ... ... ... 110 Sheffield Boaed School ... ... ... ... ... ... 99, 103 Silent Method — See " Manual "■—Stainer, The Eev. W. Snyckees, M. ... ... ... ... ... ... 98, 101, 108 Spain .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Stainee, Eev. W. ... ... ... ... ...99,103,108,110,114 Stainer's, The Eev. W., "Homes" ... ... ... ... ... 110,112 Statistics ... ... ... ... ... . ... ... 97,102 Suggestions ... ... ... ■•• ••• ••• ... 112-114 Compulsory special training ... ... ... ... ... 112-114 Establishment of mixed day schools in centres of populations ... ... 113 Boarding-out of pupils where parents do not reside in school locality ... ... 113 Appointment of superintendent expert ... ... ... ... 113 Training of teachers ... ... ... ... ... ... 113 Code should include drill for boys, and gymnastics and Kindergarten exercises for all 113 Consideration of questions respecting fees and industrial instruction ... ... 113 Anticipated benefits if propositions carried out ... ... ... ... 113 Sumnee School ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Sweden ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••■ 101 SwITZEELAND Population Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Distinctive Featuees ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 (a) Superiority of Eiehen Institution ... ... ... ... 98 (6) After Belgium, Switzerland, according to area, more deaf-mute schools than any other country ... ... ... ... ... ... 104 National Aid — (a) No Federal institutions, but ... .. ... ... ... 100 (b) Some cantonal ones ... ... ... ... ... 100 (c) And some private, which receive bursary pupils from cantonal Governments ... 100 (rf) Other institutions, maintained by benevolent societies, and these receive small subsidies ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 Method — (a) All institutions "pure oral" ... ... ... ... ... 98,101 SCHOOLS' — (a) Details of schools, scholars, and teachers ... ... ... ... 104 (b) Special training not compulsory ... ... ... ... 104 (c) Subjects of study ... ... ... ... ... ... 106 Teaining Colleges— (a) No training colleges... ... ... ... ... ... 107 (b) Majority of professors do not encourage such training ... ... ... 107
128
E.—l2.
DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION.
Switzbbland— continued. page Industrial Institutions ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Tabular statement containing summary of information ... ... ... 112 !|; Sydney— An orally-taught class in institution ... ... ... ... 101 T. Tabulae Statements— Population statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Subjects of study in different countries ... ... ... ... 106 Summary of general information ... ... ... ... ... 112" Teachers— Females generally preferred ... ... ... ... ... 110 Number of pupils which each teacher should instruct ... ... ... 110 Salaries at London Board schools ... ... ... ... ... 110 Trades and Occupations for deaf mutes ... ... ... ... 109 Training Colleges ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 Opinion very divided on advisability ... ... ... ... 107 Large majority of professors in England, France, Switzerland, and United States (also in Holland, Austria, and Spain) do not sympathize with their establishment 107 Great Britain two ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 Germany but one ... ... ... ... ... ... 107,108 Italy only one ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 None in France, Switzerland, Belgium, or United States ... ... ... 107 Duration of courses ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 All conducted on " pure oral" method ... ... ... ... 101 Triebel, Dr. ... ... ... ... ... ... 100, 106, 114 u. United StatesPopulation Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Distinctive Features — Superior in general excellence ... ... ... ... ... 98, 105 National Aid— (a) Most liberal support by Government ... ... ... 98, 100, 105 (b) All deaf mutes adopted as •' wards of commonwealth "... ... ... 98 (c) Instruction gratuitous for all classes ... ... ... ... 100 (d) Onlj large country where such arrangements are made ... ... 100 Method — Majority oi' institutions on " combined" method ... ... ... 101 Schools — (a) Condition of education is peculiar, and reasons ... ... ... 105 (b) Details respecting schools, scholars, and teachers ... ... ... 105 Co) Details of secondary education ... ... ... ... ... 10G (d) Subjects of study ... ... ... ... ... ... 106 Training Colleges— («) No training colleges ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 (6) Large majority of professors do not sympathise with their establishment ... 107 Industrial. Training ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Tabular Statement containing summary of information ... ... ... 112* V. Van Asch, W., Beforenco to ... ... ... ... ... 113 Van Praagh, W. Superintendent, Fitzroy Square College ... ... 100,106,107,109,110 " Visible Speech " Devised in United States in aid of deaf-mutes ... ... ... ... 105 w. Witness—May uneducated deaf child be competent ... ... ... 98 Woodall, W., M.P., President, London Conference.. ... ... ... 99 Works on Deaf-mutism. See Appendix ... ... ... ... 115, 121
[Approximate Cost oj Paper.— Preparation, nil; printing (1,309 copies), £115 9s. lid.; corrections, revisions, &c, £0D Is. Gd.'J
By Authority: George Didsbuky, Government Printer, Wellington.—lßBG
17—E. 12.
129
Permanent link to this item
https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/parliamentary/AJHR1886-I.2.2.3.15
Bibliographic details
REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, SWITZERLAND, ITALY, GERMANY, BELGIUM, AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA; INCLUDING A SPECIAL REPORT UPON DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION., Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1886 Session I, E-12
Word Count
112,167REPORT UPON STATE EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, SWITZERLAND, ITALY, GERMANY, BELGIUM, AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA; INCLUDING A SPECIAL REPORT UPON DEAF-MUTE INSTRUCTION. Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1886 Session I, E-12
Using This Item
No known copyright (New Zealand)
To the best of the National Library of New Zealand’s knowledge, under New Zealand law, there is no copyright in this item in New Zealand.
You can copy this item, share it, and post it on a blog or website. It can be modified, remixed and built upon. It can be used commercially. If reproducing this item, it is helpful to include the source.
For further information please refer to the Copyright guide.