Art. XV.–Barat or Barata Fossil Words.

Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 11, 1878, Page 157

Art. XV.–Barat or Barata Fossil Words. By J. Turnbull Thomson, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.S.A., etc. Plate IV. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, February, 1879.] This continues the subject of three preceding papers* Whence of the Maori, Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. IV.; Barata Numerals, Vol. V.; Philological Considerations on the Whence of the Maori, Vol. VI., and the heading requires some explanation. Barat is the Malay traditional and poetical name for Hindustan, and to this day they speak of the angin Barat–that is, westerly, or wind of Barat; as they do of the angin Jawa–that is, the southerly, or wind of Java. Barata, or Bharata, is the ancient term for their country by the natives of Hindustan. In the language of Madagascar, allowing for difference of phonology, precisely the same word is used for the North, viz., avaratra, whose winds wafted commerce from the parent country, viz., South India. We use the term parent on the force of the facts elicited in our preceding investigations.

The term “fossil words” signifies words embedded in a language, or which have not been eradicated by foreign influences–such as the Saxon words in the modern English language. The roots of the language will be found to consist of these; hence they remain as witnesses of derivative, national or tribal connection with the parent region, however remote in time or distant in space. Fossil words, then, furnish as certain a clue to connection of races as either idiomatic or phonetic similarity,* For instance, Malay has a compounding construction, Malagasi an inflecting, though both are admitted to be originally one. though this opinion is disputed. Root or fossil words, it has been shown in previous papers, are only to be eradicated with the extinction of the race, and to this branch we at present address ourselves. The previous papers on this subject, whose first object was to investigate the whence of the Maori, i.e., the tribe that inhabits New Zealand, confined their scope to the Malayan, Malagasi, and Polynesian dialects. In the present paper I have prosecuted my enquiries far beyond into the regions of Asia, Africa, and Australia, in which labour I was assisted by the works noted below.† Non-Aryan Languages of India and High Asia, by W. W. Hunter; Languages of India, by G. Campbell; Polyglotta Africana, by S. W. Koelle; Australian Languages, by William Ridley; Mosambique Languages, by W. H. J. Bleek; Malagasi, by Julius Kessler; Kafir Language, by John Ayliff; Swahili Handbook, Shambala Language, Yao Language, all by Edward Steere; Malagasi Grammar, by David Griffiths; Enguduk Iloigob Vocabulary, by J. Erhardt; Dictionary of Tshi, Akra, 7amp;c., by Christaller, Locher and Zimmermann; Vocabulary, Haussa Language, by J. F. Schon; Languages of Sierra Leone (anonymous); Bullom Grammar, by G. R. Nylander; Western and Central African Vocabulary (anonymous); Dialects in Africa, by John Clark; Bornu and Kanuri Languages, by Edwin Norris; Dialects of Nicobar and Andaman Islands, by F. A. de Röepstorff; Fijian Dictionary, by D. Hazlewood; Samoan Grammar and Dictionary, by George Pratt; New Zealand Language, by William Williams; Hawaiian Dictionary, by Lorrin Andrews; Japanese Dictionary, by J. C. Hepburn; Comparative Vocabulary, Malay Archipelago, by Wallace, &c., &c. The basis of my investigations have been the Malayan Language, with which my long sojourn in the Far East made me familiar, but the present work has led me into a scrutiny of over four hundred languages and dialects. The conclusion that I was brought to previously, viz., that, counter to popular opinion, the Maori and hence Polynesian race, was not originally from the Malay (though it might be through or with them), but from a race or races which in pre-historic times inhabited Hindustan, seemed to claim further demonstration than my materials could at that time afford. In my recent visit to England, therefore, I collected all the works bearing on the subject that I could obtain.

The present paper is thus principally devoted to the following question, viz., by analogy in fossil words or radicals, how far are we justified in denoting Hindustan as the original seat of the Malagas-malayo-polynesian race, which, for the sake of brevity and distinction, I have taken the liberty to term Barata. In attempting to solve this question, we must have regard to other theories that have been propounded by various authors. The most generally accepted theory, viz., that the Malagaso-polynesians were of Malay origin, I have already dealt with in my previous essays. Another theory I have since observed to be that the Malayo-malagasi had sprung from the Polynesian, the supporters averring that as the Polynesian was the more primitive and ancient section, he must have been the progenitor. To this the following considerations suggest themselves: 1st. Admitted that the Polynesian is the most primitive and ancient section, this only denotes that he was the first to migrate from his original seat, when that seat–whether in Africa, Asia, America, or Australia–was in possession of a primitive and ancient ancestry; and as there have been waves of migration from time to time, the most primitive have stretched out furthest.* See Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IV., 1871, p. 47. 2nd. The over-running of skilled populous and armed nations by the simple weak sand defenceless, is contrary to all experience, ancient or modern. 3rd. Another theory has been suggested, that Africa was the original seat of the race, another that it was in Egypt; but as these have had little acceptation, I merely notice the same. Before entering into the comparison of words in different dialects or languages, in order to judge of the connection of race we must hold in view this fact, that the radicals bear but a small proportion to the whole, thus in an English dictionary of 90,000 words, not more than 4000 or ½2 part are Saxon. Hence, amongst the races whose languages we are about to consider, and whose dictionaries do not count over 5000 to 6000 words, we must be prepared to find not over 300 words more or less which can come under the denomination of radical terms or fossil words. This fact at the same time facilitates the investigation, making it less laborious. The number of works that can be compared are further curtailed by the subject or object being only known in portions of the regions inhabited. Thus while I have gone over many full vocabularies, I have been forced to strike out many of the words from the above cause. For instance, the cocoa-nut well known to the Malay is not known to the Maori. In a similar manner the deer, elephant, plantain, rice,&c., are well known in some regions but not in others–hence, though they come under the designation of radical terms, they are inapplicable in our enquiry.

We must again guard against the error of accepting all radical terms as proving affinity of race; the terms most certain are those which are connected with immediate surroundings or events, such as for parts of the body, head, mouth, feet, &c., the principal physical objects—sun, moon, stars, earth, &c.; articles of food—water, rice, fruit, &c.; calls to companions as come, go, give, &c. If the terms be not connected with immediate surroundings then they become less valuable in support of proof of racial affinity, as for example :— — In Malay Archipelago — Dog asu, gaso, kaso, aso tasu Angami Naga, azz Nowgong Naga, East of Bengal. Horse kuda ghoda, Kiranti, Nepal; ghora, Nepal; kodo, kudata, Central India; kudre, Southern India. Crow gaga gagah'-po, Kiranti, Nepal; gugga, Central India; kakka, Southern India. Buffalo Kurbau krebo, Teressa, Nicobar Islands; kla-ou booh, Talain Pegu. Cocoa-nut nior nio, Malagasi; nazi, Swahili; nyu, nui, niwi, nua, niula, luen, nuim, etc., Malay Archipelago; niu, Samoa and Hawaii. Here the words dog, horse, crow and buffalo being similar, or nearly so, in Malay and several races of Asia, do not indicate affinity, but only that such animals had been derived from thence. On the contrary the radical Malay word nior, having wide similarity from Africa to Polynesia, may be taken to indicate affinity of race, for as the cocoa-nut grows on the sea-shore, letting its fruit fall to float and be carried to all tropical regions, it may be supposed to have preceded the emigrant tribes; thus, as they approached each island or shore, they carried the fossil word and applied it to the same species of tree, in whichever parts of their vast regions it had drifted and germinated, or they may have carried, exceptionally, the fruit with them. Again, in the following examples :— — In Malagasi. — Dog amboa imbua, Inhambane; imbua, Sofala; umboa, Cap Delgado. Cattle ombi ngombe, Tette, Sena, Quellimane, Mosambique, Cap Delgado, etc. The dog and the crow are not indigenous words of Malagasi, but derivative from Africa, the designations having been imported with the animals themselves. Hence, in choosing words found in the various dictionaries for comparison, I have had the above considerations in view, and have adopted only such as can be held as radical, indigenous, or truly fossil. By this means the racial affinities of the separate and far distant tribes can be indicated in the Barata of the tropics as in the Gypsies of Europe or the Portuguese in

Sketch Map of India Shewing the Distribution of Languages

Africa and Asia, though many tribes of both have in these historic times lost their idioms and phonology, but not the roots of their languages. We may now come to the comparison of words collected from the various sources already stated,* See Appendix I. and in commenting on the same it is hardly necessary for me to remark that I do so under the conviction that the insular races were derived from the continental, but I am open to enquiry from what continent or portion of continent :— 1. Arrow; zana Malagasi, panah Malay, pere Maori. The glossarial indication would denote in the case of the Malagasi and Malay immediate derivation from Telugu in South India, with affinity to Shan in Indo-China. In the case of the Maori from Garo, N.E. Bengal, with affinity to Great Nicobar, Bay of Bengal. The African affinities in each case are doubtful. 2. Bird: vorona Malagasi, burong Malay, manu Maori. Malagasi and Malay derived from tribes in Nepal and East of Bengal, Maori from tribes in Indo-China. No African affinities. 3. Blood: ra Malagasi, dara Malay, toto Maori. Malagasi and Malay derived from Tibeto-China, Nepal, and Bay of Bengal. African affinity distant. 4. Bone: taolana Malagasi, tolan Malay, iwi Maori. Malagasi and Malay derived from Bay of Bengal, but doubtful; Maori from Nepal, Indo-China and China. No African affinities. 5. Dog: amboa Malagasi, anjing Malay, kuri Maori. Malagasi from Bay of Bengal, doubtful; Malay from Nepal, Maori from Nepal and Indo-China. Malagasi from Africa, Maori also from Africa. 6. Ear: talinhe Malagasi, talinga Malay, taringa Maori. All from East Bengal. Indications of African affinities. 7. Earth: tany Malagasi, tana Malay, one-one Maori. Malagasi and Malay direct from Khond, Central India, less distinctly from Indo-China and Bay of Bengal, Maori from Central India, doubtful. No African affinities. 8. Egg: atody Malagasi, telor Malay, hua Maori. Malagasi, from Singpho, E. of Bengal, doubtful; Maori from Burma and Indo-China, doubtful. Malay from ossa, W. Africa, doubtful.

9. Eyes: maso Malagasi, mata Malay, kanohi Maori. Malagasi and Malay from N. Central and E. Hindustan, Maori from Tibeto-China, Central and Southern India. Malagasi and Malay have E.W. and S. African affinities. 10. Fire: afo Malagaasi, api Malay, ahi Maori. All from India and Indo-China, indications also from China and Japan, also all allied to Fulah, Africa, but doubtful. 11. Fish: loaka Malagasi, ikan Malay, ika Maori. All from Nepal, E. of Bengal, Indo-China and Bay of Bengal. All have indications of African connection. 12. Flower: vony Malagasi, bunga Malay, pua Maori. All from Nepal, Central and Southern India. In Africa indications doubtful. 13. Foot: tongon Malagasi, kaki Malay, wae-wae Maori. Malay from Indo-China and E. Bengal. Maori has African connection. 14. Hair: volo Malagasi, bulu, rambut Malay, huru Maori. All Tibeto-China and E. Bengal. African indications doubtful. 15. Hand: tanana Malagasi, tangan Malay, kutanga, ringaringa Maori. All from Hindustan. All have African indications. 16. Head: loha Malagasi, ulu, kapala Malay, upuko Maori. All from Indo-China, Nepal, Central and East India. African indications. 17. Hog: kisoa, lambo Malagasi, babi Malay, poaka Maori. All from North, South, and Central India. All have African affinities. 18. Leaf: ravina Malagasi, daun Malay, rau Maori. Malay and Maori from Nepal and Indo-China. Maori has African indications. 19. Light: maivana Malagasi, trang Malay, ao Maori. Malay and Maori from Bengal and Indo-China. Malay from Swahili, Africa, doubtful. 20. Moon: volana, Malagasi, bulan Malay, marama Maori. Malagasi and Malay from Nepal and Indo-China. Indications in Ibu, Central Africa. 21. Mouth: vava Malagasi, mulut Malay, mangai, waha Maori. All from Nepal, Central and Southern India. All have African affinities.

22. Night: alina Malagasi, malam Malay, po, kengo Maori. Malagasi and Malay from China and Central India. No African affinities. 23. Rain: ranonorana Malagasi, ujan Malay, ua Maori. Malay and Maori have African connection. 24. Road: lalambe Malagasi, jalan Malay, ara Maori. All from different parts of Hindustan and Indo-China. Maori term has indications in Yao, East Central Africa. 25. Sky: lanitra Malagasi, langit Malay, rangi Maori. All from Nepal and Central India. No African affinities. 26. Star: kintana Malagasi, bintang Malay, whetu Maori. Malagasi and Malay, N.E. Bengal, Central and South India. No African affinities. 27. Sun: maso-andro Malagasi, mata, hari Malay, ra, komaru Maori. Malay and Maori from Indo-Tibeto China and Nepal. Maori has affinity with Haussa, Central Africa. 28. Tongue: lila Malagasi, lida Malay, arero Maori. Malagasi and Malay from East Bengal and Bay of Bengal. Malagasi and Malay have African affinities in East Central and South. 29. Tooth: nifi, nifo Malagasi, gigi Malay, niho, rei Maori. Malay from Nepal, East and Central India. Malagasi and Maori have African connections. 30. Tree: hazo Malagasi, pun, poko, kaiu Malay, rakau Maori. All from Hindustan and borders. No African connection. 31. Water: rano Malagasi, ayer Malay, wai Maori. All from Hindustan and borders. Malay and Maori have African connection. 32. Yam: ovi Malagasi, ubi Malay, uwhi-kaho Maori. No Asiatic or African connection. 33. Hot: mafana Malagasi, panas hangat Malay, wera Maori. Maori from Tamil, South India. No African connection. 34. Raw: manta Malagasi, manta Malay, mata Maori. All from East of Bengal and Bay of Bengal. No African connection. 35. Red: mena Malagasi, mera Malay, whero Maori. All from South and Central India. No African connection

36. Ripe: masaka Malagasi, masa Malay, maoa Maori. All from Nepal. No African connection. 37. Small: keli Malagasi, kichi Malay, riki, iti, nohi-nohi Maori. All from Hindustan and borders. No African connection. 38. Come: avi Malagasi, mari Malay, mai Maori. All from Hindustan and borders; also, Chinese connection. No African connection. 39. Five: dimi, limi Malagasi, lima Malay, rima Maori. No Asiatic or African connection. 40. Six: enina, oné Malagasi, anam Malay, ono Maori. No Asiatic or African connection. 41. Seven: fito Malagasi, tuju Malay, whitu Maori. Malagasi and Maori from Central and South India, Malay from East Nepal. No African connection. 42. Eight: valo, varlo Malagasi, delapan Malay, waru Maori. Malagasi and Maori from Central India. No African affinities. 43. Nine: sivi, siva Malagasi, sambilang Malay, iwa, iva Maori. Malagasi and Maori from Indo-China. No African affinities. On analysing the comparative vocabulary given in the appendix, I find that the analogies are much greater as between the Barata terms and Asia than as between these and Africa; and of the list of 43 given, 235 analogies, or close analogies, are found in the primitive languages of the former, particularly in Hindustan, while 97 analogies are found in Africa–principally in the Mosambique districts–but in most cases the analogies are by no means so perfect. It may be further remarked, that of the 43 Barata terms given in our list, all except two are found embedded in the languages of South Asia, while 17 of them are not found in any African language. Proceeding on our basis then–viz., that the Malagas-malayo-polynesian tribes derived their origin from the continent–not the continental tribes theirs from the islands–which theory some ethnologists support; it can scarcely now be doubted (that is, if the testimony of language have any value), that the origin of the Barata race extending over the tropics from Madagascar to Easter Island was in Hindustan, where the roots of their language are yet found so profusely preserved.

Further, that many of these words should also be preserved in Africa is not to be wondered at, seeing that the negro race had in archaic times such large expansion* See Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, p. 32. over all the regions under review, and between whose tribes and nations there has been immemorial intercourse. The question still remains–from what part of Hindustan did these great Island Tribes emanate? The reply will be best made by reference to the accompanying map (pl. IV). It will be seen from this that Hindustan is now overrun by two distinct sections of the human race–viz., Indo-Germanic or Aryan and Turanian; or, in other words, the one Caucasian, the other Mongolian; the one occupying the western and northern regions, the other the southern and eastern; and in overrunning Hindustan have they extirpated the primitive races? not entirely; many of these remain, much modified, it is true, in colour and physiognomy, but little in language.† See Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, p. 36, The roots of a language die only with the tribe's extirpation. Hence, it is not in the languages of the intruding sections that we have found the Barata fossil words; but, for the most part, in the various small tribes, yet preserved in the obscure portions of their territory, difficult of access, such as under the Himalaya, Jynteah and Nilgherry mountains. In these, the undeleted glossarial remains of what had once been the language of a numerous people, we have witnesses to facts and conditions of nations long since past and preceding historic record. Small tribes may have found their way towards the Tropics by divers routes, and particularly by those through the Malay Peninsula, Tenasserium coast and islands, but the section or nation that spread its influence, girdling two-thirds of this globe, could not have been one or more of these. It is to South India, therefore, that we must look. For the inhabitants of this region have from times immemorial carried on trading expeditions, westerly to Africa and easterly to the Moluccas, a circumstance that can neither be stated of the natives of the rest of Hindustan nor of any of the Malayan states. The original seat of the great Barata race can then be only fairly sought for or denoted in South India, which commands the routes east to Malayo-Polynesia, west to Madagascar, and whose population, eminently maritime, were competent to the task of navigation. Thus we are led to the same conclusion as stated in my previous essays.‡ Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, p. 48. In my researches I have had to scrutinise the Sanscrit terms, several of the Asiatic and African-Arabic dialects, Bask, Finnic, Magyar, Turkish, Circassian, Georgian, Mongolian, Muntshu and Japanese languages, without finding analogies. I have also examined twenty languages of Australia, and, amongst these, instances of but very exceptional and remote affinities

are detected, and none such as would indicate connection. The Barata language must therefore be held to be a purely tropical one, its offshoots seldom extending above thirty degrees from the equator. With Chinese, exceptional analogies have been found, but these are either doubtful or accidental. A fit sequel to this present paper (I suggest) will be found in Appendix II., where I have compared the languages of the Malayan Archipelago with that of Samoa or the Navigators Islands in Polynesia. I am enabled to do this by the recent publication of a Samoan Grammar and Dictionary, by the Rev. George Pratt, edited by the Rev. S. J. Whitnee, F.R.G.S. This portion of the subject is the more interesting as Samoa is the reputed Hawaiki* Query; Hawa-iki, literally small harbour, or coral reef opening. of the Maori. It will be observed by the comparative vocabulary given in Appendix II, that all objects known in the Samoan Islands and the Malay Archipelago are, almost without exception, represented radically by the same words in either region. Objects unknown to the Polynesian as a matter of course are not represented—such as deer, gold, honey, iron, monkey, etc. And the locality where these Malayo-Polynesian affinities exist is not difficult to point out, viz., the Moluccas; thus of the 94 analogies represented, 24 are found in Ceram, 11 in Matabello, 7 in Borou, 7 in Amboyna, 7 in Sula Islands, 7 in Sangair, 6 in Celebes† See Appendix III.. Again of the 114 words contained in the whole list only 26 are Malay. Thus on our premises we would infer that the population of Samoa was not directly derived from Malaya (Sumatra or Malay Peninsula) but from the Moluccas. In other words, in the diffusion of the blood of the Barata race, while Malaya may have acted as a vein or path—the Moluccas acted as a gland or stepping-stone. For this purpose no region could be more appropriate than the Moluccas, for here were the spices and rare birds so attractive to commerce, to be found. From time immemorial here would be the great rendezvous of Barat, that is, western adventurers and conquerers, and from whence their more enterprising spirits would venture further east. Thus, if it be said that the Moluccas were the stepping-stone to Barata emigration, so also is it said that Samoa was the focus of Polynesian dispersion. That we have not found a language in the Malayan Archipelago completely analogous to Samoan is consistent with our theory—for in the preceding part of our paper neither has there been found a language in Hindustan completely consistent with the Malagas-malayo-polynesian dialects. In both cases, however, the unquestionable evidence of root or fossil

words is there, which gives unerring witness of community of blood and race. The fossil words preserved in the Moluccas, not in the tongues of the great races of Java, Waju, or Malaya, but in those obscure remnants whose remoteness or inaccessibility have protected them from the deleting waves of successive migrations. Appendix I. Arrow. Region. Country. District. Malagasi. Malay. Maori. zanatsipikia panah pere Asia Indo-China Shan pen pen South India Telugu banamu banamu N.E. Bengal Garo phe-e Bay of Bengal Great Nicobar enphæ hnje Africa East Coast Mozambique ntere East Central Yao mpamba mpamba do. Kimasai embai embai W. & Central Mandingo benyo benyo do. Bambarra bien bien do. Fanti & Ashanti eben eben Malay Archipelago Javanese pannah pannah Polynesia Tongan fanna fanna Hawaiian he pua pana he pua-pana Australia Bird. vorona burong manu Asia Nepal Limbu bu bu East of Bengal Mithan Naga o o do. Namsang Naga vo vo do. Singpho wu wu Indo-China Siamese nok do. Ahom nuktu do. Khamti nok do. Laos nok Africa Malay Archipelago Javanese manok manoko, manu, manui, manu- Other islands manu, manuti, manik, mano, manuo, manuwan, etc. South Celebes Salayer burung burung Amboyna Batu merah burung burung Polynesia Fijian manu-manu Samoan manu Tongan manu Hawaiian he manu Australia

Blood. ra dara toto Asia Tibeto-China Takpa [ten khra khra do. Tibetan, writ- khrag khrag Nepal Pakhya ragat ragat East Nepal Rodong haa haa do. Waling ha ha Nepal Darhi ragat ragat do. Denwar raktai raktai do. Kuswar rakti rakti Bay of Bengal Nancowry wa wa do. Car Nicobar maham maham Africa W. & Central Walof derrete orah, rara, daha, dugu poha, lala, Malay Archipelago Various Islands raha, yan lalai lalah, the same laia, lawa, lahim, lasin, larah, lemoh, lahah, etc. Polynesia Fijian dra dra Samoan toto Tongan tawto Hawaiian he koko Australia Bone. taolana tolan iwi Asia Nepal Newar kwe Indo-China Sgau-Karen khi do. Pwo-Karen khwi Chinese Shanghai kweh-den Bay of Bengal Teressa kolran kolran Africa Malay Archipelago Javanese balong balong N. Celebes Bolang hitam tula tula Sula Islands hoi Polynesia Fijian sui-na Samoan ivi Tongan hui Hawaiian iwi Australia Dog. amboa anjing kuri Asia Nepal Murmi nangi Tibeto-China Gyami kou Nepal Dungmali kuti-ma do. Chepang kui East Bengal Tablung Naga kui Indo-China Burma khwe do. Khyeng ui do. Sak ku Bay of Bengal Nancowry ahm

Africa East Coast Swahili mbwa do. Inhambane & Sofala imbua do. Cap Delgado umboa do. Shambala kuli East Central Yao mbwa West Coast Haussa kari South Kafir inja Malay Archipelago Polynesia Fijian koli Samoan uli Tongan guli Australia Ear. sofina telinga taringa talinhe Asia East Bengal Tengsa Naga telannu telannu telanna Khasi & Jynteah Hills Amwee tarang tarang tarang do. Lakadong tarang tarang tarang Bay of Bengal Shobœng gna gna Africa East Central Kimasai ingia ingia Western Mandingo tule do. Sussu tule W. & Central Mandingo tulo, tula do. Bambarra tlo East Masai ingia ingia talinga, toli, telinga, telingan, linganani, telilan, tinget telina, Malay Archipelago Various isles ngan, terina, terina, telinawa, terena, terina-mo, likan. tenaan, etc. terinan teninare Polynesia Fijian daliga-na daliga-na daliga-na Samoan taliga taliga taliga Tongan telinga telinga telinga Australia Earth. tany tana one-one Asia Indo-China Thoungh-thu ham-tan ham-tan do. Siamese tein tein Central India Khond tana tana N. E. Bengal Dhimal bhonoi Central India Kol ote Bay of Bengal Teressa matah œt matah œt do. Shobœng hong Africa Malay Archipelago Polynesia Australia

Egg. atody telor hua Asia East of Bengal Singpho udi Indo-China Burma Africa Western Kossa tegoli ontolo, tanar, natu, tuloi, Malay Archipelago Various Islands metelo, telon, telo, toli, munteloa, tero, letuli, teruni, tin, tolin, tolnin, tolor, atulu, telli untello Polynesia Samoan fua Tongan foi Hawaiian he hua Australia Eye maso mat kanohi Asia East Nepal Dumi mas mas East of Bengal Munipuri mit mit Indo-China Shan matta matta do. Annam mat mat Central India Ho (Kol) met met do. Kuri met met Brahui khan Tibeto-China Thochu kan Central India Uraon khan do. Khond kannuka Southern do. Telugu kannu do. Badaga kannu Khasi & Jynteah Hills Khasi khymat do. Synteng khymat do. Battoa ka-khymat do. Amwee ka-mat do. Lakadong ka-mat Bay of Bengal Nancowry and Car Nicobar olmat olmat do. Teressa emat emat do. Shobœng hinmat hinmat Africa East Coast Swahili macho, mato mato Inhambane Tette, Sena do. Cap Delgado mazo Maravi do. Sofala messo do. Quillimane and Mosambique meto do. Shambala mesho mesho East Central Yao meso meso Western Kongo mesu mesu do. Benin me-is me-is South Kafir amaso moto, mata, hama, raman, ramani, matara, mata-mo, Malay Archipelago Various isles mata-colo, matan, matara, mata-nina, matada, matin, tun, mut, moorba

Polynesia Fijian mata mata Samoan mata mata Tongan mata mata Hawaiian maka maka Australia Fire. afo api ahi Asia China Nankin ho do. Canton fo Nepal Kuswar aghi aghi do. Tharu agi agi East of Bengal Tablung Naga ah a'h Indo-China Shan hpihn hpihn do. Siamese fai fai fai do. Laos fai fai fai Japan Japan hi Africa Western Fulah ofe ofe ofe Malay Archipelago Various wha, api, ahu, afo, aow, hao, aousa, hao, Islands yafo, yaf, wahan, a'if, efi, yaf, lap, yap, etc. Polynesia Samoan afi afi afi Tongan afi afi afi Hawaiian he ahi he ahi he ahi Australia N. S. Wales Kamilaroi wi wi wi Fish. loaka ikan ika Asia Nepal Chepang nga nga nga East of Bengal Namsang Naga nga nga nga Indo-China Burma nga nga nga do. Talain v Mon ka ka ka do. Annam ka ka ka Bay of Bengal Nancowry and Car Nicobar ka ka ka do. Teressa kha kha kha do. Shobœng gna gna gna Africa East Coast Swahili samaki samaki Western Bullom & Appa iu iu iu do. Karaba i-iak i-iak i-iak West and Central Ako, Eyo, Yabo or Yarriba eja, eya eja, eya eja, eya do. Nufi nika, yika nika, yika nika, yika South Kafir inklanzi inklanzi Malay Archipelago Various Islands iwa, ikani, kina, kena, iani, ikan, ikiani, nyan ian, iyan, yano, iem, ein, deiah Polynesia Fijian ika ika ika Samoan ia ia ia Tongan ika ika ika Hawaiian he ia he ia he ia Australia

Flower. vony bunga pua Asia Nepal Sunwar phu phu phu East Nepal Rodong bungna bungna bungna do. Thulungya bungna bungna bungna do. Khaling pungma pungma pungma Central India Santali buha buha buha do. Gayeti pungar pungar pungar South'rn India Tamil, Tuluva pu pu pu Africa East Coast Swahili ua East Central Yao ndua Central Haussa fureh Malay Archipelago Various Islands bunga, obunga, burani, mnuru Polynesia Samoan fuga fuga fuga Tongan fua fua fua Hawaiian he pua he pua he pua Australia Foot. tongon* tangan, hand in Malay. kaki wae-wae Asia China Amoy k'a Indo-China Khyong & Shou kako Khasi & Jynteah Hills Battoa kahi-jat do. Khasi ki-jat do. Synteng ki-jat Africa Malay Archipelago Various islands oei, yiei, ai, yai, oweda, matwey Polynesia Fijian yava-na Samoan vae Tongan vae Hawaiian he wae wae Australia Hair. volo bulu, rambut huru Asia Tibeto-China Takpa pu pu pu Khasi &Jynteach Hills Lakadong usu usu usu Africa East Coast Inhambane mududu mududu mududu East Central Yao umbo Malay Archipelago Various islands balwa, uhu, uta, wooko, utan, buloni, folo, olofolo, hutu, hua, rewohoh, ulvu, ulufuim, hue, ua, wultafun Polynesia Fijian vulua vulua vulua Samoan fulu-fulu fulu-fulu fulu-fulu Tongan lau-ulu lau-ulu lau-ulu Hawaiian ka lauoho ka lau oho ka lau oho Australia N. S. Wales Wailwun wulla wulla wulla

Hand. (ringa-ringa) tanana tangan kutanga Asia Tibeto-China Tibetan lango lango lango Nepal Serpa lango lango lango Khasi & Jynteah Hills Amwee ka ta ka ta kata Africa East Coast Swahili kitanga* Palm of hand. kitanga kitanga Central Haussa hanu hanu hanu Malay Archipelago Java, Baju tangan tangan tangan Australia Victoria Witaoro munangan munangan munangan Head. loha ulu, kapala upuko Asia Indo-China Khyeng v Shou lu lu do. Mru v Toung lu lu do. Ahom ru ru Tibeto-China Thochu kapat Nepal Bhramu ka-pa Central India Kolami kupal do. Kol (Sing bhum) bu bu bu do. Santali buho do. Bhumij buho Khasi & Jynteah Hills Amwee kakhlan do. Lakadong kakhlan Bay of Bengal Shobœng po Africa East Coast Quellimane muru Western Moko lo lo Malay Archipelago S. Celebes Bouton ubaku Ceram Ahtiago oyuko Various Islands ulu, urie, olum, ulun fatu, olun olimbukoi, uruka, ulura, uru, ulumo, yulim, ulukatim, lunini, ulure, aluda ulin Polynesia Fijian ulu-na ulu-na Samoan ulu ulu Tongan ulu ulu Hawaiian ke pu Australia Hog. kisoa, lambo babi poaka kisoa, lambo babi poaka Asia Nepal Darhi su-er do. Tharu suwar Central India Uraon, etc. kis Southern India Tamil (anc) keshal Nepal Rungchenbung, etc. ba do. Sangpang bha Tibeto-China Tibet (spoken) phak-pa

Asia Nepal Limbu phag do. Chingtangya phak do. Vayu pog, pok N.E. India Bhutani v Lhopa phagpo Africa East Central Yao mbango West Coast Fulah baba W. & Central Bambarra fali do. Fanti & Ashanti prako Malay Archipelago Various-Islands bahi, balu, bawi fafi babue, fafu bawu, boh, fafuim, boia, faf, boh Polynesia Fijian sara vuaka Samoan pua'a Tongan boaka Hawaiian he puaa Australia Leaf. ravina daun rau Asia Nepal Gurung lau lau do Newar hau hau Indo-China Ahom bou bou do Khamti mau mau Africa W. & Central Fanti and Ashanti atau atau Malay Archipelago Various Islands tawana, taha, daun, ailaw, laun, laini, lan, idun Polynesia Fijian drau-na drau-na Samoan lau lau Hawaiian he lau he lau Australia Light maivana trang ao Asia E. of Bengal Mithan Naga rangai do Namsang Naga rangvo Indo-China Burman lang N.E. Bengal Lepcha (Sikkim) aom Africa East Coast Swahili anga Polynesia Samoan mala malama Hawaiian mala malama he ao Australia Moon. volana bulan marama Asia Nepal Serpa oula oula Indo-China Mru v Toung pula pula

Africa W. & Central Ibu oua oua Malay Archipelago Various Islands wulan, bula, bulan, balrang, wura, buran, burang, bulani, fhulan, bular, ora, hulanita, hoolan, hulani, phulan, wulani, wuan Polynesia Fijian vula vula Australia Mouth. vava mulut mangai, waha Asia Nepal Lohorong ya ya Central India Yerukala vayi vayi Southern India Tamil vay vay do. Malayalma vaya vaya do. Karnatika bayi bayi do. Toduva payi payi do. Kota vai vai do. Kurumba bai bai Nepal Newar mhutu do. Yakha mulaphu do. Kuswar muhu Bay of Bengal Teressa monoi Africa East Africa Swahili kinwa kinwa do. Sofala Tete & sena muromo do. Quellimane mulomo do. Shambala mulomo* Lip. do. do. kanwa kamwa East Central Yao kamwa kamwa do. Kimasai eng-uduk South Kafir umlomo Malay Archipelago South Celebes Salayer bawa bawa Baju boah boah Polynesia Hawaiian he waha he waha Australia N. W. Coast mulu Night. alina malam po, kengo Asia China Shanghai yali Central India Naikude ale do. Tamil (ane) al al Africa Malay Archipelago Amboyna Batu-merah hulanita potu Saparua bogi Samoan po Tongan bo-uli Hawaiian po Australia

Rain. ranonorana ujan ua Asia Africa East Africa Swahili mvua mvua do. Lourenzo Marques infula infula do. Inhambane vula vula do. Sofala umvura umvura do. Tete vura vura do. Sena ku-boumba ku-boumba do. Mosambique ip-pula ip-pula do. Cap Delgado (m) vula vula do. Maravi vura vura do. Shambala fula fula East Central Yao ula ula Central Haussa rua rua South Kafir imvula imvvula Malay Archipelago Various islands hudan, oha, urong, huya, ulani, ulah, ulan, hura, hulan, hulani, huran, ulane, ulani, ulan, uan, udama, hurani, golim, huran Polynesia Fijian uca uca Samoan ua ua Tongan uha uha Hawaiian he ua he ua Australia Road. lalambe jalan ara Asia Tibeto-China Tibet (written) lam Nepal Serpa and two others lam East Nepal Kirante and 14 others lam North Bengal Bhutani and 4 others lam East Bengal Mithan Naga and 2 others lam do. Abor Miri lambeü Indo-China Burman and 5 others lam Tibeto-China Tibet (spoken) lani Nepal Newar lon Indo-China Burman (spoken) lan Tibeto-China Manyak rah Nepal Sunwar la Central India Santali har do. Mundala horah Africa East Central Yao petala Malay Archipalago Various Islands dara, lalan, dalren, lora, dalin, aya, lalani, lolan, lahan, lalano, latina, lalim, laan, laran, lagain, lelin, lalan Polynesia Fijian sala sala sala Samoan ala ala ala Tongan hala hala hala Hawaiin he ala nui he ala nui he ala nui Australia

Sky. lanitra langit rangi Asia Nepal Sunwar sarangi sarangi sa-rangi do. Kuswar sa-rang sa-rang sa-rang Central India Ragmahali sa-range sa-range sa-range Africa Malay Archipelago Polynesia Fijian lagi lagi lagi Samoan lagi lagi lagi Hawaiian ka-lani ka lani ka-lani Australia Star. kintana bintang whetu Asia N. E. Bengal Garo laitan laitan Central India Uraon binka binka South'rn India Toda min min Africa Malay Archipelago Various islands lintang, bintang, bituy, bituin, fatui, teon, toin, toen Polynesia Samoan fetu Tongan fetu Australia Sun. maso-andro mata-hari ra, komaru Asia Indo-China Annam mata-troi Tibeto-China Sokpa na Nepal Sunwar na Africa Central Haussa rana Malay Archipelago Various Islands mata-alo, mata-rou mata-lon Polynesia Fijian mata ni-siga mata ni-siga Samoan la Tongan laa Hawaiian la Australia Tongue. lila lida arero Asia Khasi & Jynteah Hills Battoa u-thylliad u-thylliad do Amwee u-khlid u-khlid do Lakadong u-khliad u-khliad Bay of Bengal Nancowry geletak geletak Africa East Coast Quellimane lilimi lilimi do Shambala lulimi lulimi East Central Yao lulimi lulimi South Kafir ulwimi ulwimi

Malay Archipelago Various Islands ilat, lilah, dila, melin, ninum, delah Mysol aran Polynesia Samoan alelo Tongan elelo Hawaiian ka elelo Australia Tooth. nifi, nifo gigi niho, rei Asia Nepal Thaksya gyo East Nepal Chourasya ginnso Central India Gadaba ginna Africa East Coast Swahili jino jino do. Shambala zino zino East Central Yao lino lino West Coast Mandingo gi W. & Central Filatah, Filani or Fulah niye niye do. Bambarra nye nye South Kafir izinyo izinyo Malay Archipelago Various Islands nihi, nisim, nisi, nisinen, niki, nio, nisi-mo, nifan nifoa, nifin nihi, nisim, nisi, nisinen, niki, nio, nisimo, nifan, nifoa, nifin do. gigi, ngisi, isi Polynesia Samoan nifo nifo Tongan nifo nifo Hawaiian niho niho Australia Tree. [poko hazo pun, kaiu, rakau Asia Tibeto-China Thochu gwozosi N.E. Bengal Garo pan E. of Bengal Mithan Naga pan Singpho phun Indo-Persia Brahui darakht Bay of Bengal Teressa Africa Polynesia Samoan la' au Hawaiian he laau Australia Water. rano ayer wai Asia Tibeto-China Horpa hrah do. Manyak dyah Nepal Bhramu awa awa Central India Gondi yer

Asia Central India Gayeti yer do. Rutluk er do. Naikude ir do. Kolami ir do. Madi er do. Madea per Southern India Tamil (mod.) and 4 others nir East Nepal Sang Pang wa Africa East Coast Swahili mazi mazi do. Shambola mazi mazi East Central Yao mesi mesi Western Sussu i-e i-e do. Pessa iah iah South Kafir amanzi Malay Archipelago Various Islands aer, akei, aki, wai, waili, waiyr, weyer, weyl, waeli, welo, wai-im, arr. wehi, wayr Javanese banyu S. Celebes Bouton manu Polynesia Fijian wai wai Samoan vai vai Tongan vai vai Hawaiian wai wai Australia Yam. ovi ubi uwhi-kaho Asia Africa Polynesia Fijian uvi uvi uvi Samoan ufi ufi ufi Hawaiian uhi uhi uhi Australia Hot. mafana panas, hangat wera Asia South'rn India Tamil (anc.) veya Africa Malay Archipelago Various Islands panas, mopani, bahaha, bafanat, mofanas, benis panas Mysol pela Polynesia Samoan vevela Tongan vela Hawaiian wela Australia Raw. manta manta mata Asia East of Bengal Nowgong Naga matok matok matok Bay of Bengal Teressa mahaa mahaa mahaa Africa

Polynesia Samoan mata mata mata Hawaiian maka maka maka Australia Red. mena mera whero Asia South'rn India Telugu era era yerupu Central India Naikude yerodi do. Kolami yerrodi Africa Malay Archipelago Various Islands merai, maramutah, mia, miha, mehani, meranati, merah Australi Ripe. masaka masa maoa Asia Nepal Sunwar miso miso miso Africa Malay Archipelago Polynesia Australia Small. keli kichi riki, iti, nohi nohi Asia Tibeto-China Gyarung kachai East Nepal Thulungya kichem do. Bahingya kachim do. Lambichong michiyuk North Bengal Lepcha (Sikkim) achim E. of Bengal Singpho katsi Indo-China Ahom noi Bay of Bengal Andaman kitimarda kitimarda kiti-marda Africa Malay Archipelago Polynesia Samoan laiti-iti Hawaiian palanai-iki Australia Come. avi mari mai Asia China Nankin, Pekin, Amoy lai lai lai do. Canton loi loi loi Tibeto-China Thochu hai hai hai Indo-China Sgau-karen hai hai hai

Asia Indo-China Annam lai lai lai do. Siam, Ahom, Khamti, Laos ma ma Central India Yerukala va South'rn India Tamil v do. Toda, Kota it va do. Malabar va Africa Malay Archipelago Various Islands marein, maive, maika, aripa, dumahi, maranih, mai, omai, ikomai, gumaho, uimai, oimai, omai, alowei, gomari, jogmah Polynesia Fijian lako-mai lako-mai lako-mai Tongan hau-mai hau-mai hau-mai Hawaiian e hele mai e hele mai e hele mai Australia Five. dimi, limi lima rima Asia Africa Malay Archipelago Various Islands limanu, rima, delima, leplim, rima, enlima, lim, nima, lim Polynesia Fijian lima lima lima Samoan e-lima e-lima elima Tongan nima nima nima Hawaiian elima elima elima Australia Six. enina, oné anam ono Asia Africa Malay Archipelago nanam, nanamo, unam, num, onomo, kanum, annuh, gane, ne, noh, nena nöo, noöh, nome, noi, num, ennoi, wonen, lomi, onam, nem, onum, nam Polynesia Fijian e-ono e-ono e-ono Samoan ono ono ono Tongan whaine whaine whaine Hawaiian eono eono eono Australia Seven. fito tuju whitu Asia Central India Gondi yetu yetu do. Madi yedu yedu do. Kuri yeiku yeiku do. Gadaba yedu yedu do. Yerukala yegu yegu South'rn India Telugu yedu yedu do. Karnataka yelu yelu do. Kurgi elu elu East Nepal Balali nuji Africa

Malay Archipelago pitu, pituano kapitu, gapitu hito, pito, itu itua, hitu, witu, fitu, fit fiti, itu, tit pitu, pituano, kapitu, gapitu, hito, pito, ito itua, hitu, witu fitu, fit, fiti, itu, tit S. Celebes Salayu tujoh Baju tujoh Polynesia Fijian e-vitu e-vitu Samoan fitu fitu Tongan fidda fidda Hawaiian ahiku ahiku Australia Eight. valo, varlo, delapan waru Asia Central India Yerukala vattu vattu Africa Malay Archipelago Various Islands wola, veluano walru waro walu waru walua wagu wol, enwal alu, allu wola, veluano, walru, waro walu waru walua wagu wol, enwol alu, allu Baju dolapan Polynesia Fijian walu walu Samoan valu valu Tongan varu varu Hawaiian awalu awalu Australia Nine. sivi, siva sambilang iwa, iva Asia Indo-China Sgau-Karem kwi, hkwi kwi, hkwi do Pwo-Karen kwi kwi Africa Malay Archipelago Various Islands sioanu, sio kasiow, siwa chia, sia, ensiwa siwer, si, sin sioanu, sio kasiow, siwa chia, sia, ensiwa siwer, si, sin Baju sambilan Polynesia Fijian ciwa ciwa Samoan iva iva Tongan hioa hioa Hawaiian eiwa eiwa Australia

Appendix II. English. Samoan. — 1 Black uliuli wulin, Langowan, North Celebes 2 Fire afi afu, Amblaw; aif, Gah, Ceram; efi, Matabella; yaf, Teor; yap, Mysol 3 Large latele leleh, Matabello 4 Nose isu iru, Lariki; inu, Vaiqueno, East Timor 5 Small laitiiti kiiti, Wahai, Ceram 6 Tongue alelo ela, Sasak, Lombok; kelo, Matabello 7 Tooth nifo nifan, Ahtiago, Ceram; nifoa, Matabello; nifin, Teor 8 Water vai ve, Teto, East Timor; wai, Solor and others 9 White pa-epa-e pituper, Dorey 10 Ant loi foin, Ahtiago, Ceram 11 Ashes lefu-lefu lavu, Amblaw; laftain, Ahtiago, Ceram 12 Bad leaga leak, Mysol 13 Banana fa-i fiah, Sula Islands mo-i muk, Teor; mah, Mysol 14 Belly manava tiava, Batumerah 15 Bird manu manu, Camarian, Ceram 16 Blood toto kokotu, Tidore 17 Blue uli 18 Boat tulula 19 Body tino 20 Bone ivi hoi, Sula Islands; luliva, Butumerah, Amboyna 21 Bow aufana pana, Salayer, South Celebes; fean, Mysol 22 Box atola-au 23 Butterfly pepe pepeul, Morella, Amboyna 24 Cat gose geli pusi 25 Child tama 26 Chopper — 27 Cocoanut niu niula, Gah, Ceram; nea, Mysol 28 Cold ma-alili mariri, Wahai, Ceram 29 Come fotu mai mai, Sula Islands, Lariki, Amboyna, Gah, Ceram, etc. 30 Day ao heo, Bouton, South Celebes; aoaaoa, Lariki, Amboyna; lau, Baju 31 Deer — 32 Dog uli kafuni, Gah, Ceram 33 Door pupuni, puipui 34 Ear taliga telinga, Malay, Baju, etc. 35 Egg fua fuan, (fruit) Wayapo, Bouru 36 Eye mata mata, Lariki, Amboyna, etc. 37 Face mata matalalin, Wahai, Ceram 38 Father tama ama, Wahai, Ceram 39 Feather fulu fulun, Wayapo, Bouru 40 Finger i-lima limin-tagin, Teor 41 Fish i-a i-an, Matabello, etc. 42 Flesh a-ano 43 Flower fuga bunga, Gani, Gilolo, etc. 44 Fly lago lango, Sanguir 45 Foot vae ai, Wahai, Ceram, etc. 46 Fowl moa 47 Fruit fua fuan, Wayapo, Bouru, etc. 48 Go alu aou, Wahai, Ceram 49 Gold — 50 Good lelei 51 Hair fulu-fulu olofolo, Masarati, Bouru 52 Hand lima lima, Sanguir, etc. 53 Hard ma-a-a makana, Saparua, etc. 54 Head ulu ulu, Camarian, Ceram 55 Honey —

56 Hot vevela pela, Mysol 57 House fale bare, Sanguir 58 Husband tane burani, Salayer, South Celebes 59 Iron u-amea 60 Island nu-utoloto motu 61 Knife polo pena naifi 62 Large latele lele, Matabello 63 Leaf lau laun, Saparua 64 Little itiiti kiiti, Wahai, Ceram 65 Louse utu utu, Matabello and others 66 Man tagata tomata, Salibabo tane 67 Mat papa fala 68 Monkey 69 Moon masina fasina, Sula Islands mauli 70 Mosquito namu nymo, Javanese 71 Mother tina ina, Lariki, Amboyna 72 Mouth gutu nanguru, Galela, Gilolo 73 Nail atigi-lima, fao 74 Night po potu, Saparua 75 Oil u-u majulu, Mysol suau-u 76 Pig pua-a hawhua, Camarian, Ceram 77 Post pou faolnim, Ahtiago, Ceram 78 Prawn 79 Rain ua uan, Gah, Ceram 80 Rut imoa ioli isumu 81 Red mumu hamu, Sanguir ulaula ululi, Teor toto-toto 82 Rice 83 River vaitafe 84 Road ala aya, Sula Islands 85 Root a-a ai aha, Matabello pogai 86 Saliva anu udu, Sanguir feanuga 87 Salt 88 Sea tai tahi, Matabello sami vasa moana 89 Silver 90 Skin pa-u iliola lilicolo, Teluti, Ceram 91 Smoke asu iaso, Gani, Gilolo 92 Snake gata katoan, Sanguir 93 Soft malulu mulumu, Wahai, Ceram 94 Sour o-ona ko-unim, Ahtiago, Ceram 95 Spear tao 96 Star fetu fatui, Sula Islands 97 Sun la lea, Sula Islands 98 Sweet suamalie 99 Wax pulu 100 Wife ava sawa, Sanguir

101 Wing apu-au opani, Bouton, South Celebes 102 Woman fafine finé, Masarati, Bouru 103 Wood la-au a-au, Cajili, Bouru vao-matua 104 Yellow sama-sama 105 One tasi isai, Camarian, Ceram 106 Two lua lua, Wahai, Ceram 107 Three tolu tolu, Matabello fia 108 Four efa faä, Amblaw esoani 109 Five elima lima, Ahtiago, Ceram, and others 110 Six ono ono-mo, Bolanghitam, North Celebes 111 Seven fitu fitu, Matabello 112 Eight valu watu, Amblaw 113 Nine iva siwa, Cajili, Bouru, and others 114 Ten sefulu sapulo, Bouton, North Celebes, and others Appendix III. Gani, Gilolo 2 3 Galela 1 Langowan Celebes 1 Salayer 1 6 Bouton 3 Bolanghitam 1 Ahtiago Ceram 6 Gah 5 Wahai 9 24 Camarian 3 Teluti 1 Lariki Amboyna 5 Batumerah 1 7 Morella 1 Vaiqueno Timor 1 2 Teto 1 Wayapo Bouru 3 7 Masarati 2 Cajeli 2 Amblaw 4 Matabello 11 Teor 5 Sasak Lombok 1 Solor 1 Dorey 1 Mysol 5 Sula Islands 7 Tidore 1 Baju 1 Malay 1 Sanguir 7 Saparua 3 Salibabo 1 Javanese 1