Rearing Dairy Calves

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 87, Issue 1, 15 July 1953, Page 33

Rearing Dairy Calves

By

A. G. BRASH,

Veterinarian, Department of Agriculture,

Christchurch

IN judging the efficiency of any method of calf rearing two factors • must be taken into account. Its influence on calf wastage due to deaths, particularly during the first year, and its effect on subsequent production, breeding efficiency, and general health of the heifer or mature cow. The economic aspects of calf rearing are of course important, but they must be considered in conjunction with the above factors. The ideal is to rear the calf at the minimum cost consistent with its healthy growth and development to productive life. Failure to reach this minimum is not the only or even the main cause of poorly reared calves. Lack of appreciation of the points of good calf husbandry may lead to results far below those which could be expected from the amount being spent on milk or other calf feeds. THE potential maximum production of the cow is determined by the qualities inherited by the calf. The actual production is influenced by the way the calf is reared. Experiments have shown a difference of at least 201 b. in the butterfat production of well-grown and poorly grown heifers, and this difference can persist to quite a marked degree in subsequent lactations. Wastage due to death of calves between the ages of 1 week and 1 year is about 6 per cent. Much of this is due to calf scours, which is often nutritional in origin. The digestive system of the calf in common with that of other young animals is easily upset and failure to appreciate this is the cause of much of the trouble experienced in rearing calves. The young calf’s stomach is comparatively small and is designed to deal with only small quantities of milk taken at frequent intervals. To make the desired progress, compared with a calf reared on the cow, the bucket-fed calf would have to take in two feeds daily more than its stomach would be capable of handling. Cow’s milk is formed into a relatively dense curd by the rennet in the stomach of the calf. It is gradually digested, but if any curd remains in the stomach at the next feed of milk, it forms a core for the formation of a

larger, denser curd. Eventually the calf suffers from severe indigestion and scours. Over-feeding must therefore be avoided, especially in the first few weeks. There is no doubt that it is frequently the primary cause of calf scours. First Week Important Whether the newly born calf is allowed to remain with its mother for some time or is removed after a few hours is not of vital importance, provided it is left long enough to obtain a good drink of the mother’s milk. The longer the calf is allowed to remain with the cow the greater the disturbance when it is taken away. Perhaps the best practice is to remove the calf within 12 hours. The young calf must be taught to drink from the bucket and the simplest way of doing this is to leave it without milk for from 12 to 24 hours and then allow it to suck the fingers, which have been immersed in a little milk. Not more than a quart of milk should be fed at the first feed. The mother’s milk or colostrum, as milk from a newly calved cow is called, should be fed for at least the first few days. The colostrum is laxative and provides the calf with vitamin A and the antibodies against certain bacteria which cause diseases of the calf. The vitamin A content of colostrum is from 10 to 100 times that of ordinary milk and has a bearing on the protective mechanism against infectious disease. If for any reason the colostrum is not available, a dose of |oz. (1 tablespoon) of castor oil and |oz. of cod liver oil should be given. Doses of cod liver oil should be continued for 3 or 4 days. Amount to Feed Daily A fundamental principle is that calves must be treated as individuals and fed according to their size and strength. An amount of milk that may be tolerated well by one calf may cause nutritional scours in another. The rate at which calves drink also varies so much that the trough system of feeding, which is still too widely used, can never be satisfactory. About 10 per cent, of the calf’s body-weight is the right amount to feed daily, but this rate should not be reached until toward the end of the first week. Average birth weights of calves of the commoner breeds are Jerseys 551 b., Guernseys 651 b., Ayrshires 701 b., Shorthorns 751 b., and Friesians 851 b. One pint of milk weighs l£lb. A 701 b. calf should receive not more than 5 to 6 pints of milk daily

during the first week. A gradual increase should be made so that at 3 weeks the calf is receiving about 1 gallon per day. Feeding Methods The usual practice is to feed warm milk, but this is not essential and many farmers claim excellent results from feeding milk which is almost cold. It is possible that the calf may benefit from the extra time taken to consume cold milk. However, milk should not be fed when it is too cold and a consistent practice should be adopted. Feeding twice a day is found to be satisfactory if supervised carefully, especially when the calf receives the milk from its mother or from recently calved cows. Any advantages of more frequent feeding are outweighed by practical difficulties. The stage of lactation of the cow from whicn milk is saved for calf feeding is important. The curd formed from the milk of cows which have been milking for some time is denser and more indigestible than that from the milk of recently calved cows and may cause scours. Farmers should endeavour to feed milk from cows in early lactation. When most of the cows calve about the same time feeding of the mixed milk of the herd presents no problem for early calves. For late calves or in town supply herds, however, mixed milk may be unsuitable for young calves. If it is not possible to avoid feeding some milk from cows which are not recently calved, 25 per cent, of water should be added as recommended for rich milk. For convenience in feeding calves it may be necessary to include some colostrum in milk fed to older calves, but it will not be harmful. Calf scours is more likely to occur when the milk is too rich. The practice of adding water to milk with a high butterfat content before it is fed to calves is strongly recommended. It results in a softer and more easily digested curd in the stomach. Approximately 1 pint of water can be added to every gallon of milk for

each 0.5 per cent, in excess of 3.5 per cent, of butterfat. Thus 2 pints of water per gallon would be added to milk with a 4.5 per cent. test. Changing from Whole to Skimmed Milk The length of time whole milk is fed will depend on the strength of the calf and the quality of the whole milk substitute and pasture available. It is false economy to discontinue feeding whole milk too soon, and it is wasteful to continue it beyond the time when a satisfactory growth-rate can be maintained by cheaper feed. For strong, vigorous calves the feeding of whole milk is necessary for the first fortnight, but weak calves should be fed whole milk only for at least 3 weeks. Whatever method of feeding is

adopted the change from whole milk to skimmed milk or other substitute should occupy at least a week, preferably up to 3 weeks. Rearing on Skimmed Milk The only appreciable difference between whole milk and skimmed milk is in the fat content, which in skimmed milk is only about 0.1 per cent. The deficiency must be made up either by providing good pasture or by using cereal meals. It is not necessary to supply both, and provided there is an adequate intake of good pasture as outlined in the section dealing with grazing, there is no advantage in feeding calf meals with skimmed milk. The feeding of vitamin or mineral supplements is usually not necessary under

New Zealand conditions of calf rearing. Where early grazing is not provided meals should be fed and there are a variety which can be used successfully. Meal mixtures may contain varying proportions of barley meal, linseed, pollard, maize meal, pea meal, and meat meal. The meal is best given dry after the milk is fed. The individual system of feeding should be continued with skimmed milk, of which not more than legallons is needed daily. Overfeeding with skimmed milk may cause stomach derangement, unthriftiness, and a pot-bellied condition. As it is not long before the full water requirements of the calf are not met by the daily intake of milk, a good supply of clean water should always be provided. Early Grazing Desirable By the end of the third week rumination has usually begun and grazing can play an increasingly important part in the nourishment of the calf. The earlier calves can be allowed out to graze the better, provided such grazing is on fresh, short, leafy pasture. Even in the first 2 or 3 weeks a rotational system can often be adopted by the subdivision of a spelled calf paddock handy to the shed. The area used for this need not be large. The rotational grazing of young calves ahead of the dairy herd while they are still being fed on milk involves some extra labour, but many may consider that the results obtained justify the effort. There is a widespread lack of appreciation of what is suitable grazing for calves. Calves are very selective grazers. If they are set stocked even in a field carrying plenty of feed, they slowly starve themselves, because they will eat only the closely grazed patches. Fortunately the type of pasture management which provides the calf with the maximum of digestible young grass at the same time gives the greatest degree of control over calf diseases and parasites. When calves are shifted every one or two days the level of food intake is higher and worms are kept under control. Rearing without Skimmed Milk The total amount of whole milk needed to rear a calf when skimmed milk is available is usually about 30 gallons, although it may be less than this if the change to skimmed milk is started at 2 weeks. Whether this amount will need to be increased in the absence of skimmed milk by feeding whole milk over a longer period will depend on the substitute used. A fluid of approximately the same value as skimmed milk can be made by mixing lib. of dried skimmed milk or buttermilk in a small quantity of water and then making it up to 1 gallon with warm water. This can be substituted for whole milk in the same quantities and at the same age as for skimmed milk, but the cost is relatively high. Pure buttermilk also has the same feeding value as skimmed milk, but the factory product may contain varying amounts of added water. The proprietary calf foods available as milk substitutes should be fed strictly according to the makers’ instructions. Alternatives are to increase the total quantity of whole milk fed to about 40 gallons and feed calf meal from the end of the third week as in schedule

B (see below), or to use from 50 to 60 gallons of whole milk only as in schedule C and wean at an early age. Successful weaning at 8 weeks or even earlier is possible. This has been shown by experiments' at the Department of Agriculture’s Animal Research Station, Ruakura.. . Early weaning should be attempted only under the following conditions: — 1. Feed 50 to 60 gallons of whole milk per calf for the first 8 weeks. 2. If a calf is below average size for its age, continue feeding of whole milk for an extra 2 weeks; that is, wean at 10 weeks. 3. If calves are being reared on whole milk and skimmed milk, wean them at 8 weeks; if they are undersized, wean at 10 weeks. 4. Practise early weaning only in association with rotational grazing of good-quality dairy pastures. Rearing on Whey Whey is deficient in both fat and protein. It is very dilute and has about half the feeding value of skimmed milk. Whole milk only should be fed for the first 4 weeks. Because of its high protein content, meat meal is a

suitable supplement to feed with whey. However, it is unpalatable to calves and it will give better results if mixed with a cereal meal such as barley meal in the proportion of 1 part of meat meal to 2 parts of cereal. It may be fed as indicated in schedule D. Greater care must be taken in changing from whole milk to whey, than to skimmed milk, as a sudden change will cause scours. Calves can be reared successfully on whey, but it is more than ever necessary to provide clean, fresh pasture and good, leafy hay. Whey paste is a by-product of milk sugar manufacture which is available in some districts. One pound mixed • with a gallon of warm water has a feeding value almost equal to that of skimmed milk except that it is not as rich in protein. It should be fed with a little whole milk supplemented with meat meal or cereal meals. Calf-feeding Schedules It is not possible to draw up feeding schedules to suit all calves under varying conditions. Those given below must be taken only as a general guide and altered to suit the circumstances.

Weaning Calves are usually weaned from skimmed milk or whey when about 4 months old. They can be weaned at as early as 8 weeks provided ' they are well grown and rotationally grazed on good pasture. The age of weaning must always be considered together with the progress the calf has made and the quality of grazing available. When calves are on good feed and have been trained to eat a little hay the setback at weaning need not be great. Feed hay once a day for a few days and see that the calves have a supply of clean drinking water. In the post-weaning period the emphasis must still be on the quality of feed, as the calf may suffer from insidious starvation on feed which will maintain good condition in adult cattle. This applies particularly to the type of feed calves will get under set stock-

ing and to poor hay. Where an adequate system of controlled grazing is not practised calves should if possible be weaned on to a paddock of saved young grass. Young animals need good, early-cut hay, particularly lucerne or clover hay in which the leaf is still conserved. As semi-drought conditions are not uncommon during February and March in some districts, supplementary feeding may be necessary, and if hay is used, calves should be accustomed to it while still on the bucket. If hay is not good, an allowance of silage will serve to balance requirements. Gradual introduction should be made with any other handfed ration. Worms are a frequent cause of loss after weaning and worm trouble will be at a minimum under a controlled system of grazing when calves are shifted every one or two days ahead of the cows. Experience at Ruakura has shown that under this system

drenching can usually be dispensed with. Under other conditions it may be necessary to treat calves every 3 weeks after weaning. Spelling pastures for as little as 3 weeks will materially assist in reducing the worm population. Calf Bails and Houses Individual feeding of calves is necessary to ensure that each calf receives its proper share of milk or supplement and the only practical metnod is by use of calf bails. The use of bails educates the young animals for the milking shea, and more important, calves can be held for several minutes after feeding and so prevented from sucking each other. Combined feeding bails and houses can be built to elaborate plans, but such layouts are seldom necessary. Calves will benefit from being put out to graze as soon as possible away from pens and calf paddocks, which may carry infection. However, it is imperative to give young calves protection from cold winds and bad weather, and for this purpose a simple, open-fronted shed for shelter may be provided apart from the bail structure. However elaborate the building may be it is most essential that to maintain freedom from digestive disorders and infectious diseases yards and sheds should be kept clean and tidy. The shed should face north to admit sunlight and have the front closed with half doors only. Close conditions leading to a stuffy atmosphere in the calf house are not conducive to good health. The shed should have sufficient subdivision to enable very young calves to be kept separate. A shed 12ft. 6in. by 9ft. would accommodate 12 calves; the height need not be more than 6ft. 6in. in front. The floor should be of concrete or other suitable material to allow thorough cleaning and drainage. A design for a simple set of feeding bails with concrete yard for 10 calves is shown on this page and it can be modified or extended to suit requirements. Diseases of Calves Calf Scours Calf scours is the most frequent cause of calf losses and is responsible for about half the deaths in the first month and one-third of those in the first year. For convenience the condition can be divided into three main types according to the primary cause: — 1. Nutritional scours. 2. Infectious scours. 3. Scours due to worm parasites. The first two types occur mainly in the first 3 months of the calf’s life. Worms as a cause of scours are important only in older calves. In some districts scours in older calves may also be caused by copper deficiency. No hard and fast division can be made between nutritional and infectious scours except in the primary cause. Many cases of calf scours begin with faulty feeding, and the development of bowel infection is secondary. Nutritional scours: All young animals have a delicate . digestive system, any disturbance of . which is usually followed by diarrhoea or scours. As the calf is removed from its mother very early in life and artificially fed, it is not surprising that it is one of the most susceptible of all

young animals on the farm to digestive upsets and bowel infection. Over-feeding is the commonest cause of nutritional scours in young calves. It is better to allow calves to develop more slowly than' to risk increasing the amount of milk beyond their capacity to digest it in two feeds daily, The risk of indigestion is also increased if the milk is too rich. Strict rationing of milk or milk substitute and the dilution with water of whole milk with a fat content of over 3.5 per cent, are therefore the two most important factors in the prevention of dietetic scours. Also of importance is the maintenance of clean, tidy surroundings to prevent calves developing indigestion caused by chewing straw, bits of string or wood, or other foreign objects. Three pints of whole milk fed twice daily may seem a small amount to give a Jersey calf in the first week or 10 days, but this amount must not be exceeded where there is trouble with scours at this stage. The need to feed colostrum followed as far as possible by the milk of recently calved cows has already been emphasised. Special care is needed with calves which have been bought for rearing . and transported to new quarters. It is then wise at the first feed to allow only 3 to 4 pints of water to which sugar or glucose may be added and at the second feed 2 to 3 pints of milk diluted with an equal quantity of water. A t,, + to simple treatment in the early stages The esslnhans to remove as much asfpJSibSjo? the “JgkdrtS and allow the stomach time to recover. A dose of castor oil as recommended in the summary of treatment should be given. Milk should be withheld for 24 hours, only boiled water being given during that period; the calf should be fed only a restricted quantity of milk diluted with equal parts of water, the strength being increased gradually as recovery takes place. More-persistent cases may need treatment with sulphonamide or other drugs which are effective "gainst the secondary infection.

Infectious scours: If it is clear that the feeding is not at fault, infection J?ay be the primary cause of trouble, There are two mam types of infections causing calf scours—bacterial infections and coccidiosis, which is due to a protozoan parasite. Coccidiosis is a frequent cause of scours, especially in calves 3 weeks to 3 months old. Scours are sometimes described from the nature of the faeces passed. Thus m white scours there is a whitish, creamy, or yellow diarrhoea, and this type is most common in the first fortnight. Blood scours, in which the faeces may contain clots of fresh blood and also mucus, is an indication of an acute and severe infection which has caused bleeding from the wall of the bowel. It is particularly common in coccidiosis. In certain stages of their development the coccidia penetrate the wall of the intestine and cause severe damage. Severe infections of both types may cause death in from 2 to 7 days or calves may reach a more chronic stage., which is associated with toss of condition and general unthriftiness. Preventive measures must include a thorough clean up and disinfection of infected premises and feeding utensils an d the isolation of infected calves. If calves are confined to small paddocks, arrangements should if possible be made to give them greater scope on clean pastures with frequent shifting, m , , „ , , . , . . Treatment for bacterial infections or coccidiosis should be the same as recommended for nutritional scours with the additional use of sulphonamide - or 9 ther ugs as - Prescribed by a veterinarian. Diagnosis of coccidiosis t examination of faecal „ p ' „ , ■ ~ Scours due to worm parasites: Worms are not usually a cause, of serious trouble until after weaning, They are particularly likely to cause losses m the first autumn and winter, The symptoms apart from scouring ( wlc .h 1S usually present) are unthriftiness, gradual loss of condition, and anaemia. Preventive measures and treatment are the same for all the usual types of stomach and intestinal worms, Under favourable conditions the worm

eggs hatch out within 24 hours, but the larvae do not reach an infective stage for 5 or 6 days. Some may persist on the pastures for many months, but most die within 3 weeks after reaching the infective stage, so that spelling paddocks for even a short time helps to reduce the worm population. Therefore the system of grazing management has a most important bearing on worm infestation. The worm population on the pasture is reduced by an adequate system of controlled grazing. At the same time the extra thriftiness of the’ calves under these conditions increases their resistance to infestation and may make drenching unnecessary. About 14 separate paddocks are needed for best results and to allow shifting of the calves every one or two days ahead of the cows. Under less favourable conditions drenching should begin at weaning time and if necessary be repeated every 3 weeks. Particular care is needed when a mass hatching of worm eggs is caused by rain after a dry period in autumn. Calves should be drenched 3 weeks after the wet period began. Probably the most effective worm medicine is phenothiazine. In a few instances calves after drenching with phenothiazine have developed an inflammatory condition of the eyes when exposed to sunlight, but these cases occur too seldom to be viewed seriously. Any ill effect may be avoided if calves are kept under observation on the day after drenching and at any sign of weeping are put into a shed out of the light for the remainder of that day. Any risk should then be past. The bluestone-nicotine sulphate mixture or bluestone alone is also a useful worm drench and may be more effective than phenothiazine against certain types of worms. Both may be used alternatively with phenothiazine. Summary of Prevention and Treatment of Calf Scours 1. Feed colostrum for the first few days and then milk from recently calved cows. . 2. Avoid over-feeding, especially in the first fortnight.

3. Feed according to the size and strength of the calf and in individual buckets. 4. Keep feeding utensils clean and surroundings clean and tidy. 5. Add water to the milk at the rate of 1 pint per gallon for each 0.5 per cent, in excess of 3.5 per cent, of butterfat. 6. Feed twice daily at regular intervals. 7. Make changes gradually. 8. Put calves under a rotational grazing system as soon as practicable. 9. If young calves develop scours, treat them with castor oil (dose, loz. the first week, l|oz. the second week, and 2oz. the third week). Allow only water for the next 24 hours, then half milk and half water until recovery is complete. Treat infectious scours due to bacteria or coccidiosis with sulphonamide drugs, particularly sulphamezathine, as prescribed by a veterinarian. 10. Increase resistance of older calves to worms by adequate feeding after weaning and rotational grazing. 11. Treat calves for worms with phenothiazine or bluestone-nicotine sulphate mixture every 3 weeks after weaning when necessary. Lungworm Lungworm is not common in New Zeaianu. and probably occurs most often in calves under 6 months old. It is much less widely distributed than stomach and intestinal parasites. The free larval forms are less . resistant to dry conditions. The symptoms are periodic attacks of severe and distressing coughing, which weaken the calf and interfere with feeding and rest. On post-mortem examination the cotton-thread-like worms are easily seen in the smaller branches of the windpipe, and areas of the lung may be solid.

The life cycle of the lungworm is similar to that of stomach and intestinal worms, and the system of management recommended to reduce the incidence of these will also prevent lungworm. The treatment for stomach and intestinal worms will also increase resistance against lungworm, as will good nutrition. Medicinal treatments aimed at killing lungworms are generally not effective. Redwater Redwater may be responsible for fairly sudden deaths of calves, usually animals under 6 months old. It may occur in young calves still on milk alone, but more frequently calves 1 to 3 months old are affected. Redwater in calves has now been identified as an infectious disease caused by an organism known as Leptospira pomona and the disease is known as leptospirosis. The condition starts as a fever, the calf showing depression and rapid breathing, and going off its feed suddenly. The urine becomes dark red and this may be the first symptom noticed. Affected calves develop anaemia and jaundice as indicated by a pale or yellow discoloration of the lining of the eyelids. The onset is sudden and the death-rate is high. Death may occur a few hours up to several days after symptoms are first noticed. Calves which recover may show continued unthriftiness over a long period. The infective organisms are passed in the urine, and if calves are not treated, they may be present for several months in the urine of calves which recover. These carriers are a source of infection to other calves. In an outbreak it is important to notice the early symptoms—fever, depression, and loss of appetite—and give treatment before there is any change in the urine. The change of

the urine to dark red usually develops in from 24 to 48 hours after the rise in temperature. Treatment in the later stages is much less effective. The normal temperature is about 101 to 102 degrees F. In affected calves the temperature rises to 104 to 107 degrees. In an outbreak it is simple to take the temperature of each calf by inserting a clinical thermometer in the rectum. Treatment should be given at the first sign of a rise in temperature. Treatment with the antibiotic drugs such as penicillin, streptomycin, and aureomycin is effective at this stage. The treatment may be applied by the farmer, but first must be prescribed by a veterinarian. Redwater should be treated as a contagious disease and affected calves isolated. If it occurs in young calves, pens and feeding utensils should be disinfected. Calf buckets may be disinfected in the manner usually employed for dairy utensils, that is, by washing first in warm water, then in boiling water plus caustic soda (1 teaspoon to 4 gallons of water), and finally dipping in boiling water. Older calves should be removed to clean pasture. Pigs may be carriers of the leptospira germ. They should never be allowed to associate with calves nor should there be any drainage from pig premises into calf paddocks. Leptospirosis is transmissible to human beings and in outbreaks of redwater in calves care should be taken to avoid infection. The symptoms in humans are similar to influenza, there being sudden onset of malaise, fever, and severe headaches and muscular pains. Occasionally slight jaundice and very dark urine are observed. These symptoms may persist for several days and should be reported to a doctor. Washing the hands immediately after handling infected calves will remove the risk of infection. As the germ is present in

the bloodstream of calves in the early stages, farmers should not skin, or conduct post-mortem examinations on, calves which die of redwater. Carcasses should be buried or burnt. Apart from infection by mouth germs may penetrate through cuts in the hands, and there is evidence that they may even penetrate unbroken skin. Calf Pneumonia \ Cattle of all ages may be affected with pneumonia, but calves between the ages of 3 weeks and 4 months are particularly susceptible. Usually the organisms which are responsible normally inhabit the respiratory tract. There are three main predisposing causes: — 1. Exposure to cold: This is probably the commonest cause. Calves are sometimes tethered in a cold paddock, between buildings, or under trees where they are exposed to cold draughts with no provision for shelter. As a result their resistance to disease is lowered. 2. Overcrowding and bad hygiene: These are important factors where calves are housed or kept in pens. 3. Pneumonia frequently occurs in association with calf scours: It is then usually a secondary complication. . A calf affected with pneumonia is first noticed to be depressed and off its feed, breathing rather rapidly, and having a thick mucous discharge from the nostrils. The temperature is raised and a cough soon develops. Calves which recover may remain stunted and unthrifty. The death-rate from pneumonia is higher in younger calves. Affected calves should be isolated and placed in a warm, dry shed free from draughts but with adequate ventilation. If calves are treated in the early stages, good results can be obtained. One of the most efficient drugs is sulphamezathine, for which a veterinary prescription is needed. Calf Diphtheria Calf diphtheria, which has no connection with the human disease, is not common in New Zealand. It is caused by an infection of the mouth and throat by a specific organism called Fusiformis necrophorus. It is more likely to occur under dirty conditions, especially if calves are housed in closed sheds without adequate sunlight or ventilation. It may affect calves from a few days old up to 4 months, but very rarely older calves. Usually the first sign is some dribbling from the mouth and the calf’s refusal of food. Swallowing movements may be noticed and sometimes there is a swelling of the cheek or throat. During examination of the mouth an offensive smell can be noticed. Greyish yellow necrotic ulcers are present, either inside the cheek, on the tongue, or occasionally further back in the throat. Young calves may die in from 3 to 5 days; older calves may survive several weeks and eventually die of pneumonia. Mild cases sometimes recover spontaneously. Affected calves should be isolated. The ulcers may be swabbed with Lugol’s iodine solution, but the most effective treatment is the administration of one of the sulphonamide drugs. Blackleg So far blackleg in calves is confined to Taranaki and Auckland -Provinces.

The causal germ is present in the soil. Calves may be seen lame, but more often are found dead. Just after death there may be a definite gas-distended swelling of muscle tissue of the hindquarter or shoulder region, though general swelling up of the body occurs fairly soon. Preventive vaccination is carried out in infected areas. Ringworm Ringworm is very common in calves. It frequently disappears spontaneously in 3 or 4 months, but it may become serious, especially if the calves are undernourished. The most common sites of infection are the face, eyelids, head, and neck. Sometimes it occurs on the body, but rarely on the legs. The lesions are circular, flat, scaly elevations which vary in size and may eventually run together over a large area. It is caused by fungi of various species. As it can be communicated to human beings, hands should be thoroughly washed after affected calves have been handled. There are many effective treatments, but one of the best is to scrub in tincture of iodine thoroughly twice daily. If infection is more extensive, a 5 per cent, solution of bluestone may be scrubbed into the patches. Lice Calves are frequently affected with lice of either the biting or sucking type. Both types are permanent parasites living continuously in all their stages on cattle and are not able to survive for more than a few days if removed from their hosts. The lice of other farm animals or poultry do not infest calves.. Lice infestation varies with the seasons, being worst during winter and early spring. Infested calves show intense itch and

there is constant rubbing and scratching. In the search for lice on lightly affected animals particular attention should be paid to the head, along the back and base of the tail, and inside the thigh. The infestation is influenced by the condition of the calf and although lice may be found on animals in good condition, they tend to be worse on unthrifty calves. Insecticides containing benzene hexachloride (8.H.C.) are the most suitable .for controlling lice in calves, as they are non-poisonous and effective. Dipping is the best method of application, but spraying or dusting with the powder form is satisfactory if done thoroughly. The residual effect of B.H.C. , is usually sufficient to kill any lice which hatch out after treatment and a second treatment a fortnight later may not be necessary. Tuberculosis Contrary .to what is often believed, calves are very rarely born with tuberculosis, nor is there any hereditary tendency toward the disease. They are, however, very susceptible to infection from the milk of infected cows or by grazing with infected adult cattle. Even one advanced case of tuberculosis in a herd is sufficient to lead to rapid snread of the disease to young stock. Calves should never be fed milk from cows about which there is any suspicion of tuberculosis and all such suspicious cases ' should be reported immediately. Vaccination against Contagious Abortion Calves are vaccinated against contagious abortion after the age of 4 months. If vaccinated earlier, they may not develop satisfactory

immunity. They may be vaccinated at any age after 4 months provided they are. not in calf at the time. The vaccination of all calves is strongly recommended even when there is no contagious abortion in the herd, as the introduction of infection into a herd where no vaccination has been done will result in heavy losses during the first year. Still more satisfactory reduction in the incidence of contagious abortion could be made if all owners of calves would have them vaccinated. Lead Poisoning The usual cause of lead poisoning of calves, which is fairly common, is the licking and swallowing of lead paint. Although freshly painted objects and discarded paint tins are the obvious sources, poisoning frequently results from calves chewing objects on which the paint is old and obscured by dirt or whitewash. The source of lead can easily be overlooked. In many cases where analysis has proved the existence of lead poisoning prolonged search has been necessary to discover the origin of the poison. Other possible sources of lead are old car batteries, orchards which have recently been sprayed with lead arsenate, arsenical weedkillers, foot-rot baths, or dips. Calves suffering from lead poisoning generally die quickly, but excitement, staggering, grinding of the teeth, and salivation are symptoms which may be noticed. There is abdominal pain and blindness and frequently severe constipation. Diagnosis can be confirmed only by laboratory analysis. For this purpose lib. of liver and lib. of fourthstomach contents, both specimens unpreserved, are required. The most effective antidote is Epsom-salt, 2 to 4oz. in water, followed by a pint of medicinal paraffin. The calf may be allowed a liberal diet of milk.

Copper Deficiency Copper deficiency may be the cause of scours and unthriftiness in some areas. New Zealand has not been surveyed completely for copper deficiency, but it occurs particularly on reclaimed swamps or peaty soils, on some pumice soils, and on peat and pumice mixtures. Scouring has been reported in calves shortly after they begin to eat grass, but it is at its worst during the winter and spring when the animals reach yearling stage. Calves on copper-deficient , country do not thrive or fill out and are more liable to parasitic and other infections. Usually a diagnosis may be made from the symptoms already described and from the fact that dosing calves with a bluestone (copper sulphate) solution results in improvement. Calves should be given 1 pint of the solution (made by dissolving loz. of bluestone in 1 gallon of water) at 2-day intervals for 10 days. Veterinarians or Livestock Instructors of the Department of Agriculture should also be consulted so that arrangements can be made for pasture analysis and blood or liver assessments. Other methods of countering copper deficiency are to add bluestone to stock drinking water, by supplying bluestone licks, or by topdressing with bluestone or copperised superphosphate. Cobalt Deficiency Loss of appetite, depraved appetite, progressive loss of condition, and sometimes scouring are symptoms of cobalt

deficiency. Anaemia may appear at a later stage. Cattle are less susceptible than sheep and if weaned lambs thrive on a property, the cause of unthriftiness in calves on the same property will not be cobalt deficiency. Unweaned calves are sometimes affected, but the condition seldom appears in its acute form until after weaning. Cobalt deficiency may be diagnosed by dosing calves with 5 fl. oz. of a dilute cobalt sulphate solution twice weekly for 5 weeks, when they should show marked improvement if cobalt deficiency has been the trouble. The procedure for making the solution is as follows: Make a concentrated solution by dissolving loz. of cobalt sulphate in 1 pint of water; add 1 fl. oz. of the concentrated solution to 1 gallon of water. This solution is used for drenching as already described. Veterinarians or Livestock Instructors of the Department of Agriculture should be consulted so that arrangements can be made for diagnosis by other methods and advice received about topdressing with cobaltised fertiliser or the use of cobaltised licks. Dehorning Horns add nothing to the value of cattle for the purposes for which they are kept on New Zealand farms; on the other hand, they cause damage and indirectly are responsible for loss of production in milking herds. The disbudding of young calves by any of the recognised methods is the most satisfactory and humane way of preventing horn growth. If all calves were treated in this way, much trouble would be saved later. Calves should be treated before they are 3 days old and there are two methods in common use. The horn buds can easily be felt and the hair round them should be clipped off. 1. The cautery or debudding iron is ideal. It consists of an electrically heated copper instrument of the shape shown in the diagram on this page or a fire-heated iron of the same shape. The iron should be heated to a cherry red and applied over the horn bud and moved back and forth until a copper-coloured ring of tissue shows right round the horn bud. This destroys the circulation of the developing horn and the bud eventually drops off. There is no wound, no infection, a poll of pleasing appearance, and, most essential, no horn growth. 2. Chemicals: Caustic soda or caustic potash are chemicals commonly used for destroying horn buds. A ring of petroleum jelly is smeared round the bud. The moistened caustic stick is then applied to the bud until the skin is red, but not more than slight bleeding should be caused. Calves must be protected from rain for some days, as rain will carry the caustic down the cheeks or into the eyes, causing irritation and sometimes blindness. Another chemical which may be used when calves are from 1 day to 14 days old is a flexible paint made of antimony trichloride (28 per cent.), salicylic acid (7 per cent.), and flexible collodion (65 per cent.). The hair round the bud is clipped, the horn bud cleaned with methylated spirit, and the paint brushed on and allowed to harden. If the paint is used on an animal more than a week old, the tip of the horn bud should be cut off before the paint is applied.

Plan and Elevation of Calf-feeding Bails

DIMENSIONS Yard: 6ft. x 12ft. 6in., concreted, including I ft. in front of the bails, 4in. thick. Bails in front for 10 calves. Fenced on three sides with three 4in. x 2in. rails to a height of 3ft. 6in. above ground level or 3ft. 3in. above the concrete. Access by gate at back. Bails: Top and bottom made with double lengths of 3in. x I in. timber, 2in. apart to take control sticks and supports, which are of 2in. x 2in. hardwood fencing battens. Width per calf about Isin.

MATERIALS. Bails: 4 pieces of timber 13ft. 6in. x 3in. x I in.; I post 4in. x 2in.; 8 battens 2ft. 7in. x 2in. x 2in.; 10 battens 3ft. 3in. x 2in. x 2in. for control sticks; 4 blocks 6in. x 3in. x 2in.; 10 |in. bolts and nuts for bottoms of control sticks; 10 fin. bolts to peg control sticks. Yard: 6 posts sft. 6in. x 6in. x 6in.; 6 pieces sft. x 4in. x 2in. for sides; 3 pieces 9ft. x 4in. x 2in. for back. Gate: 12ft. of 4in. x 2in. and 12ft. of 4in. x l|in. timber. Concrete: About 20 cub. ft.

1 A A | B B c c D D Liveweight lb. Age weeks Whole milk pints per day Skimmed milk pints per day Whole milk pints per day Meal oz. per day Whole milk pints per day Whole milk pints per day Whey pints per day Meal oz. per day 70 0-1 6 6 6 6 80 1-2 7 7 7 7 90 2-3 8 8 8 8 100 3-4 6 3 7 4 9 9 4-5 5 5 6 4 10 8 4 9 5-6 4 7 5 8 11 7 6 4 6-7 12 4 8 8 6 8 . 6 7-8 13 3 16 4 12 8 8-9 14 2 16 wean 14 •12 9-10 15 24 16 14 03 10-14 16 32 20 - 16 14-16 8 16 16 12 16-18 4 8 12 8 z 18 18 wean wean wean wean wean wean wean wean