Art. I.—The Middle Voice in Latin.

Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 22, 1889, Page 1

Art. I.—The Middle Voice in Latin. By Henry Belcher, Fellow of King's College, London, Rector of the High School of Otago. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th June, 1887.] “All verbs which refer primarily to a physical process, and do not merely state the fact that such-and-such an action is going on, are either deponent throughout, or deponents in the future tense. “In other words, if the primary reference of a verb is to any physical action, functional or organic, that verb has the inflexions of the middle voice either in all its tenses or in one—the future.”* Rutherford: New Phrynichus, p. 383. The article (cccii.) contains Dr. Rutherford's proof of the proposition advanced, and the proof appears to me conclusive. The pre-eminence of the future middle forms in Greek has long been a difficulty with Greek students. There is no obvious reason why future-tense forms should predominate as reflexive or middle. If there is any subtle significance attaching to future actions so that a reflexive force should be felt to be inherent in them, and that such force should be expressed by inflexions, the significance is so subtle that it evades discovery. In Latin as in French and Spanish the future is built up of auxiliaries, while in O. English at the state of high inflexional condition there was no future tense. The reflexive pronoun and the Greek future suffix have the letter s common to both. This significant s is a remarkable fragment of language. As regards the reflexive pronoun there seems to be evidence that se, which within the literary period has represented the third grammatical person, had at a

remoter period represented the second and first grammatical persons reflexively. At the time written language brings se to notice it is in a worn-out condition. It retains no mark of gender or of number. Even the genitive case has vanished. In actual use the same inflexions of SE are, according to the context, considered either as singular or plural. It is highly probable that in its earlier condition the reflexive se was fully inflected for all relationships customarily represented by inflexion. Logically there is necessity for reflexives in all three persons. And if there were some primary sound sa there can be no a priori reason why number, gender, case, and person should not have been represented by developments of this radical. At any rate it is now admitted as a working hypothesis that verto-r is the same as verto-se, and on this hypothesis, as verto se means “I turn myself,” se here represents the first person. On the general question that the reflexive verb precedes the passive, that in the growth of verbal forms the middle or reflexive verb is historically antecedent to the passive forms, there has been since Bopp's time substantial agreement. Bopp (ii. 648) enunciates his view briefly thus: Ma-mi, sa-si, ta-ti, are suffixes naturally formed by reduplication. If, then, ma signifies me, ma-mi signifies myself. By parity of formation, sa-si, ta-ti, mean thyself, himself. Hence arise the suffixes of the present indicative reflexive of the Greek verb. Ma-mi falls away into-μαι, sa-si into -σαι, ta-ti into -ται. Bopp points out that in Old Slavonic the Accusative of the reflexive pronoun is added to the transitive verb to give it a Reflexive or passive significance. He illustrates from Lithuanian, which attaches the consonant -s without vowel mediation to the active voice to form the reflexive verb; under certain conditions also it prefixes the reflexive pronoun with the same result. In 1846 Key advanced this view of the Latin middle voice, as being not an application of the passive voice, but as being the actual forerunner of the passive voice. Key said (Lat. Gr., 2nd edit., p. 59),— “In Latin a reflective suffix is added to a transitive verb, so as to give it the reflective sense. “A reflective verb thus denotes an action upon oneself, and in Latin is conjugated in the imperfect tenses with a suffix -s or -v. An intransitive verb is generally in meaning reflective: as cur—i.e., put oneself in a certain rapid motion; ambŭla—i.e., put oneself in a certain moderate motion; but, as the object in these cases cannot easily be mistaken, no reflective pronoun or suffix is added. “When the source of an action (i.e., the nominative) is not known, or it is thought not desirable to mention it, it is common

to say that the action proceeds of the object itself: thus vertitur, literally he turns himself, is often used for he is turned. A reflective so used is called a passive. “This passive use of a verb with a reflective suffix is more common than the proper reflective use. “Hence passive verbs can only be formed from transitives.” In a foot-note Key calls attention to the parallel use in modern European languages. In Metaphysics, the causes assignable for this priority of use seem to be logically adequate. It is reason to suppose that, after the primary notion of the verb as active has developed itself—that is, as soon as the subjective notion of the verb as expressing the agent is fully established—the next step in thought and in expression will be towards the object. As the object grows out of the subject in conscious thought, so the object grows out of the subject in expression. Between the myself and the not-myself there is a whole mass of actions, coincidences, and sequences belonging to the mutual relationships of the myself and the not-myself. This condition of consciousness represents a stage of experience, ultimately expressed with relative clearness by development of the appropriate suffixes. At this medial stage, the union of the subject-object being substantially prominent in consciousness, there is a corresponding mode of expression, the medial or reflexive suffix. The final stage in the growth of the verb is the establishment of difference between subject and object, as when in predication the subject of the statement is also the object of the action indicated in the statement. Hence arises the passive voice. This development is not attended by amplification of the verbal suffix; for there is a law of parsimony. Suffixes cannot be invented, and language adapts old forms for new conditions. Accordingly the medial verbal suffix is charged with this new meaning, and, as the phenomena of experience increase, the passive voice is more frequently used than the middle voice, and in Latin partially displaces it. That the final r of the Latin passive is the s of the reflexive pronominal stem was observed seventy years ago. “It was in the Annals of Oriental Literature,” says Bopp, “that it was observed that the passive r might owe its origin to the reflexive*” (cf. Serial for 1820, p. 62). Key (Lat. Gr., § 405) arrives at the conclusion that—” The verb has two forms or voices, the simple voice (commonly called the active), which does not take the reflective suffix; the reflective voice (commonly called the passive), which does take it.”

Note.—Rhotacism is the tendency to replace s by r. The following common instances illustrate how s between two vowels gives way to r. Ara (asa, the base of the altare, or high thing raised on it); heri, hesi, hesternus, yesterday; dius, diurnus; lases, lares, larva; porro, πρóσω ausosa, aurora; virus, visas; weorer, worse; Snusa, nurus, snura (O.H.G.); gloria, closia, κλέος ur-o, us-si; carmen, casmen; terra, ter-sa. Festus and Varro use foedesum, plusima, meliosem, maiosius, arbosem. In a decree against Timotheus given in Maittaire 383–384, r is used instead of s throughout. The decree is Dorian. Cf. also Curtius, Gr. Etym. p. 396 (2nd edition); Ahrens, ii. 71; Peile, p. 346. Corssen (Formenlehre, 1866), p. 228, notices that in the perf. subjunctive active, suffix -rim, -rio, -rit, &c., has displaced -sim, -sis, -sit, extant in older forms; auxim, faxim, &c. Key, Lat. Gr.: loc. cit. Accordingly verto-se becomes vertor-e, and the vowel e being unemphatic drops away. Roby (§ 548) says of the Latin verb,— “There are two voices, the active and the passive (sometimes called reflexive or middle). “Some verbs have both voices. Some have only the active; others, called also deponents, have only the passive, but with the signification (apparently) of the active.” This very guarded statement of the grammarian is to be noted. In § 734 Roby has made a list of the deponent verbs, and adds, “Sometimes they, especially in the past participle, are used in a passive as well as in an active sense.” These words are appended at the conclusion of this article. Madvig (§ 222, obs. 3) as usual has hit the right nail on the head:— “As regards the passive, it is to be noticed that where in German a reflexive verb is used the Latin passive stands thus: Commendari, to recommend oneself; congregari, to assemble themselves; contrahi, to contract itself; delectari, to delight oneself; effundi, to pour out; diffundi, to spread abroad; lavari, to wash oneself; moveri, to move; mutari, to change; porrigi, to reach. “Sometimes, too, Latin has a peculiar signification which a more literal translation would not adequately express: tondeor, I get shaved; cogor, I see myself obliged, &c.” In this passage the position of the Latin middle voice is to some extent indicated, and certain illustrations recorded. The philology of the day accepts under some reserve the Latin middle voice. Sayce seems to adopt it (Introduction to the Science of Language, i., p. 178): “The Latin amamini is the plural masculine of the old middle participle.” Morris (Historical Outlines, § 11) has pointed out a similar phenomenon in the Scandinavian languages: “The reflexive pronous

sik (O.N.), sig (Swed. and Dan.), Lat. se, coalesces with verbs and forms a reflexive suffix: as O.N. at falla, fall down, sik = self, produce the reflexive or middle verb at fallask. “Sk is still further worn down to st, and when added to the verb renders it passive, as O.N. at kalla, to call, at kallast = to be called.” In our own language there are a few traces of the same formation: cf. bask = warm oneself in the sun; busk = fix oneself up (with clothing). Cf. Cleasby and Vigfusson, Icelandic Dict., s.v.; and Skeat's Appendix. Personally, I look to French for evidence that in the streets and in the camp the so-called passive was commonly used as a reflexive. Otherwise I cannot yet see how the reflexive verb in French comes to replace and be used as passive. Having counted in ten pages of Béroalde, and in Brantôme, all the verbs, I find the reflexive forms predominate, while in the majority of examined cases the passive meaning is clear. It seems that, in the general ruin of inflexions during the transition of Provincial Latin into French, the few reflexive tenses or inflections existing in Latin were overwhelmed. “Le deponent n'a eu aucune action sur notre langue, et n'y a laissé aucune trace. Depuis longtemps il avait disparu dans le latin populaire, ou, pour mieux parler, il y était passé à l'actif. Dans les formules et dans les chartes on trouve sans cesse des formes telles que precare, proficiscere, largire, &c.”—Léon Gautier in notes to his edition of La Chanson de Roland. The passive or reflective voice in Latin had three inflected tenses: all other tenses were built up of the auxiliary verb. In the reconstruction of the Provincial language morior is je me meurs. The ancient pronominal suffixes are now expressed analytically: the so-called passive form has given rise to a reflexive statement. How is so remarkable a change possible unless in common speech the inflections called passive were indifferently used both as reflexive and as passive? If the fluctuations of other languages are so great that even in the common run of conversation the same verb often slides from one class into another class of usage, is it reason to suppose that this observed flexibility of speech is wanting to a language so widely spread and so long used as Latin? It seems to me, then, that an exact study of the French language as compared w th the Latin of Plautus would indicate very clearly that our estimate of the Latin passive has been much exaggerated, our translations of the past participle forced and unnatural, and that, in a desire to be consistent (in a world where consistency of action, conduct, and speech is unknown), we have done violence to the thoughts and expressions of the authors we have studied.

The following passages and words are now submitted in illustration of the above remarks. Some of the words have been already noted in dictionaries as reflexive; others are noted as constructed with the “Greek accusative.” Perhaps the time may be approaching for the disappearance of this ponderous jest from our grammars. For the translations appended and not marked with the name of the translator the present writer is responsible. Adservari. Pl., Amph. 344. Merc. Ego tibi istam, hodie, sceleste comprimam linguam. Sos. Haud potes. Bene pudiceque adservatur. It keeps a good and modest watch over itself. se maintenir. Adsuefieri. C., G. vi. 24. Paullatim adsuefacti superari, multisque victi proeliis. They gradually accustom themselves to defeat. Adsuesci. Liv. ii. 1. Caritas ipsius soli, cui longo tempore adsuescitur. The attachment to the actual soil, to which in course of time one grows accustomed. Agi. Caes., G. v. 50. Cum simulatione timoris agi jubet. He bids them behave as if afraid. Cf. L. and S., § 11, s.v. agere se. Tac., Ann. ii. 62. Dum ea aestas Germanico plures per provincias transigitur. While for Germanicus the summer passes away in a tour through numerous provinces. Here Church and Brodribb, following the traditional lines, call Germanico a dative of the agent after the passive voice. Tac., Ann. ii. 65. Posse de controversiis conloquio transigi. They might by an interview settle their disputes. Amiciri. Cf. Lewis and Short, s.v., who admit that amiciri = amicire se, and illustrate by numerous examples. Angi. See Lewis and Short, s.v., who give as a meaning of angi “to feel or suffer pain,” and illustrate. Aperiri. Pl., Curcul. Nunquam ullum verbum muttit. Quom aperitur tacet. It mutters never a word. When it opens it keeps its counsel.

Virg., Aen. iii. 275. Et formidatus nautis aperitur Apollo. “Comes into sight” (Conington). Armari. Aen. vii. 506. Hic torre armatus obusto. He, arming himself with a charred brand. Cf. also C., G. iv. 32. Cæsar bids the remaining cohorts to arm themselves (reliquas cohortes armari). C., B.C. i. 28. Milites armatur jubet. Liv., iv. 33, 6. Utraque acies armari igni. Obviously here the troops are bidden to arm themselves, or actually arm themselves with torches. Cingi. Liv., v. 46. Gabino cinctu cinctus. Having girded himself in the Gabine method. Virg., G. iii. 46. Accingar dicere pugnas Cæsaris. I will gird myself to sing of Cæsar's battles. (Cf. also æn. iv. 493.) Compare with this a passage in which se is used with the active voice. Virg., Aen. i. 210. Illi se praedae accingunt. Cf. also Liv. i. 47: Quin accingeris? And Virg., Aen. vii. 640; Ter., Ph. 318. Plaut., B. 429. Cincticulo praecinctus in sella aput magistrum sedisse. (L. and S. read here adsidere.) Praecinctus may mean “having tucked up into a knot in front.” The præcincture is a way of tucking up a flowing gown into a girdle so as to have the knot in front. (Cf. Hottenroth: Le Costume, pl. 47, 11.) Ovid., Met. i. 699. Pan videt hanc, pinuque caput praecinctus acuta. Having crowned his head with a coronal of pine-needles. Hor., Sat. ii. 8, 70. Praecincti recte pueri. There are other instances in Lewis and Short, s.v. -clinari. Cæs., G. vi. 27. His sunt arbores pro cubilibus: ad eas se applicant, atque ita paullum modo reclinatae quietem capiunt…. Huc quum se consuetudine reclinaverunt, &c. Here we have three reflexives under two different forms.

Congregari. Tac., Ann. i. 13. Ut non egredi, congregari inter se, vix tutari signa possent. The inter se seems to be pleonastic. Cic., De Senect. 3. Cf. also: Pares cum paribus facillime congregantur. Like with like most easily associate. This verb is admitted by Madvig (§ 222) as a reflexive verb. Consuli. Liv., ii. 29, 5. Senatus, tumultuose vocatus, tumultuosius consulitur. The Senate was summoned in confusion, and in greater confusion deliberates. This seems to be an occasional use of consuli in this context. Cf. Liv. xxii. 60, 2. Copulari. Pl., Aul. 116. Adsistunt, consistunt, copulantur dexteras. Wagner in loco says this verb is used as deponent only in this place; but there seems to be a parallel passage in Martial xii. 43, 8: Quo symplegmate quinque copulentur (sensu obscaeno). Dari. Liv., v. 21, 24. Dedi inde inermes coepti. Whereupon the unarmed folk began to yield (Phil. Holland). Liv., v. 48, 7. Vel dedi vel redimi se quacunque pactione possent jussit. He bade them either surrender or ransom themselves on any condition possible. Notice the reflective pronoun here redundant; redimi means “get themselves ransomed.” Liv., iii. 35, 5. Collegae quoque qui unice illi dediti fuerant ad id tempus. Liv., ix. 8, 6. Dedamur per fetiales nudi vinctique. Liv., ix. 11, 10. Ego vero istos quos dedi simulatis, nec accipio nec dedi arbitror. Liv., i. 32 (an old formula). Si injuste impieque illos homines, illasque res, dedier mihi exposco. There may be zeugma, here. Seeley, loc. cit., makes no comment.

Caes., G. ii. 15, 2. The active verb with se is used in same sense. Ambiani se suaque omnia sine mora dediderunt. Pl., A. Deduntque se, divina humanaque omnia, urbem et liberos in ditionem. This construction is common in Cæsar. Lucr., iii. 814. Cur igitur mirumst, animus si cetera perdit, Praeterquam quibus est in rebus deditus ipse? “Why therefore should we wonder if our mind loses cognizance of other matters, especially in the case of subjects to which it has devoted itself? (Monro.) Tac., Ann. i. 59. Fama dediti benigneque excepti Segestis vulgata. The report of Segestes' surrender of himself, and of his kindly welcome, was noised abroad. Tac., Ann. i. 17. Quae [sc. cohortes], post sedecim annos, penatibus suis reddantur. And they, after sixteen years' service, return to their own homes. Tac., Ann. i. 30. Quisque hibernis redderentur. Cf. also Tac., Agric. 28. Caes., G. i. 39. Abditi in tabernaculis. . querebantur … miserabantur. (All reflexive verbs.) They hid themselves in their quarters, and wailed and moaned over their fate (because their campaigning seemed to threaten hard fighting). Densari. Denseri. Virg., Aen. vii. 794. Insequitur nimbus peditum, clypeataque totis Agmina densentur campis, Argivaque pubes. Cf. also Hor., Od. i. 28, 19: densentur, “crowd together;” and Lucr., i. 395. Dominari. Ovid, Met. i. 77. Et quod dominari in cetera posset. This word is mentioned as it is usually entered in the list of deponents. There is at least one good instance in the passive voice:— Cic., Off. i. 39. O domus antiqua, heu, quam dispari dominare domino.

Erigi. Ovid, Met. i. 744. Officioque pedum nymphe contenta duorum, Erigitur. The maid stretches herself, and by the service of her two feet stands erect. (Contenta is here from contendor, and is reflexive. Contineri is reflexive in Liv., xxii. 55, 6.) Yet cf. Cæs., G. vi. 27: erigere sese. Exerceri. Virg., Aen. vii. 163. Exercentur equis, domitantque in pulvere currus. So Virg., Georg. iv. 159: exercentur agris. Exercentur equis. Exercentur agris. Notice Conington's hesitation in the two passages quoted: equis he says is the ablative of the instrument, while agris he thinks is locative. As if the riders are exercised by the horses! (which, indeed, in a certain sense may be true). Yet note that exercere se is a common locution: Cic., De Senect. c. 14. -fendo. Tac., Ann. ii. 55. Offensus urbi propria quoque ira. Infensus is used actively, e.g., infestis animis, equum infestus admisit, &c. Infensus is passive in: Infensum omnem agrum reddidit—he made the whole Roman territory so unsafe. This usage is noticed in all dictt. s.v. Ferri. Lucr., i. 290. Sic igitur debent venti quoque ferri. In this way then must the blasts of wind move on. (Monro.) That is, “bear themselves along.” Liv., vi. 30, 4. Dum praesidio ut essent citati feruntur. Liv., ix. 13, 2. In hostem feruntur. Caes., G. ii. 24. Ferebantur. Virg., Aen. vii. 673. Densa inter tela feruntur. Liv., v. 26, 7. Castra sua quae propiora erant praelati urbem peterent. Liv., vi. 29, 3. Praeter castra etiam suo pavore praelati. Liv. vii. 24, 8. Praeter castra etiam fuga praelati. So also Liv., ii. 14, 7; Liv., xxxviii. 27, 2; et ubique.

Liv., v. 13, 12. Nec ita multo post jam palantes veluti forte oblati populatores Capenatis agri reliquias pugnae absumpsere. And not long after the foragers, that wasted the lands of the Capenates, as they ranged abroad here and there, encountered the residue and remnant of this battail. (Phil. Holland.) Liv., ix. 31, 7. Transfugae agrestes … oblati. Liv., ii. 14, 8. Inermes et fortuna et specie supplicum delati sunt. Were fain to trudge to Rome. (Phil. Holland.) So also Liv., v. 45, 3. Tac., Ann. ii. 17. Simul pedestris acies infertur. Liv., xxii. 55, 9. Simul latebras eorum improvida praeterlata acies est. Cf. also Caes., G. vi. 42 ad fin. Virg., Aen. vii. 217: afferimur. Lucr., i. 207. Flecti. Tac., Ann. i. 16. Aut flexo in vesperam die. At nightfall; as daylight turns to eventide. Cf. Lewis and Short, s.v. Frangi. Lucr. iii. 155. Corpore; et infringi linguam vocemque aboriri. The tongue falter, the voice die away. (Monro.) Cf. κὰμ μ∊̀ν γλω̑σσα ∊ἔαγ∊. Fundi. Tac., Ann. i. 23. Alii ad quaerendum corpus effunderentur. Tac., Ann. i. 11. At patres in questus, lacrimas, vota effundi. Caes. G. vi. 26. Ab ejus summo sicut palmae, rami quam late diffunduntur. In these passages the reflexive force of the verb is very clear: they scatter about to search for the body; they dissolve into tears and plaints; the horns spread themselves out like palm-branches. Virg., Georg. ii. 510. Gaudent perfusi sanguine fratrum. They revel as they wallow in their kinsmen's blood. Cf. also Caes., G. vi. 37; Ovid, Met. i. 36, diffundi; Ovid, Met. i. 484, suffunditur; Virg., Aen. vi. 307, funduntur; Lucr., i. 39; Lucr., i. 353; Ovid, Fast. i. 215. So cruore suffunduntur oculi—the eyes become bloodshot. Lacrimis

oculos suffusa nitentes, in which case suffusa is causative middle, and oculos the direct acc. Madvig, loc. cit., includes fundi with its compounds among reflexive verbs. Geri. Lucr., i. 442. Aut erit ut possint in eo res esse gerique. Lucr., i. 472. Nec locus ac spatium, res in quo quaeque geruntur. Gigni. Lucr., iii. 173. Et in terra mentis qui gignitur aestus. And on the ground the turmoil of mind that arises. (Monro.) Cic., Lael. 21. Cavendum vero … ex quibus jurgia, maledicta, contumeliae gignuntur. Whence arise strife, evil-speaking, and insolence. Lewis and Short, s.v., practically concede this use of gigni: they write as follows: “In pass. to be born, to spring, arise, proceed.” Lucr., iii. 337. Praeterea corpus per se nec gignitur unquam. Nothing, moreover, ever comes into existence of its own accord. Indui. Virg., Aen. ii. 392. Androgei galeam clipeique insigne decorum Induitur. He proceeds to put on the helmet and the handsome and conspicuous shield of Androgeos. (Lee and Lonsdale.) Ter., Eun. iv. 4, 40. Et eamst [sc. vestem] indutus. (Reading varies between ea and eam.) Cf. induitur faciem Dianae; and Cic., De Orat. 3, 32, 127 Aen. ii. 275. Qui redit exuvias indutus Achilli, Vel Danaum Phrygios jaculatus puppibus ignis. Who [sc. Hector] returns, having donned the spoils of Achilles, &c. Jaci. Trans-jici, traici. Liv., xxi. 29. Dum elephanti trajiciuntur. (Many of the elephants on this occasion got rid of their drivers and swam the Rhone.) Lewis and Short, s.v., give many instances parallel, but they mark the words passive. The locution trajectus pedes seems to come under the same head.

Jugulari. Tac., Ann. i. 18. Aut jugulatus poenitentiam accelerabo. With which compare— Plaut., Stich. 423. Ita me auctores fuere, ut egomet me hodie Jugularem. Jungi. Lucr., iv. 726. Multa modis multis in cunctas undiqua partes Tenuia, quae facile inter se junguntur in auris. These fine bodies “easily join themselves together.” Hor., Od. i. 33, 8. Appulis junguntur capreae lupis. She-goats will associate with Apulian wolves. So in the expression dextra dextrae jungitur—“hand clasps hand.” Sæpe sensu obscaeno, ut ap. Juv., vi. 41. Lavari. Lavatus; lautus; lotus; illotus. Form noticed by Madvig, and fully illustrated by Lewis and Short, s.v. -lini. Tac., Ann. ii. 17. Oblitus faciem suo cruore. Having smeared his face with his own gore. Lustror. Virg., Aen. iii. 279. Lustramurque Jovi votisque incendimus aras. (Conington marks this verb as “middle.”) -mitti. Lucr., iv. 681. Permissa canum vis. The far-reaching power of scent in dogs. Cf. Quadriga permissa—a coach caused to go at full speed. Cf. 688, permitti. Senec., De Ira: Animus, si in iram se projecit, non permittitur reprimere impetum. Cf. Forcellini, s.v. Lucan, vii. 625. Quis cruor emissus perruperit aëra venis. [The passage in Lucan is a laboured description of the horrors of a battle, “the lifeblood gushing out,” &c.] Lucr., i. 92. Muta metu terram genibus summissa petebat. Speechless with fright, she slipt down on her knees. Cf. Suet, iii. 20: seque patri ad genua summissit. In prose Lucr. would write genibus summissis (cf. summisso poplite). This sliding of participles from construction to construction

without essential change of meaning arises necessarily from the highly inflexional condition of the language. Morari. Plaut., Most. iii. 2, 159. Apage istum … nihil moror ductarier. Plaut. i. 1, 54. Nunc unae quinque remorantur minae. This is a causative middle. Mutari. A very interesting word. In the active form it is used absolutely. Liv., iii. 10, 6. Ut nihil odor mutaret. Liv., v. 13, 1. Annona ex ante convecta copia nihil mutavit. Liv., ix. 12, 3. Adeoque … animi mutaverant. Cf. also Liv., xxix. 3, 10: mutasse. Liv. xxxix. 51, 10: mutaverint. Lucr., i. 686. Mutato ordine mutant. Plaut., Prol. Amphit. 54. Deus sum, commutavero. Sometimes the reflexive se comes in:— Plaut., Amphit. 270. Neque se luna quoque mutat. Alongside of these variations we have mutor. Lucr., i. 165. Nec fructus idem arboribus constare solerent, Sed mutarentur. Nor would the same fruits keep constant to trees, but would change. (Monro.) Tac. Ann., i. 44. Discurrunt mutati et seditiosissimum quemque vinctos trahi. They change sides, and away go they, and drag the most disaffected in chains. Plaut., Amph. 839. Ita nunc homines immutantur, postquam peregre advenimus. Lucr., i. 802. Sic alias aliis rebus mutarier omnis.

Ovid, Met. i. 409. Mutatur in ossa. From mutor, muto, the transition to moveor and moveo is brief. Moveor has been recognised as a deponent verb by grammarians, and in Lucretius is frequently used. Cf. Lucr., i. 341, 375, 431, et passim; also Caes., G. ii. 31, Liv., xxii. 5, 3; and Liv., v. 49, 1. Gallos summoveri jubet. He commanded the Gauls to void. (Phil. Holland.) In mod. Eng., to clear out. -premo. Plaut., Most. i. 3, 46. Vix comprimor, quin involem illi in oculos Stimulatrici. I hardly restrain myself from flying at the eyes of yon bawd. Queatur. Queor = queo. Thus: Lucr., i. 1045. Dum veniant aliae, ae suppleri summa quateur. Lucr., iii. 785. Denique in aethere non arbor, non aequore in alto Nubeis esse queunt. See, further, Lewis and Short, s.v. Rumpi. Ter., Adelph. 588. Aeschinus odiose cessat; prandium corrumpitur. Aeschinus is abominably late; the dinner is spoiling. Sisti. Liv., ii. 29, 8. Nec sisti posse. Liv., ii. 44, 10. Sisti potuisse. Liv., iii. 9, 8. Nec potuisse sisti. Liv., iii. 20, 8. Sisti posset. Also a crucial passage in Liv., iii. 13, 6. In vincula conjici vetant; sisti reum, pecuniamque, nisi sistatur, populo promitti, placere pronuntiant. The tribunes forbid his being cast into chains; they announce it as their pleasure that the defendant is to appear [i.e., to present himself], and, in case of non-appearance, his property is to be sequestered.

Solvi. Lucr., iii. 330. Extrahere haud facile est quin omnia dissotoantur. It is not easy to withdraw … without dissolving all alike. (Monro.) Lucr., i. 764. Atque in eas rursum res omnia dissolvuntur. Spargi. Tac., Ann. i. 56. Reliqui omissis pagis vicisque disperguntur. The remainder disperse. Lucr., i. 309. In parvas igitur partis dispergitur umor. The moisture disperses into particles. Sterni. Virg., Aen. xi. 87. Sternitur et toto projectus corpore terrae. The meaning here evidently is that Acoetes, while being led along, keeps throwing himself on the ground, as Heyne rightly takes it. So Conington in loco. Cf. common use of stratus for “laying oneself flat.” Hor., Od. i. 1, 22. Sumi. Ovid Met. i. 742. Contrahitur rictus; redeunt humerique manusque; Ungulaque in quinos dilapsa absumitur ungues. Her great wide mouth contracts, her shoulders and hands return, and each hoof has shrunk and divides into five fingers (lit. nails). Suspendi. Lucr., iii. 196. Namque papaveris aura suspensa levisque. Lucr., v. 1096. Suspensi teneros imitantur dentibus haustus. With lightly-closing teeth they make a feint of swallowing them. (Monro.) Hor., Sat. i. 6, 74. Laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto. Having hung bag and slate on the left arm. Tegi. Tac., Ann. ii. 13. Contectus humeros ferina pelle adit castrorum vias. Ov., Met. i. 43. Jussit et extendi campos, subsidere valles, Fronde tegi silvas, lapidosos surgere montes. He bad also the plains to extend, the vales to sink, the woods to take their leafy covering, the rocky mountains rise. Tendi. Cf. Lewis and Short, s.v. extendere, who mark the verb as “middle.”

Plaut., Frag. apud Scholiastem. Anus haec in pellis periculum protenditur. This old woman is swelling out to the peril of her skin.* From this and similar places we may conjecture that Plautus and not Dickens wrote The Pickwick Papers. Cf. passage quoted in Lewis and Short, s.v. prester: quem percusserit distenditur, enormique corpulentia necatur extuberatus. The prester is a kind of snake, and whomsoever he strikes swells out, and, expanding, is choked, &c. Cf. Ov., Met. i. 43, quoted under tegi. Teri. Lucr., i. 898. Arboribus vicina cacumina summa terentur Inter se. Contiguous tops of tall trees rub together. (Monro.) Trahi. See Ovid, Met. i. 742, quoted under sumi. Vehi. Liv., v. 8. Utrimque invehi hostem nuntiaretur. Where invehi = invehere se, as in Liv., xl. 89 ad fin. Invehebant se hostes. Liv. xxxi. 35, 3. Invehentem se effuse hostem. In these and similar passages notice that invehi, though clearly equivalent to invehere se, is not quite within the scope or meaning of the expression invehi equo, invehi curru, advehi plaustro (as in Liv., ix. 3, 9), although about these there is a certain reflexive force, riding on a horse, in a coach, in a cart, where the action is done for one's own advantage, as the grammarians note, s.v. Greek middle voice. The notion of rushing advance is well exemplified in Liv., ii. 20, 4. Exsules ferociter citato agmine invehi. The banished men charged with great bravery, &c. Cf. also Liv., vi. 12, 10. Hence there arises a transference to vehement political attack: cf. Liv., iii. 48, 4. Appi, primum ignosce patrio dolori, si quid inclementius in te sum invectus. Cf. also Liv., i. 50, 3, and iii. 9, 6. Tac., Ann. i. 13. Provectus:— Liv., xxxv. 48, 11. Provectus deinde in maledicta.

Tac., Hist. iv. 7. Per altercationem ad continuas et infestas orationes provecti sunt. Tac., Ann. ii. 55. Eo usque corruptionis provectus est. Provecta nox (Tac., Ann. xiii. 20). Provectus aetate, provecta senectus, clearly come within the scope of the reflexive or middle verb. Circumvehi:— Liv., iii. 28, 1. Equo circumvectus contemplatusque qui tractus castrorum sit; and absolutely in Liv., x. 29, 12. Quingentos fere equites excedere acie jubet, et circumvectos a tergo Gallicam invadere aciem. Curtius, iv. 15, 5. Equitibus ad diripienda hostis impedimenta circumvehi jussis. Cf. Liv., xxi. 54, 1. Evehi:— Liv., v. 36, 7. Quintus Fabins evectus extra aciem equo. On which cf. Liv. xxix. 34, 12. Primo incaute se evehentes Massinissa excipiebat. Cf. Liv. iv. 33. In the sense of travelling about we find vehor and its compounds commonly used:— Liv., i. 21, 10: curru arcuato. Tac., Ann. i. 15: curru. Plaut., Amphit. 833: una navi. Cf. also Liv., iii. 70, 6: reveheretur. Hor., Sat. ii. 5, 4: revehi. Liv., ii. 47, 6: revectus. Liv., ii. 47, 3: advectus. Tac., Ann. ii. 5: advectus. Tac., Ann. i. 51: advectus. Plaut., Amph. 325: vectus. Plaut., Amph. 724: vectus. Tac., Ann. i. 63: evehi. Doubtless the force of the reflexive in these expressions is causative. [A familiar instance in a derived language will be promener, se promener; promener un enfant, take a child out for a walk; se promener à cheval, take oneself out for a turn on horseback. The general disuse of the passive voice in modern French and its replacement by impersonals or reflexives is noticed above.] Verti. Verto is used intransitively in a somewhat middle or reflexive sense.

Liv., iii. 64, 1. Haec victoria prope in haud salubrem luxuriam vertit. Liv., ii. 3, 3. Libertatem aliorum in suam vertisse servitutem. Liv., ii. 62, 2. Omnis ira belli ad populationem agri vertit. (Where clearly the wrath of the troops directs itself against the fruits of the soil.) Cf. also Liv. iii., 36, 7, and Liv., v. 49, 5. Jam verterat fortuna. Cf. also Tac., Ann. i. 18. Sometimes the reflexive form is that found in the Romance languages. Ter., Adelph. 286. Ego jam transacta re Convortam me domum. Side by side with this instance notice Ter., Phor. 312. Ego deos penatis hinc salutatum domum Devortar. Periocha in Hauton. Tim. 4. Clam patrem devortitur. Ter., Eun. 588. Deum sese in pretium convortisse. Lucr., i. 678. Convertunt corpora sese. Liv., ii. 24, 5. Nec posse bello praeverti quicquam. Also Liv., iii. 40, 14; Plaut., Amphit. 914; Tac., Ann. ii. 55; Virg., Aen. i. 317. Reverti:— Liv., ii. 46, 6. At ego injuratus, aut victor revertar. Cf. also Ter., Andr. iv. 4, 740; Ter., Adelph. iv. 1, 525; Plaut., Amph. 653; Lucr., i. 237 and 756; Caes., G. ii. 35; iii. 7. Converti:— Hor., Od. iii. 16, 8. Converso in pretium deo. The divinity that turned himself into pelf.

Liv., iii. 3, 5. Et consul Nuntio circumventi fratris conversus ad pugnam. Liv., iii. 6, 4. Eo vis omnis tempestasque belli conversa est. Cf. Tac., Ann. i. 45, and ii. 39; Plaut., Amphit. 234 and 682. Averti:— Liv., ii. 487. Aut averti alio sinebat. Cf. Plant., Amphit. 893; avortisti. Liv., ii. 8, 8, and xxii. 13. Verti:— Liv., v. 29, 8. Quae [sc. plebs] jam in suos versa non intelligeret. Who now setting themselves against their own patrons. (Holland.) Cf. also Liv., iii. 28, 9; ix. 2, 13; ix. 2, 15; Lucr., i. 710; Ov., Met. i. 235. Examination of all the passages above will show the active sense of the verb, whatever form it takes. Volvi. Tac., Ann. i. 23. Cum deprecandi causa paulatim introisset ambulantisque Tiberii genua advolveretur. Tac., Ann. i. 23. Praeceps et singulorum pedibus advolutus. In both passages the person rolled himself grovelling at the feet and knees of other men. Virg., Aen. vi. 659. Plurimus Eridani per silvam volvitur amnis. Eridanus' mighty flood rolls through the forest. Cf. also Virg., Aen. vii. 349, of a snake coiling itself. These few instances may serve to indicate the line of argument. More may easily be added. But it will suffice in the present case to have drawn attention to a somewhat neglected point in Latin grammar. All translations will gain in force and vividness were it clearly recognised that the so-called passive, like a certain classic piece of furniture, “contrives a double debt to pay.” So also our translation will be more suggestive and profitable were it admitted that the analogies of meaning attract inflexions rather than that inflexions control shades of meaning.