Our 25th Competition

Progress, Volume X, Issue 2, 1 October 1914, Page 56

Our 25th Competition

ESSAY ON GREEK ARCHITECTURE Won by "TORUS"—R. H. Saunders, Christchurch Only two essays were received in connection with this competition, viz:"Torus" by H. R. Saunders with Mr. T. L. Flaus, Christchurch, and "Kallicrates" by William J. McKeon with Messrs. Hoggard Prouse & W. H. Gummer, A.R.1.8.A., Wellington. Mr. Leslie D. Coombs who kindly set this subject comments as follows: "From an educational point of view I trust this competition will be of the greatest value to the competitors. Each has had to study his text books and necessarily to write in words and sentences of his own his interpretation of the information contained in such books. Unfortunately all text books are not good. Some are decidedly bad, and there is a reasonable amount of excuse for a student propounding a theory that the latest authorities consider obsolete and incorrect. However, no such explanation will completely excuse the subject matter of the essay written by "Kallicrates." "Torus" writes much more accurately, but contradictory statements in text books have given him some trouble. On page 432 of the R.1.8.A. Kalendar 1913-1914 is printed a list of books recommended for students. They cannot do better than study from the books so recommended.

Neither competitor has written in a really good literary style, but "Torus" has done better than "Kallicrates." The sentences of both are in several instances rather ambiguous. Mistakes are also made in spelling and punctuation, and "Kilicrates" seems to consider that every sentence shall be a new paragraph. The quotation with which this same competitor terminates his essay is very weak and altogether wrong. This is the first time I have seen it written that a Greek Temple '' presented an aspect of rich and sparkling gaiety." Both sets of sketches are very good, but here again "Kallicrates" has made mistakes. A Greek

triglyph at the corner of a building is right at the corner, not slightly away from it; the architrave (the lintel) of the Doric entablature is not jointed midway between the supporting columns, etc. "Torus" has made some mistake with the cornice in fig. 4, otherwise his sketches are free from important errors.

The following notes are intended to help to set each competitor right, and to bring his knowledge up to date, but he must not forget that modern research is throwing much new light on the architecture of ancient Greece, especially that of the earliest periods, and even present day ideas may in the future need modifying:—

Notes for "Torus":—

Windows are supposed to have existed in the east wall of the Erechtheum at Athens. It is therefore hardly correct to state definitely that the temple of (Jupiter Olympius) at Agrigentum was the only temple that had windows. . ".•'.

The evidence that some temples at least were lighted by openings in their roofs is very strong. At Bassal a portion of a roof tile was found with an opening pierced in it, and a raised rim around to prevent the rain running down through it. At Aegina Cockerell found a block of stone that had been a coping stone to an opening in the roof. The temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens is mentioned by Vitruvius (Chap, 1., Book 3) as having been hypaethral. The same writer says (Chap. 11., Book I.) "temples are built, hypaethral and uninclosed to Jupiter, Thunderer, Coelus, the Sun and Moon; because these divinities are continually known to us by their presence night and day, and throughout all space." All authorities agree that the temple

In this, the Mimoan period, we have the example of the palace at Knossos in Crete. Another example is the palace at Phaestus.' Both these palaces were certainly what are termed monumental buildings. There is no evidence to show that, during the Niycenaean period, the principal buildings and tombs had but flat roofs of clay. At Tirens passages are roofed by courses of stone in horizontal beds, projecting one over another, and cut on the underside to the contour of a pointed arch. Similar construction is to be seen in the domed tombs, an example of which is the building known as the Treasury of Athens at Mycenae. "When studying the plans of buildings we find such features as porticoes-in-antis as at the palace at Tirens, and even at the palace at

of Apollo Dilymaens near Miletus in Asia Minor was hypaethral, but here it seems to have been the case more by accident than design for Strabo mentions that after building the temple the builders were unable to roof it on account of the big span. The Greeks did not know how to truss timbers. The idea that the columns at Beni-hasan in Egypt were prototypes of the Doric columns is now considered wrong. "What we know of the history of the Heraeum at Olympia tends to disprove the theory. The temple, which is considered the earliest of Greek temples originally had wooden columns which were gradually replaced by stone ones. Notes for " Kallicrates " There are no remains of the earliest of Pre-historic Greek architecture that show by their design and construction the wandering nature of the people.

Knossos (Minoan period), we may feel convinced that the ordinary roofs to important bulidings were of shape and construction similar to those of later date.

The Doric temple at Corinth is not the earliest of its kind known, the Heraeum at Olympia being probably at least 150 years older. This temple is the earliest peripteral Greek temple of which remains have been found sufficient to determine its restoration. The date of its foundation has been attributed to the eleventh century B.C.

The temples at Selinus were built of limestone covered with stucco, but I can find no evidence to show that stucco was used on the early temple at Corinth. However, the practice of finishing buildings with stucco was almost universal, especially in buildings of the Doric Order.

There was in lonic Archaic period in Asia Minor from about 550 8.C., the historical importance of which must not be overlooked.

In the Archaic examples of Greek lonic columns the flutings were shallow and separated by arrises. The Volutes of the early examples of lonic capitals did not always appear to spring directly from the shafts (like those at the tomb of Tomassas at Cyprus). The earliest example of an lonic capital known, from the temple of Apollo at Naucratis, has quite a different appearance, being not unlike in character the well known example from the north portico of the Erechtheion at Athens." THE PRIZE ESSAY Affected though their architecture was by that of other and preceding nations, the Greeks evolved a style which is accepted as being beyond criticism. It has been studied and copied and has influenced to a remarkable extent succeeding architecture, having been a source of inspiration even to this day. The excellence to which the architecture of ancient Greece attained is no doubt due to the great care and consideration which they gave to the designing of their buildings even to the most minute detail. The Greek style is essentially columnar and trabeated thus giving a system where strict observance of the laws of gravity is all that is required to ensure stability, the weights acting vertically and therefore needing only vertical resistances. A distinct character was given to the buildings by the use of finely polished marble or a fine cement composed of marble dust and lime forming a finished surface, capable of a high polish, to stone or brickwork. In some cases, even marble was coated with this cement, as it was capable of a higher polish. As stone or marble lintels were difficult to obtain in any great length, the columns had necessarily to be placed comparatively close together and this fact had an important bearing on the design. Mortar was not used in the construction, because it was not required for the purpose of distributing the pressure between the component blocks, as necessary in an arcuated construction. Instead, the beds were rubbed to a very fine and true surface and the stones jointed with iron cramps. Care was also taken that the stones were laid on their natural bed or otherwise, according to the pressure they had to sustain. Thus the architraves, which had to withstand a cross-strain were placed with the planes of their beds vertical, enabling them to carry a load over larger spans and thus tending to a wider intercolumnation. The early Greek work, of the Hellenic period, is heavy and severe, revealing the influence of the Mycenaean period, but there was a gradual evolution towards refinement and beauty. In their buildings there was a combination of the qualities of harmony, simplicity and unity because of their excellent proportions, their truthful and apparent construction and the employment of one constructive principle throughout. It seems astonishing that the Greeks took such pains to correct optical illusions; one, the most wellknown instance, being the giving of an entasis to the shafts of the columns, as illustrated in Figs. 1-3, to counteract the apparent thinning of the column towards the centre.

Remarkably fine sculpture and carving was used to complete the edifices, being used with proper restraint and judgment. The high degree of delicacy and refinement attained was facilitated by the hard finegrained marble employed. Colour and gilding were also used to heighten the effect.

The Greeks developed three of the "Orders of Architecture," the Doric, lonic, and Corinthian, which were subsequently copied by the Romans who added the Tuscan and Composite and thus completed the "Five Orders of Architecture." An "order" consisted of the support column.with capital and base, the latter being absent in the Doric Order where the column rests directly on the stylobate, and the part supported— entablature. The latter is subdivided into the architrave, frieze and the crowning member, the cornice, the proportions, mouldings and decorations varying with the different orders.

The sturdiest, oldest, and plainestthe Doric is traced to a stone Egyptian prototype, by many, while many others, again, trace it to a wooden origin. However, it is a point about which there has been, and is much contention. The supporters of the "wooden origin" theory have certainly good arguments in their favour the chief being the deriviation of the guttae from constructive wooden pegs; and this is supported by discoveries made a few years ago. The column, as before mentioned, has no base, standing directly upon the stylo-bate, or base of the building, usually of three steps. The column including the cap is from 4 to 6£ times the diameter at the base, in height diminishing to § or |of this diameter at the top. The shaft is divided usually into 20 flutes separated by sharp arrises, though the number varies. Surmounting this order, as illustrated in Fig. 1., is a capital consisting of annulets, echinus and abacus. The abacus is a square slab, with the echinusa large convex mouldingunder. The latter varies, in the earlier examples approaching a parabolic section, and in the latter, a hyperbolic. Beneath the echinus are the annulets, or horizontal fillets varying in number from three to five. Immediately below is the Trachelion or necking having below the hypothachelion consisting of three grooves, in the earlier, and one in the later examples.

The entablature is usually about one quarter the height of the order and is divided into three main divisions. Resting on the abacus is the architrave which is of considerable depth and has only one vertical face. Separating it from the frieze is a flat moulding— tenia which has beneath it, at intervals corresponding to the triglyphs, a narrow band called the regula, with six guttae. Decorating the frieze are triglyphs, having channels and the square spaces between called the metopes, which are, in some examples, richly sculptured.

The cornice consists of the upper part having cymatium and birdsbeak mouldings with a vertical face below, called the corona. \ The inclined upwards parallel with the slope of the roof, has flat projecting blocks called mutules, suggesting the ends of rafters, coming over each triglyph and metope and ornamented with eighteen guttae. This order is illustrated in Fig. 1.

The chief distinguishing feature of the lonic order as illustrated in Figs. 2-3, is the volute or scroll capital, the origin of which has been traced to different sources. The columns, including shaft, base and capital are in height about nine times the lower diameter and therefore more slender than the Doric in proportion. The base is usually moulded with torus and scotia, the square plinth being absent. Later examples have a lower torus added, making what is named the Attic base. The shafts have flutes, usually twenty-four in number, differing from the Doric in being separated by fillets.

The capital consists of a pair of volutes or spirals at back and front of column, being, in height, about two thirds the diameter. It should be mentioned that the "diameter" is the lower diameter of the column, which forms a scale by which the other parts are proportioned.

The volutes are connected at their sides by what is known as the cushion which is either plain or ornamented and connecting them at fror l and back is an echinus moulding .ornamented with the egg and dart, having a bead; moulding under. The volutes, extremely intricate, were formed by hand or geometrically, those on the angle column being generally formed to face both facades, as sketched in Fig. 4. One example, the temple at Bassae, has all the volutes so placed. The entablature, though varying in height is usually about one fifth that of the whole order. The architrave is formed in three faces, apparently representing superimposed beams, and the frieze, though sometimes plain, is ornamented with a band of continuous sculpture. Forming the cornice are the cyma-recta moulding, the corona and usually a dentil course. The Doric Order provided a setting for sculpture while the lonic incorporated the carving with the order.

The more ornate Corinthian Order was seldom used. Column, base and shaft are similar to those of the lonic, the total height, of the three being about ten times the diameter, thus becoming still more slender. It stands, as do the two previous orders, on a stylobate. and its distinctive feature is the very ornamental capital, which is from one to one and one sixth times the diameter in height. The origin of the capital is clothed in obscurity. Its probable deriviation is from the lonic examples, such as at the Erechtheion, where bands of sculpture occur beneath the. volutes: as. illustrated in Fig. 2. As seen on the illustration Fig. 3, it consists of a bell upon which are carved two tiers of eighth acanthus leaves and between those of the upper row are eight caulicoli surmounted by a curled leaf or calyx, from which spring the volutes, supporting the corners of the abacus, and in the centre small volutes support a floral ornament. The moulded abacus is curved on each face, the angles being either brought to a point or chamfered off.

The entablature, its height normally about one fifth that of the whole order, resembles the lonic, though the cornice mouldings are more enriched.

Practically all the important ancient buildings now found in Greece are the temples which were built in the fifty years following the final defeat of the Persians in B.C. 480, a period of national exul-

tation. The temples were designed with special regard to external effect, richly sculptured, to form fitting shrines for the deities; in whose honour they were erected. They were erected in a "temenos" or sacred enclosure and consisted of a "naos" or cella, which was usually oblong in plan, containing the statue of the God or Goddess; a treasury or chamber beyond and a front and rear portico and flanking colonnades, the whole resting on a stylobate generally of three steps. The roofs were constructed of timber, covered with marble slabs, the overlapped joints of which had antefixae at the eaves. In most cases, the door was placed in the centre of the end wall, behind the portico and sometimes planned to enable the lighting of the statue opposite.

As the temples had no windows, with one exception, at Agrigentum, many theories have been advanced as to the method of lighting. Many authorities maintain that light was obtained only through the doorways, while others hold that transparent Parian marble roofing slabs sufficed, or that artificial illumination was resorted to. However, there seem grounds for believing that a "hypaethral" opening was formed in the roof; but as the roofs have naturally long since disappeared, there is no conclusive evidence. In the larger temples, internal colonnades of columns placed over each other were employed to support the roof. The two end facades had a triangular pediment, corresponding to the slope of the roof, frequently filled with sculpture.

The temples are classified according to the disposition of their columns. For instance the simplest is termed "di-style in antis" where one end only has two columns between the antae or pilasters terminating the side walls.

The exterior columns with their entablature constitute the entire height of the building. The example which is regarded as the most representative of Greek architecture is the Parthenon on the Acropolis at Athens. It is, "peripteral octastyle" on plan, that is, having porticos at each end with eight columns and columns on each side, in this instance numbering seventeen, thus being completely surrounded with columns. In addition to the cella, at the western end of which was the famous statue of Athena, and which was called the "Hectatompedon," there was, at the western end of the cella, the Parthenon, or virgin's chamber, from which the temple took its name. The latter chamber was probably used as the Hieratic treasury.

In addition to the temple many other buildings were erected, including the theatres, palaces and tombs. The orders were an outstanding feature of the architecture. The first used, the Doric, was also mostly employed. The succeeding, the lonic is seen in fewer examples while the Corinthian was least employed. The succession is well expressed in Thomson's lines: —

" First, unadorn'd, And nobly plain, the manly Doric rose; Th' lonic, then, with decent matron grace, Her airy pillar heaved luxuriant last, The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wreath.