FARMING IN NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 81, Issue 3, 15 September 1950, Page 209

FARMING IN NEW ZEALAND

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WITH its relatively low rainfall, sunny climate, and large proportion of fertile hill country the Gisborne-East Cape district is particularly suited to sheep farming; in fact it is dominantly sheepfarming country and overseas visitors describe the area as some of the finest sheep country in the world. The Gisborne Land District includes the counties of Opotiki, Matakaoa, Waiapu, Uawa, Cook, and Waikohu, but as Opotiki County geographically comes within the Bay of Plenty district, the following article by A A. Duncan Instructor in Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Wanganui, and formerly Instructor in Agriculture, Gisborne, excludes Opotiki County and therefore does not embrace the whole of the Gisborne Land District

THE Gisborne-East Cape district is A an extensive pastoral farming area on surface-sown hill country. It supports 5 to 6 per cent, of the Dominion’s breeding ewes and has an average carrying capacity of 4/5 breeding ewe and 1/5 cattle beast per acre of sown grass. Large consignments of sheep leave the district annually for all parts of the North Island, particularly the Waikato and Bay of Plenty, where they are in keen demand. Large holdings were originally taken up by a few early settlers, and the land when cleared of bush proved fertile, healthy, and productive and gave the owners a good standard of living. The wealth and large tracts of the Gisborne sheep stations became well known all over the Dominion and some glamour became associated with east coast run holding; life on east coast sheep stations was regarded as the most desirable farming existence. The district has one of the highest proportions of Maoris to Europeans in New Zealand, approximately 47 per cent, of the rural population being Maoris, many of whom are engaged in farming. They are playing an increasingly important part in agriculture in

that where it is financially possible they are taking over the farming of Maori land previously leased to Europeans. The district lends itself to all phases of primary production and it is expected that there will be a greater diversification of farming in the future. History of the District On October 7, 1769, Captain Cook sailed the Endeavour into the deep waters of a bay (which he later named Poverty Bay) and 2 days later sent a party ashore for food and water, but they met with a hostile reception and withdrew without the much-needed supplies. Cook then sailed for Tolaga Bay, where supplies were obtained and some trading was begun. In his journal Cook wrote: — The land on the sea coast Is high with steep cliffs and back inland are very high mountains. The valleys and sides of the hills are luxuriously clothed with woods and verdure and little plantations of the natives dispersed up and down the country. The soil of both the hills and valleys is light and sandy and very proper for the producing of all roots. The district’s trade began in the 1830’s when Australian ships loaded Phormium (flax), pork, potatoes, and

whale oil. At this time flax was grown fairly extensively in the Tolaga Bay district. In the 1850’s shipments of wheat were made to Auckland and Australia. Pioneer Settlers Captain J. W. Harris, who arrived in May, 1831, was the first permanent resident. He established trading posts and grazed cattle and horses and later sheep. Captain G. S. Read, who settled at Tauranganui in 1852, became a leading merchant, ship owner, and financier, even to the extent of issuing his own bank notes, and was known as the “King of Poverty Bay.” In the 1860’s progress was halted because of strife with the Maoris; the Hauhaus were defeated at Waerenga-a-hika in 1865 and in 1869 the Te Kooti massacre at Matawhero occurred. The Gisborne military post and trading station was established in 1870, the population of the township then being 400 to 500. In the same year the town was surveyed, farm areas began to open up, and settlement began in earnest. In 1875 Gisborne was brought into contact with outside districts by the completion of the telegraph line to Napier, and by 1886 its population had grown to 2300. Refrigeration was the spur to progress; in 1889 the first freezing works was erected by Nelson Brothers on the Taruheru River, 3 miles north-west of Gisborne. (The works was later closed down and Nelson Brothers renewed operations at Waipaoa on the Waipaoa River in 1916.) The Kaiti works, promoted by Gisborne sheep farmers, was opened in 1897, confidence in the frozen-meat industry was established, and storesheep values doubled. Wethers which before 1897 sold at 6s. 6d. now realised

Heading photograph by “The Weekly News”.

FARMING IN THE GISBORNE-EAST CAPE DISTRICT

13s. 6d. The Tokomaru Bay works was opened in 1910 and in 1920 a freezing works at Hicks Bay began operations, but the latter works and that at Waipaoa subsequently ceased operating. In 1901 the Kia Ora dairy factory was established at Makaraka. The production of frozen meat and wool increased year by year as can be gauged from the following production figures.

Extensive bush felling was done between 1886 and 1925, thousands of acres of heavy bush being cleared and burnt and the land sown down to pasture and stocked with sheep. Timber milling was a major activity from 1870 to 1930. Milling was started first in the Makauri-Ormond district in 1870 and 50,000 superficial feet a month of white pine was cut and sent to Auckland and Australia. In 1902 the first railway, between Gisborne and Ormond, was opened to z cope with the transport of timber to Gisborne harbour. The centre of timber production, mainly of rimu and matai, gradually moved inland through Waipaoa, Puha, Rakauroa, and Matawai to Motu, and the railway trailed behind it. In the early 1930’s timber milling was at a peak in the Matawai-Motu districts, with an annual production of 6,000,000 superficial feet. Maori Land The East Coast Native Trust Land Board was formed in 1902 to administer approximately 390,000 acres of native land which at that time was heavily encumbered. After selling some land and liquidating the debt to

the bank the board was abolished in 1906 and the remaining land vested in a single trustee, known as the East Coast Commissioner, who was given power to farm the land. Until recently he controlled approximately 230,000 acres, but 110,000 acres comprising the Mangatu block has now passed to the control of the Maori owners. Search for Oil The formation of the hill country suggests the presence of oil, and many unsuccessful attempts were made to locate it from 1875 to 1939. Perhaps the most spectacular incident was in 1887 when at a depth of 1850 ft. in the Ngatapa district there was a blow-out of oil and gas, which became ignited and burnt down the plant. • Transport and Power Difficulties The railway to Napier, which was completed in 1942, has been valuable to the district, especially to the southern portion. Until 1943 there was very little cash cropping, except of maize and ryegrass seed; almost all farm revenue came from grazing animals. Since 1943 there has been a marked increase in the area of cash crops grown and at present the plough is claiming more and more ground. Of the many problems faced in the development of the Gisborne-East Cape district the/chief have been difficulty of access and lack of electrical power. The encircling hills were expensive and difficult to road because supplies of good metal were very scattered and large slips . were frequent. Sea communication was handicapped by absence of good natural harbours. As the flow of rivers in the district falls to a trickle in summer, they are not suitable for the generation of electrical power. Gisborne is supplied from Lake Waikaremoana, but areas further than 25 miles north of Gisborne have not been reticulated. These factors account also for the lack of industrial activity in the area.

Topography and Climate The district stretches from the Wharerata hills in the south to Cape Runaway in the north, an area of 2,000,000 acres, of which approximately If million are occupied. The Raukumara Ranges form a distinct western boundary, the highest peak in the range being Mt. Hikurangi (5606 ft. The sea forms the eastern boundary and numerous small bays dot the coastline. The expanding and prosperous town ,of Gisborne, which has a population of 17,000, is the only sizable town in the area. The most important townships are Matawai, Te Karaka, Tolaga Bay, Tokomaru Bay, ' Ruatoria, and Te Araroa. . Gisborne is almost the sole distributing centre and its harbour and railway terminal take most of the produce from the district, the only exceptions being wool from a proportion of Uawa County shipped from Tolaga Bay and frozen mutton and wool from Matakaoa and Waiapu Counties shipped from Tokomaru Bay. The area includes a large tract of fairly steep hill country and there is comparatively little flat land. The Waipaoa, the main river of the district, has overflowed its banks three times in the last 15 years and caused much damage to crops, pasture land, and houses on the Gisborne flats. In the 1948 flood 20,000 head of stock were lost. The annual rainfall varies from approximately 45in. on the coastal areas; to over 60in. on the higher inland country. It is not well distributed, over the year and usually there is excess rainfall in winter and spring and often drought conditions in. summer. The low rainfall in summer and consequent dry conditions are accentuated by the dry westerly, the prevailing wind. Most of the heavy rain associated with flooding comes from cyclonic disturbances, and falls of up to 4|in. in 24 hours .in such

FARMING IN GISBORNE-EAST CAPE DISTRICT

periods are not uncommon. With such distribution and intensity of rainfall it is understandable why erosion is so widespread in the district. The rainbearing southerly is usually cold in winter and spring and is often the cause of mortality in newly born lambs. Although frosts are experienced, on the coastal areas they are relatively light compared with those in most other parts of New Zealand. Occasional late frosts in October damage tomato, maize, and potato crops. Infrequent falls of snow occur on the high country, but lie only for a few days. In some years quite heavy summer hail storms occur and do considerable damage to stone-fruit crops. Soils The soils of the Gisborne-East Cape district are classified into four groups. 1. Skeletal yellow-brown earths: These soils, which are derived from mudstone and papa, occur on the steep country. There are patches of greywacke and sandstone throughout the papa-country belt, the greatest single area being in Matakaoa County. The soils derived from greywacke and sandstone formations have not the fertility of the papa country, and under

the high rainfall of Matakaoa County pastures quickly revert to secondary growth. Papa and mudstone, being sedimentary rocks with a high lime content, crumble down to a fine, “sweet” soil which maintains a productive sward of grass. Because of the steepness of the country there is in effect a thin layer of weathered papa (the topsoil) overlying papa rock (the subsoil). There is a continual movement of weathered papa from the top to the bottom of slopes and this acts as a fertiliser of new soils and helps to maintain pasture in first-class condition. Thus papa country usually makes good grazing land, but unfortunately this is not always so, as at high elevations and under high rainfall, secondary growth comes in very strongly. Papa rock is very subject to erosion, and much serious slipping and gullying takes place. To farm successfully country on which erosion is fairly severe an increasing amount of attention must be given to preventive methods such as space planting of trees, erection of debris dams, and the maintenance of a good grass cover. Minor surface slips are of no moment, because they regrass and heal over quickly. The water supply of the country runs out fairly quickly in dry summers and measures have to be taken to ensure its preservation; such measures include the construction of concrete dams across creek beds and the excavation of natural hollows with bulldozers to form large pondage areas. At present only a very small part of the papa country is topdressed with superphosphate. Lime and potash are not required, but good responses are obtained with superphosphate applied at the rate of 2cwt. per acre. 2. Yellow-brown earths: The yellowbrown earths occur as a block of rolling to moderately steep hill country occupying approximately 60,000 acres in Waiapu County. The soil is friable, crumbly, and free draining and is yellowish brown, due to a high iron content. The soils have been formed through the weathering of the mudstone and argillite and originally were in heavy bush. Since being cleared much of the easier country has gone back into manuka. The rainfall is high over the area, about 80in., and this coupled with the free-draining nature of the soil results in fairly high loss of plant nutrients to the drainage water. Responses are obtained from the use of lime, potash, and phosphate, though the response to the last is much more marked than that to lime and potash, and it is the only fertiliser considered economic in the area. The easy manuka country can be brought into useful production by clearing it and sowing down with an initial dressing of 3cwt. per acre of superphosphate followed by dressings of 2cwt. per annum. 3. Yellow-brown pumice soils and yellow-brown loams: These soils have been formed from the Gisborne and Taupo ash showers, the pumice from the Gisborne shower being generally much coarser than that of the Taupo shower. In the main they cover rolling hill country with an easy gradient and occur in the Motu, Matawai, Waerenga-a-hika, Rere, Tiniroto, and Wharerata districts. In the natural state the land was of very low fertility with manuka occupying the hill slopes

and rushes and fern the flatter portions. The pumice is for the most part very free draining. Where waterlogging occurs areas can be drained successfully with open drains or manuka fascines. Mole drainage is not satisfactory as nowhere in the profile is there a band of clay to hold moles successfully. The low natural fertility is accounted for by the extreme lack of phosphate, but when the country is cleared and sown down with Certified seed and an initial dressing of 4cwt. per acre of superphosphate followed by annual dressings of 2cwt. an excellent transformation takes place. It then becomes good fat-lamb country. The trace element cobalt is lacking and to prevent bush sickness cobalt is applied in the form of cobaltised superphosphate. Dressings of J ton and 1 ton of lime per acre give a moderate response, but in most cases the cost is too high. 4. Recent soils from alluvium: These are the soils of the river flats and aggregate 110,000 acres. The biggest single area is the Gisborne flats, built up by the Waipaoa River and covering 52,000 acres. Other important areas are the Tolaga Bay and Ruatoria flats, built up by the Uawa and Waiapu Rivers respectively. The soils of the Gisborne flats are of high fertility and free draining and in places the alluvial soil is 25ft. deep. The flats have almost unlimited cropping power and crops of maize have been grown for 20 years on the same ground without fertiliser of any kind and in the final year have given yields above the Dominion average for the crop. The ground, except the heavily silted land, which pugs if attempts are made to work it while wet, is easy to cultivate. The portion of the flats liable to flooding (in 1948 most of them were flooded) does not require lime, as the silt from the Waipaoa River is rich in lime and is in fact equivalent to a dressing of a poor-grade limestone. The potash content of the soil is par-

SOILS OF GISBORNE-EAST CAPE DISTRICT

ticularly high and the phosphate content high; thus for grassland farming there is no need to topdress. The area stretching from Makaraka through Gisborne to Wainui has been formed through the interaction of river silt and raised beaches and pumice from the Gisborne ash shower. The soil is of a very free-draining structure and ideal for winter gardening provided green manuring is practised. The terrace soils at Puha and Whatatutu are much lighter than the river flats and have only limited cropping power. They dry out quickly in summer, but remain in a good friable condition throughout winter. Responses are obtained by the use of superphosphate or lime. The Tolaga Bay flats have a black loam over a clay subsoil; generally, deep ploughing reveals the clay subsoil. Much of the land is low lying and not free draining and is waterlogged or partially so during winter and spring. Lime used in conjunction with drainage brings about a marked improvement. The Ruatoria flats and the flats around Te Araroa are built up of shale and greywacke from the surrounding and inland hills. Gravel and larger stones are apparent and the soil has little organic matter and little depth of fine material. It is not of high fertility, dries out rapidly, and can be used only for very intermittent cropping. The soil is deficient in both lime and phosphate and when both are used in conjunction reasonably good responses are obtained. Land Utilisation Of the occupied area of 1,760,000 acres 83 per cent, or 1,470,000 acres are in grass. This area and some in scrub ana second growth are utilised mainly as grazing for the district’s 2,000,000 sheep and 319,000 cattle. Supplement-

ary fodder crops are not grown extensively, but on the flat areas, particularly around Gisborne, maize is an important crop and 50 per cent, of the Dominion’s acreage in maize for threshing is grown in this area. Around Gisborne increasingly large areas are being ■ devoted to market garden crops and in 1948 the area had reached 439 acres compared with 60 acres in 1920. Trends in Production Though sheep numbers for the whole district decreased from 2,118,000 in 1920 to 2,069,000 in 1948, the position is masked by the improvement which has taken place on the flats and by the increase in the number of cattle carried. In Cook County, for instance, total sheep increased from 636,000 to 696,000 in the period, this being due largely to the expansion of fat-lamb production on the Poverty Bay flats. The position generally is one of declining sheep numbers on the hill country and increasing numbers on the flat areas. Cattle numbers, excluding dairy cows in milk, have shown a considerable increase— 175,900 to 299,200 in the 1920-48 period. In 1925 in the northern part of the district the number of beef cattle per 100 sheep shorn was between 8 and 9 and in the southern part between 10 and 11; in 1948 the ratio for the whole district was between 14 and 17.5 head of cattle to 100 sheep. The total of dairy cows in milk rose from 10,000 in 1920 to 30,200 in 1935, but has since fallen, the most rapid decline occurring since 1940, when there were 26,300 cows in milk against 19,900 in 1948. Some idea of the importance of the livestock industry in the district can be obtained from the killings-at the freezing works. (See Table 3.)

Livestock and Farm Management The Romney is by far the dominant sheep breed; 89 per cent, of all rams used are Romneys and this illustrates that the Gisborne-East Cape area is a Romney breeding district rather than a district for the production of fat lambs. Ewes surplus to requirements, amounting to 250,000 to 300,000, find a ready market in the Waikato and Bay of Plenty and are disposed of in January or February. Most of the male progeny are fattened within the district as lambs or 2-tooth or 4-tooth wethers. The Southdown is used to a varying extent for the fat-lamb trade. Fatlamb raising is most widely practised in Cook County, where 18 per cent, of the rams are Southdowns. The bulk of the Southdown-cross lambs are fattened on the hill country where they are bred, the tail-end lambs being fattened .on dairy . farms or mixedcropping farms on the Gisborne flats. Uawa County has the lowest percentage of Southdown rams (2 per cent.), while Matakaoa, Waiapu, and Waikohu Counties have 5 per cent., 6 J per cent., and 10J per cent, respectively. In these counties the lambs are fattened by being carried lightly on the better paddocks of the holdings. Lincoln, Border Leicester, and Ryeland breeds account for less than 1 per cent, of the total sheep and are of no economic significance. With the present- outlook of quantity rather than quality of export lamb, the Border Leicester is coming into favour to a limited extent as a fat-lamb sire. Although the area can be described broadly as breeding country, dry-ewe and wether numbers are 20 per cent, and 24 per cent, respectively of the breeding-ewe totals in Waiapu and Uawa Counties. A proportion of the inland country in these two counties is steep and of low fertility and wethers are used to help crush fern and secondary growth. Beef Cattle . Beef cattle are playing an increasingly important part in the farming of the hill country of the district. With fertility declining pastures are becoming more difficult to control for sheep, and because of this, run cattle numbers are being increased.

FARMING IN GISBORNE-EAST CAPE DISTRICT

Farming on the hill country is, for practical purposes, grassland farming, as supplementary fodder crops do not aggregate .01 per cent, of the area. As a rule there is plenty of feed in spring and autumn. Growth comes almost to a standstill during winter and the aim in management is to dispose of all surplus stock in early autumn and to enter the winter with a carryover of autumn growth. In drought summers there is a general shortage of feed and cattle numbers have to be reduced. Pasture management on most holdings consists of putting in a particular paddock in autumn the estimated number of sheep it will carry and leaving them there until weaning time (December to January). Any surplus growth is utilised by rotational shifting of cattle.

The farming land may be divided into 3 main sections.: High hill country, medium hill country, and flat land. High Hill Country The high hill country occupies 600,000 acres and consists of the foothills of the ranges. On the upper fringe is the main-range forest, consisting of tawa, beech, rimu, totara, rewarewa, matai, kohekohe, wineberry, five finger, and supplejack. The contour of the cleared country is variable, there being steep and rugged faces interspersed with rolling country. Most of the area is 2500 ft. high, elevation being lost toward the sea. . In places where a good primary burn was not obtained stumps and tree trunks litter the ground, hinder stock management, and act as good cover for secondary growth. Fern and scrub come in fairly strongly on much of the area, particularly on the steeper faces. The instability of the country can be gauged from the fact that in places hundreds of acres are slipping. Because of the steepness, elevation, and relatively low carrying capacity of the country, holdings necessarily are large and families on the farms are remote from shopping and entertainment centres. This isolation makes the keeping of good permanent labour a problem. Access to back stations, which are usually served by clay roads, is not good and the bulk of the farming supplies has to be brought in during summer. Transport costs are high, which makes the application of much - needed phosphate very expensive. Climate Because of elevation winter temperatures in the high hill country are cold, but not sufficient to produce snow conditions. Snow is consistent.. only on

isolated peaks of the main range, Mt. Hikurangi in particular. The annual rainfall is high, varying from approximately 60 to lOOin. over the greater part of the area, but with falls up to 150 in. on the highest country. At times rainfall can be very intense; a case is the recording of 5.4 in. in 24 hours on an inland station in the Waiapu Valley. The wet period extends from late autumn through winter to early spring. There is usually, however, sufficient summer rainfall to maintain adequate moisture for plant growth. The area is essentially summer country, as growth almost comes to a standstill during the cold winters. August and September with their cold biting winds are usually the two most unpleasant months. Pastures Pastures were established after the bush burns with varying mixtures at the rate of 20 to 301 b. of seed per acre. Mixed clovers (white and annuals), ryegrass, and cocksfoot were usually included and crested dogstail, danthonia, Poa pratensis, and browntop were used to some extent. Soft turnips grew excellently after the burns and J to -gib. of seed per acre was often included in the pasture mixture, especially in the Matawai area. Immediately after the burns pastures were good, but later there was deterioration. In the wettest and highest areas, where there was only a shallow depth of topsoil, secondary growth and fern strongly invaded the pasture land. Erosion helped to speed the ingress. Papa country on which the rainfall did not exceed 70in. held the sown grasses and clovers reasonably well. The pumice lands quickly went back into manuka, but with the comparatively recent use of superphosphate these lands are being raised to a standard of fertility previously undreamed of and good pastures can be maintained. At present the dominant grasses on the higher hill country are browntop, danthonia, crested dogstail, sweet vernal, and Yorkshire fog. Cocksfoot and ryegrass are prominent in swards on isolated flats and in fertile dips and depressions. Suckling, striated, and clustered clover, with some white clover, are the only clovers over wide areas. On topdressed country white clover and oversown subterranean clover are valuable constituents of the sward. Lottis major, which was sown originally on a small proportion of the

country and on most of the more recent burns, has proved particularly useful. When established it maintains a green, healthy appearance even in extremely dry periods. With its ability to thrive in shady places it grows up among secondary growth and tree stumps, thus enticing stock on to patches which normally they would not graze. The resultant tramping of stock helps considerably in combating secondary growth. Unfortunately Lotus major does not establish satisfactorily when oversown. Farm Management The average carrying capacity on the high hill country is i sheep to the acre and 1 cattle beast to 8 acres. The Romney is used almost exclusively and much attention is focused on wool quality; of the cattle breeds Herefords and Polled Angus are equally popular. Sheep have their set paddocks for most of the year, but cattle are run in as large a mob as possible and rotated from paddock to paddock. The

ruggedness of the country and its tendency to revert to secondary growth necessitate cattle being used as an implement. The type of cattle usedcows and calves and the calves kept, cows and calves with the calves sold as weaners, or dry stockvaries from farm to farm. Where the owner can afford to run dry cattle exclusively they are without doubt the best means of keeping the country clean. Cast-for-age ewes and 2-tooth ewes which are not of good type or do not measure up to the owner’s standards for wool are sold in late summer or autumn. Wether sheep are sold as lambs, 2-tooths, and 4-tooths according to the season. Store cattle are sold in autumn before cold conditions set in and pasture growth stops. Winter supplementary crops are grown only to a very limited extent, but are a real asset. Stock losses are high and the lambing percentage is not good. Lamb losses due to wild pigs are heavy on back holdings. It is a young man’s country and the personal factor plays a very big part in management. Deterioration By far the greatest problem facing the district is the deterioration of this higher hill country. The effect is becoming more pronounced every year and manifests itself in reversion to secondary growth, spread of weeds, and erosion. A combination of the three factors results in country going out of production. Several factors have operated to promote deterioration. Thousands of acres were sown down with inferior seed masquerading under the title of “suitable for bush and manuka burns,” bad strikes resulted, and the bare areas were ideal for the regrowth of scrub and the spread of weeds. The introduced weeds ragwort and variegated thistle now have a strong hold and their eradication on some holdings constitutes the greatest single farming cost. Because of financial commitments and because sheep yielded a greater immediate cash return per acre than cattle, large areas were overgrazed by sheep. This policy, though profitable for the moment, resulted in a weakening of the grasses and a gradual but certain decline in carrying capacity. Several methods of arresting or reducing the rate of deterioration may be used. They are: — 1. Application of phosphate and introduction of clover: This is probably

the greatest single method and where it has been used it has given good results. It is essential to sow both the phosphate and the clover; one without the other involves a big cash outlay with very little return. Subterranean clover is first choice for the drier westerly faces and white clover for the. southerly faces. 2. Systematic grazing: Where practicable a system of spelling and grazing should be used to the utmost. In autumn and spring especially periodic .spelling gives the stronger-growing grasses a chance to exert their superiority and they tend to crowd out the weaker-growing species. 3. Increasing cattle numbers and decreasing sheep numbers: This policy keeps the sward longer throughout the year and reduces run-off and erosion, thus increasing the effective rainfall. If sheep numbers are reduced there is a tendency toward increased lambing percentages and an increased weight of wool per sheep. . The more severe the previous overgrazing, . the greater the improvement in these respects. The figures in Table 4, from a holding of 8000 acres at an average altitude of :2300ft., though perhaps better than the average to be expected from this policy, serve as an illustration. 4. Widespread adoption of the principles of erosion control as advocated by the local catchment board. 5. Use of only Certified seed after scrub and fern burns. 6. Increased winter supplementary cropping: Under a system of purely

grass farming cattle numbers have to be reduced before the onset of the winter-growth stoppage, and in the spring flush the cattle which have had to be sold off are needed for controlling fern, etc. On holdings that have land suitable for cropping, winterfeed crops help to overcome the difficulty. Easier Hill Country The easier hill country includes the coastal hills, which extend to a varying depth inland and occupy approximately 750,000 acres. The elevation varies from 200 to 2000 ft., the greater part of the land lying at about 1000 ft. It is easy to steep country and on almost every holding there is ploughable land which can be used for cropping. The appearance of the country is enhanced by the dark green patches of native bush. There are areas of manuka, but fern is absent. Scars of surface slips are evident and gullies are numerous. Access is good, but transport costs to Matakaoa and Waiapu Counties are heavy due to the distance from the main distributing : centre, Gisborne. ■Climate ' A . The area has a climate somewhat similar to Gisborne and the flat

country and has temperatures sufficiently warm to promote some winter growth. At Gisborne the average annual temperature is 56.8 degrees and the range between summer and winter is not great; the average annual sunshine recording is 2270.5 hours. The rainfall varies from 35in. on the Gisborne hill country to 60in. in Uawa, Waiapu, and Matakaoa Counties. The rainfall would appear adequate, but the distribution is not good and most of the rain falls in winter. The

summer rainfall is low and in some seasons does not exceed 7in. for the 5 months September-January. The prevailing wind is the dry westerly, which accentuates the drying out of the country. Because of the rapid run-off during heavy winter rains the effective rainfall on the hills is much lower than that indicated. Most of the rainfall comes from the south and southeast, except in Matakaoa County and portion of Waiapu County, where the north-westerly is also a rain-bearing wind. Because the land is close to the coast, winter frosts are not severe. The maximum frosts in Gisborne in 1941 and 1947 were 11.2 and 8.2 degrees respectively.

MANAGEMENT OF EASIER HILL COUNTRY

Pastures The pastures on the easier hill country were originally sown after bush burns with seed mixtures the bulk of which contained ryegrass, cocksfoot, and white clover. On some of the better holdings these sown species are still dominant. At present pastures in general are predominantly danthonia, rice grass, ratstail, and hairgrass, with some ryegrass, cocksfoot, paspalum, crested'dogstail,, and sweet vernal. The predominant clovers are the annuals burr, clustered, and striated clover and there is some suckling clover, white clover, and English trefoil. Subterranean clover is an important constituent of the sward where it has been sown in conjunction with dressings of superphosphate. In this association ryegrass and white clover are present to a greater degree. In a way the rapid ingress of ratstail into pastures during the 1930’s was a good thing. Farmers found that if they set stocked the paddocks, the ratstail areas were left rank and untouched while the rest of the paddock was eaten bare. To control ratstail farmers used more cattle, subdivided paddocks, and rotated mobs of stock, particularly cattle, around the paddocks. Thus, with the spread of ratstail there was introduced a much better system of pasture management and the trend of declining carrying capacity was checked considerably. Variegated, winged, and scotch thistle, blackberry, and bidi bidi are the most common weeds. Variegated thistle is a serious pest, but winged thistle is not regarded so seriously. It is, however, a considerable nuisance in that it grows as high as 6ft. where the pasture has been opened up by drought or the tramping of stock around gateways, and tracks often have to be mown to allow mobs of stock to pass through. Farm Management The average carrying capacity of the easier hill country is 2 sheep per acre and 1 cattle beast to 10 . acres. The Romney is used exclusively on some holdings and in conjunction with , the Southdown on others. In the former case all the ewes are put to the Rom-

ney ram and as many as possible of the wether progeny are fattened as lambs and -tooths and the remainder sold as stores; the female stock, cull 2-tooths and cast-for-age ewes, are sold at autumn fairs. In the latter case sufficient ewes are put to Romney rams to breed replacement stock and the remainder of the ewes are put to Southdowns. Under this system offgoing stock consists of fat Down-cross and Romney lambs, tail-end lambs as stores, and cast-for-ages ewes. The practice of putting all ewes to the Down ram and buying in ewes each year is followed to a limited extent. The first fat lambs are killed in November and are in time to catch the English Christmas premium. Herefords and Polled Angus are the commonest cattle breeds, but Shorthorns are still run on the better fattening holdings. Although cattle are used primarily to control pasture for sheep, a fair proportion of them on this country eventually are sent to the freezing works as fat stock. Cows and calves and young steers up to 2% years old are used for cleaning up the country. After they are 2| years old steers are given better treatment so that they will put on condition and reach a killing weight of 7 to Bcwt. as 3J year olds. The climate is very suitable for sheep farming and the health of stock is excellent. The dry summers reduce the incidence of foot-rot to a minimum and there is little liver fluke. In the past serious outbreaks of facial eczema have occurred. All lambs are fattened on grass, and to increase the number of lambs sold fat the tendency is to improve pastures rather than to grow fattening crops. Areas of turnips and rape are grown to some extent, but are primarily used as a cover crop when breaking in country. Mechanisation is beginning to play its part on this country ana internal access roads constructed by bulldozers have effected considerable reduction in the time and labour required to apply manure. Flat Land There is a wide variety of farming on the flat land: Cash cropping, dairy farming, sheep farming for fat-lamb production, orchards, and vineyards. Cash Cropping At present there is a definite trend toward an increase in the area devoted to cropping and the growing of a greater variety of crops as shown in Table 6.

Maize has been grown for the longest period and the acreage has been steady throughout the years. It owes its popularity to the fact that it is a very sure crop. The concept of the

FARMING IN GISBORNE-EAST CAPE

sureness of the crop has been a little dimmed over the past 2 years by cutworm attacks when the maize was 2in. to Ift. high. The Gisborne flats grow approximately 2500 acres with an average of 65 to 70 bushels; Matakaoa and Waiapu Counties grow 400 to 500 acres with an average of 45 to 50 bushels. In the past Marigold, Horsetooth, and Silver Queen have been the most popular varieties. The recently introduced Pfister hybrid maize from America has proved very popular and over the past 3 years has been grown on two-thirds of the total area. Perennial ryegrass: Gisborne perennial ryegrass is well known for its permanency and high germination; 50,000 bushels were grown in the 1947 season. The best crops thresh out at 50 bushels of machine-dressed seed per acre and the over-all average is 16 bushels. The crop is autumn sown and generally the yield of maiden areas is double that of pastures that have been down for 2 years or more. Goosegrass (Bromus mollis) is the most common impurity. In most years the climate is ideal for the production of other small seeds. Clovers: White clover is grown in association with ryegrass and 20,0001 b. were certified in the 1946-47 season. The crop is threshed in the swath in late January or early February with a pick-up mill. Suckling clover is the most common impurity. Cowgrass (broad red clover) and Montgomery red clover grow well in the district and yields of up to 4001 b. per acre are obtained. Cowgrass is the safer crop, as often autumn rains set in before Montgomery can be harvested. Peas are a comparatively recent crop in the district, but are rapidly becoming more important. The acreage jumped from 7 in 1941 to 2166 in 1948. The popularity of the crop is due to its soil-improving qualities, short duration, and good cash return. Peas are used as a first crop when breaking in rush country. The varieties most favoured are Onward, Stratagem, William Massey, and Greenfeast. Yields of up to 60 bushels are obtained, the average being 28.

Potatoes are grown on relatively frost-free areas and easy hill slopes. Some planting takes place in MarchApril, but the main planting is from mid-June onward. Arran Banner is the most popular variety, followed by Epicure, Up-to-date, Sebago, and Katahdin. If crops can be dug before the end of November potato growing is very remunerative. With the increase in the area of potatoes early and late blights are becoming widespread and spraying must become an established practice. Yields average 4 tons. The district is not suited to the growing of late potatoes because from January onward the potato tuber moth is very active. Barley is finding popularity as a spring-sown crop after maize and before sowing down to pasture in autumn. Cape and Chevalier are the most popular varieties and yields average 50 bushels per acre, which is the highest provincial average in the Dominion. Beans: Although the acreage of beans is not large (90 acres), Gisborne was the largest grower of seed beans in the Dominion in 1946. Because of difficulty with weed growth, the crop is usually taken after grass. Canadian Wonder is the most popular variety, but some Black Wax are grown. Yields of up to 60 bushels per acre are obtained, the average being 20. Dairy Farming Dairy farming, though not intensive, is practised throughout the area, usually in conjunction with some cash cropping. There are 4 butter factories, 2 at Gisborne, 1 at Tolaga Bay, and 1 at Ruatoria. The Jersey is the predominant breed. In 1948 there were 547 herds of more than 10 cows, but there are few large herds and only 7 contain more than 100 cows. Herd testing is becoming more widespread and is an important factor in improving herd management.

Because of the low rainfall in summer the district is not as suitable for dairy farming as such areas as Taranaki and Manawatu. The dry summers are a real problem to the dairy farmer and the variation of

FARMING IN GISBORNE-EAST CAPE . . .

butterfat production between years is closely linked to the variation in summer rainfall. The 1945 season was particularly dry and the average production per cow fell by 301 b. To keep up production over the critical period it is essential to grow greenfeed crops —lucerne and cowgrass, which do excellently throughout the areathe need for such crops being greater on the lighter soils of the Ruatona area. The dry summers are to some extent offset by the mild winters, and i ton of hay per cow is regarded as sufficient winter supplement. More land is being devoted to cash cropping and fat-lamb raising, and dairy farming is declining steadily. The combined tonnage of the 4 dairy factories fell from 2206 tons in 1942 to 1645 in 1948-49. Although dairy farming is not likely to regain its former position on the Gisborne flats, there is considerable room for expansion in the valleys of the higher inland country, where summer rainfall is greater, especially in the Motu and Matawai districts. The industry is also likely to play an increasing part in Matakaoa and Waiapu Counties. oi. t-. • • Sheep Farming , Sheep still occupy a large area of flat land. On some of the bigger holdings they are the sole source of income and here, the hill-country cast-for-age

ewes are bought in autumn and put to the Down ram, and the lambs are sold fat in spring. After shearing, the ewes are fattened. Store stock then utilise any surplus feed until a fresh mob of 5- and 6-year-old ewes is bought in. Sheep are also used in conjunction with cash cropping. The aftermath of ryegrass, white clover, and pea crops is very suitable for fattening, and as the area in these crops is increasing, more hill-country store lambs are being fattened in this manner. Special -fattening crops are grown only to a very limited extent. p ru it Growin® .' . , ar 1 e 1 2 ?° ?cres °~ commercial orchards all of which are on the Gisborne flats. . The greater part of these consist of pip and stone fruits, but at present there is a trend toward extendPJg JJ 16 area of citrus. The district is ideally suited for the production of sweet oranges, lemons, marmalade oranges, and grapefruit. The demand for these fruits far exceeds the supply, bu t owing to the shortage of budding stocks, it will be 2 years before extensive planting is done. A local demand only exists for stone fruits because Hawkes Bay is in a much better position to supply the Wellington market. This does not apply to early plums, which can be marketed in Wellington before those

of the southern districts. The local demand for peaches and late plums amounts to 10,000 and 6000 cases respectively. Quinces are a very remunerative crop and are exceptionally free from pests and diseases compared with other districts. The climate is well suited to the growing of grapes, passion fruit, and tomatoes, and although the area of these intensive and special crops is not large, it is extending each year. Albany Surprise and Black Hamburg are the favourite grape varieties and yields of 6 tons to the acre are common. Potential Improvement Topdressing with phosphate and oversowing with subterranean clover are likely to increase the carrying capacity of much of the easier hill country from 2 to 4 sheep per acre. Mechanisationthe use of bulldozers for forming access tracks and of tractors for haulage—will increase the area of hill country coming within the practical topdressing category. Giant discs are excellent for breaking in manuka country even when the manuka is vigorous, as large areas can be dealt with quickly and efficiently, except on the steepest country. On parts of the Tolaga Bay flats and on many smaller areas of flat land throughout the district drainage and liming will increase production considerably. At present such areas are carrying patches of rushes interspersed with which is pasture of a very poor type. If more lucerne and cowgrass were grown, dairy production would be affected much less by dry summers and there would be a consequent increase in production. On the specialised and more intensive small holdings growing grapes, passion fruit, citrus, and tomatoes it is probable that irrigation will play an important part. Better grass husbandry could result in improvement., of the . ploughable country; the ploughing up of run-out pastures and the sowing of Certified seeds is of first importance in this respect.. With the higher hill country the problem is to maintain, it at its present carrying capacity rather than to improve it considerably. In this regard mechanisation and improvement of access roads are likely to be of importance. . It is certain that the volume of agricultural produce will continue to increase; it is likely. that the greatest increases will be in vegetable crops, citrus, and small fruits. The warm sunny climate of the Gisborne-East Cape district is - its greatest asset, an asset that assures its remaining one of the foremost sheep districts in New Zealand and probably of becoming a source of early market-garden produce for the Wellington Province. . References “Early History of Gisborne,” by C. A. McDonald. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 279, “Farming in New Zealand”: “Soils of the North Island,” by L. I. Grange. “Statistical Review of the . Sheep Farming Industry of New Zealand,” Department of Agriculture. : - “Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral .Production,”. Census and Statistics Department. >; ■

BLOOD testing of poultry for pullorum disease is now carried out in New Zealand on a considerable scale and involves a great deal of labour with : large flocks. On this page A. C. Howse, Veterinarian, Department of Agriculture, Christchurch, describes an appliance for holding birds which can be constructed easily and cheaply.

WHEN testing their stock for pullorum disease New Zealand poultry farmers to date have remained content to spend long periods holding groups of fowls on tables by hand while blood is drawn from the birds’ combs, but it has been apparent that some more efficient means of holding the birds would save considerable time and labour. A device for this purpose has now been designed and constructed with the help of Mr. Arthur Button, of Lincoln, a well-known Canterbury poultry farmer. When the appliance as first designed was tried in practice many modifications and alterations from what was originally visualised were found necessary. Mr. Button carried out the work of construction and made the alterations.

Birds to be tested lie on sacking on a trestle table such as has been in general use for blood testing in New Zealand, but their legs, instead of being held by hand, are slipped into notches in a piece of suitable timber and kept in position by small door bolts, such as can be obtained from a hardware store. Beech is probably the most suitable wood. A piece 3ft. long, IJin. wide, and 2Jin. deep will hold five birds. The notches, each of which holds both legs of one bird, should be fin. wide and l|in. deep, the centres of the notches being 6in. apart. Putting both legs into one notch has been found, easier than getting each leg into a separate one. The bolt slips across the top of the notch above the legs and the bird lies slightly on its side. . The piece of wood is. bolted to the table by carriage bolts held underneath by wing nuts. If the table is Bft. long, the testing equipment can be arranged in the middle with a group of five birds on either side. The birds’ necks pass under a piece of spring curtain wire, which is fastened to the table by small staples parallel to the bar of wood which holds the legs and about Ilin, away from it. The wire should be fixed so that it is under only very slight tension. Individual farmers may devise other means of holding the legs in the notches. Probably the simplest would be a wooden turn-button, but it has been found in practice that a bird frequently opens this while struggling and escapes. Spring .clips; screwed , directly to the table were also tried, the bar of notched wood being dispensed with, but clips of the correct size and adequate strength could not be obtained. The bolt over the notch works well and is easily obtainable. Using this method one person catches the birds, another puts them on the table and removes them, and a third performs the test. With a table holding ten birds one group of five is dealt with while the other is removed and replaced. There is no delay while birds are taken away and others brought up, as with the older method, and birds can be tested at the rate of : 120 per hour without difficulty. Fewer people are employed than when holding is by hand, an important consideration in view of the difficulty of

obtaining labour.

Number Frozen of sheep mutton Wool cwt. lb. 1895 .. 877,237 26,166 2,733,190 1911 .. 2,019,878 259,027 15,489,102 Timber Production

TABLE 1—SHEEP NUMBERS AND PRODUCTION FROM SHEEP INDUSTRY

Counties Total Matakaoa Waiapu Uawa Waikohu Cook Total acreage .. 188,800 507,520 167,040 678,400 506,240 2,048,000 Acreage occupied 145,628 427,167 151,304 545,989 489,028 1,729,116 Number of holdings .. 199 525 127 416 1,064 2,331 Acreage sown in grass .. 103,695 356,190 131,916 452,101 423,240 1,467,142 Acreage in green-fodder and root crops 35 353 60 1,235 1,401 3,084 Acreage cut for hay and silage .. 93 301 126 1,060 2,032 3,612 Acreage in maize for threshing .. 35 345 127 505 2,638 3,650 Acreage in cash crops. excluding maize for threshing —— 187 452 421 1,878 2,938 Acreage in market garden — 9 —— 5 5 425 425 439 439 Total sheep .. .. 110,094 436,909 217,797 608,202 695,902 2,068,904 Breeding ewes 60,889 240,671 119,436 347,509 420,978 1,189,483 Total cattle 21,351 67,056 28,626 100,952 101,146 319,131 Dairy cows in milk 1,825 4,355 1,556 3,677 8,509 19,922 * Figures from “Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 1947-48”.

TABLE 2—UTILISATION OF LAND, AND STOCK CARRIED IN GISBORNEEAST CAPE DISTRICT, 1947-48.

Year Beef Bobby calves Pigs Sheep Lambs 1945 . . 15,643 9,208 10,653 196,172 285,193 1946 . . 18,350 9,045 8,291 255,172 351,569 1947 . . 19,320 9,618 6,787 176,782 335,692

TABLE 3-KILLINGS AT FREEZING WORKS

Lambing Dry sheep wintered Total sheep wintered Total weight of wool Year Ewes Lambs percentage lb. 1943 . . 5,882 4,032. 60 3,673 . 9,555 75,838 ' 1944 . . 4,916 4,260 86 3,462 8,378 77,131 1945 . . 4,588 4,313 94 3,523 8,111 77,035 1946 . . 3,802 3,758 98 4,495 8,297 79,150

TABLE 4—SHEEP CARRIED AND WOOL CLIP FROM 8000-ACRE PROPERTY ON HIGH COUNTRY IN GISBORNEEAST CAPE DISTRICT

Rainfall in. Temperature degrees Sunshine hours January .. 3.35 62.8 251.0 February .. 3.07 68.2 217.5 March .. 3.68 61.6 201.6 April .. 3.43 54.8 163.6 May .. 4.49 52.8 153.0 June .. 4.01 50.6 . 141.2 July .. 4.33 50.9 129.6 August .. 3.71 49.0 152.1 September .. 2.58 55.0 178.2 October .. 2.64 57.5 199.7 November .. 2.39 59.8 224.1 December .. 1.93 63.0 258.9 Annual .. 39.61 56.8 2,270.5

TABLE 5—CLIMATOLOGICAL AVERAGES FOR GISBORNE

1935 1940 1948 acres 1940 acres 1948 acres Maize for threshing .. 2,208 3,173 3,650 Ryegrass for seed .. 1,849 2,497 1,615 Peas for threshing .. 14 —- 2,166 Barley for threshing . 147 90 537 Potatoes 225 293 566 Red and white clover 209 202 521 Beans .. .. .. ■ — —— — 90 90 Wheat and oats for threshing 66 68 141 1 ■ || mi » Totals .. 4,718 6,323 9,286

TABLE 6—AREA IN CASH CROPS