The Home Garden in September

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 81, Issue 2, 15 August 1950, Page 119

The Home Garden in September

By

S. O. GILLARD,

Vegetable Instructor, Department

of Agriculture, Auckland.

SEPTEMBER is generally recognised to be a favourable time to begin the new season’s gardening operations in earnest. With the advent of longer days and more sunshine the soil should have warmed up sufficiently to promote satisfactory germination of the hardier kinds of vegetable seeds. In northern districts where late frosts are unlikely seed of the more tender kinds of vegetables such as potatoes, cucumber, marrows, and, pumpkins, and plants of egg fruit and tomatoes can be set out. Plant protection such as cloches and hot-caps will still be necessary for frost-tender subjects if they are grown in colder localities.

IN preparation for later cropping, areas in green crops should be dug over, and ground left fallow during winter can be broken down. The soil should be stirred up around planted crops. Cultivation of the soil, especially at this time of year when frequent rains consolidate the surface, is very important in the promotion of plant growth. The soil should be drawn up to established crops of cabbage, cauliflower, peas, and broad beans as they grow to provide support for the plant. When drawing the soil up to the plants a wide rather than a narrow ridge should be formed, as this provides better support and rooting area. Early potatoes should be kept well earthed up as a partial protection from frost. Seedling lettuce, onions, cabbage, and cauliflower can be set out. Seeds of parsnips, carrots, spinach, onion, lettuce, radish, beetroot, silver beet, peas, and leeks can be sown in the warmer and better-drained parts of the garden provided the soil will break down to the required tilth. Clayey soils if sticky should be handled patiently and worked only when conditions will allow. Established crops such as silver beet, cabbage, and cauliflower will benefit from weekly applications of liquid

manure. This can be made from animal manure placed in a sack and suspended in a large container of water until the liquid is the colour of strong tea, or nitrate of soda, 2oz. to 4 gallons of water, can be applied at the rate of 1 pint to each plant. On wet soils the nitrate of soda may be applied direct to the soil at the rate of loz. to 12 plants, care being taken not to let the fertiliser touch the foliage. Asparagus Asparagus seed may be sown in September, but it is probably more satisfactory for the home gardener to procure 1-year-old crowns and ■ plant them in June (later in southern districts). In northern districts established beds will now be sending up leaf stalks or spears. When they have made about 6in. of growth spears should be cut 2in. below the surface of the soil, using a sharp, long-bladed knife. A square-ended blade sharpened at the end like a chisel is very suitable for cutting the spears. Care should be taken when cutting asparagus not to damage young spears or crown buds. Weed growth should be kept down by hand weeding during the cutting period, as the hoe is liable to injure the young shoots that may be just under the soil surface. Applications of liquid manure every 14 days will increase the yield. Good varieties are Mary Washington, Conover’s Colossal, and Paradise. The last named is a recent introduction which is proving very satisfactory. Artichokes The globe artichoke is a vigorous perennial, the growth attaining a height of from 3 to 4ft. The large flowerheads when properly cooked make a very tasty dish. Plants may be propagated by suckers or seed may be sown in September or October and the seedlings transplanted to a permanent position during the following autumn. They require plenty of room to develop and plants should be set 4ft. apart each way. Suckers should be treated in the. same way as seedlings. Flowerheads fit for use will develop the season after plants were set out and should be gathered before the scales open for flowering. Large Green and

HEADING PHOTOGRAPH: In September advantage should be taken of fine weather to do preparatory work such as placing • stakes in position to support tomatoes and peas. Sparrow Industrial Pictures Ltd. photo.

TRANSPLANTING AUTUMN-SOWN ONIONS

Large Purple are the commonly grown varieties, the former being more popular. T , ~ • , n „ ' The Jerusalem artichoke is really a tuberous-rooted sunflower, the tubers of which form the vegetable. It is propagated from tubers, which throw out annual stems to a height of 6ft. or more. As they are rather difficult to eradicate when established, it is advisable to grow them m an isolated piece un d-.. over -manured soils, which are liable to promote excess top growth at the expense of the tubers. Tubers may be planted during August and September m rows 3ft. apart, allowing 2ft. between plants. _ A good system for the home garden is to keep the plants on the same plot for several years, simply lifting the tubers each autumn or winter, and replanting them m the same place; sufficient plant food should be added to keep up the ferality. Cultivation between the plants to keep down weeds is necessary until they throw out the tuber-bearing runners; all hoe cultivation should then cease. Tubers may be dug in autumn or winter and stored in dry sand or sawdust in a cool place. White Jerusalem, which has pure white tubers almost round and with few and very shallow eyes, is the best variety ' Carrots T , ~ , . , . . „ In most districts an early sowing of carrots may be made now, but for the mam crop sowing is best deferred for another month. Wheie. the depredations of the carrot rust fly (Psila rosae) are severe, infestation may be minimised by sowing the seed in December as far as possible from the position of previous carrot crops or of other susceptible crops such as celery, parsnips, or parsley. The rust fly is a small, two-winged, shining black,

yellow-legged fly about l/6in. long. It lays its eggs in the soil close to the carrot root, and the legless maggots enter the taproot of the carrot and work upward. The maggots grow up | o on g and make small rustcoloured tunnels in the roots. Young ans wilt and die. This insect is very difficult to control, but horticultural naphthalene broadcast at the rate of i oz . a S qre yard s an effective repelia nt; it does not damage the foliage an j should be applied at intervals during row th but not later than 2 weeks before harvesting or there may be some residual taint of naphthalene after carrots are cooked. Another method found effective is to apply d.D.T. 50 per cent, wettable powder, i oz j n 4 g ons o f water, along the plant rows when plants are about 2in. high and directly after thinning. Applications should be repeated at monthly intervals and should be sufficjent to penetrate the soil to a depth f o nr zThe rust fly should not be confused with aphides which commonly attack carrot foliage in all parts of New Zealand; for control of carrot aphis spray at regular intervals with nicotine sulphate 1.800 (1 fl. OZ i of nicotine sulP]? a te 4 gallons water plus 2oz. of soft soap). Best results are obtained if the application is made on a hot day and the foliage is completely covered. Soil preparation and seed sowing instructions are similar to those given f or parsnips in 3 ast month’s notes, Drills should be iin. apart and the plants should be thinned finally to 4 to §i n spacings ’ p 5 ' Carrots, being much in demand for culinary purposes and being easily grown, should be included in every selection of vegetables for the home garden. If used before they are fully grown they are very tender and tasty.

To secure a succession of young carrots seed may be sown from September to January in most districts. Varieties: Popular early varieties are Earlycrop and Early Scarlet Horn, while for the main crop Chantenay, Manchester Table, and Oxheart or Guerande are satisfactory. Celery Where the home garden has facilities for raising plants seed of celery may be sown now for December and January planting out. It should be sown fairly —about a level teaspoon to a standard box (24in: x 14in. x 4m.) containing specially prepared soil. The seed should be covered very thinly and firmed with a piece of board. When the seedlings are large enough to handle they should be pricked out 2in. apart each way into boxes from which they can be cut out later with the soil attached and planted in the garden. The seedlings should receive plenty of ventilation and should be kept about 12in. from the glass so that they do not become drawn. Premature seed development of plants is a frequent cause of disappointment to home gardeners and this condition is usually the result of a sudden check to the growth of the plant. This is often brought about by spells of cold weather. Varieties: Self-blanching varieties are most popular in the North Island and favourites are Gilt-edged Golden Self Blanching and White Plume. Some gardeners prefer those which require earthing up or wrapping for blanching; Crystal or Solid White is perhaps the best for this purpose and is the usual variety grown in southern districts. Celeriac or Turnip-roofed Celery Celeriac, a member of the celery family, has a large, turnip-like root, which is the portion of the plant that is eaten. Celeriac is a good vegetable for flavouring soups and can also be boiled and sliced and served with white sauce or used fresh in salads. Seed may be sown from September to January and plants set out from December to March; treatment is similar to that for celery. Transplanting of the young seedlings is essential. Plant seedlings in rows on the flat (not in a trench like celery) 18in. apart and allow 12in. between the plants. Celeriac should not be earthed up like celery, but will develop better bulbs if the soil is carefully drawn away from the plants at frequent intervals. The lateral shoots and fibres: should be carefully removed to keep the roots intact, but in doing so growth and development must not be interfered with. The enlarged roots may be dug after they attain sufficient size for good edible quality and; stored in sand. Before storing roots the outer leaves should be removed, but the centre or heart leaves must be left to prevent further development. Frost-tender Vegetables In most districts it is still too early to sow seed of frost-tender vegetables such as cucumbers, tomatoes, marrows, and pumpkins except under glass or other protective covering. Tomatoes take approximately 6 weeks and the other vegetables mentioned about 3 weeks from seed sowing until they are ready for transplanting and this should be taken into account when deciding on the planting programme.

Leeks

The leek is a member of the onion family and is a most delicious vegetable cooked or raw. Raw it is more tender and milder in flavour than the ordinary spring onion. It is very hardy and can quite easily be grown from seed sown in September or October for planting out in December and January. These plantings should give a continuous supply from May to August. Select a warm position in well-drained soil and sow the seed in drills Jin. deep and 6in. apart. As the seedlings tJke a long time to grow large enough for transplanting (leadpencil thickness) , frequent shallow cultivation is necessary to check weed growth and to aerate the soil. Varieties: Of the three popular varieties London Flag, Lyon, and Musselburgh, the last named is best for general use. Onions In northern districts, where it is usual to sow seed in autumn and transplant onions in spring, September is a favourable month to do transplanting. Where transplanting is not practised seed should be sown now in the permanent rows. The ground should be well cultivated and manured some time in advance of sowing the seed. Although a firm bed is required, the surface of the soil should be of a fine tilth to a depth of lin.; if it is too consolidated, a crust which may seriously affect the germination of the seed may be formed. The amount of firming required is dependent on whether the soil is light or heavy. Light soil can be firmed by treading it whereas raking is usually sufficient for heavier soils. The onion plant requires a liberal quantity of available plant food and does best in soils that have been under cultivation for some time. The heavier soil types generally produce better-keeping onions. If compost or farmyard or poultry

manure is not available, equal parts of bonedust and superphosphate plus 10 per cent, of sulphate of potash, broadcast over the area at the rate of Jib. to the square yard and worked into the top 3in. of soil, will suffice for most soil types. A good dressing of wood ashes may be used in place of potash. The onion is very sensitive to soil acidity, and where periodical liming has not been practised at least 3 to 4oz. of carbonate of lime to the square yard should be applied. Sow the seed thinly Jin.- deep in rows 12in. apart, cover it with fine soil, and firm the soil over the seed. Where onions are to be transplanted soil preparation is similar to that for a seed-bed. Shallow drills 12in. apart and lin. deep are drawn out and plants set out 4in. apart in the drill. The roots are covered and firmed by drawing soil over them; alternatively the area may be marked out and the roots of the plants pressed into the soil at the correct spacings. (See the diagram on this page.) Plants need not be set upright, as they will soon straighten up after planting... Good bulbs will not develop if the plants are set too deeply. If roots are trimmed and tops shortened, planting can be done more easily and plants are not so likely to topple over after being set out. Cultivation should be sufficient to keep the surface soil aerated and check weed growth. It should always be shallow, care being taken not to injure the sides of the bulbs, because if they are cut, further growth will increase the size of the. wound, and the keeping quality of the onion will be impaired. Varieties: Straw Spanish, Pukekohe Long Keeper, and Brown Spanish are good-keeping varieties. If . onions are not required for long storage, there are several high-yielding sorts, such as Ailsa Craig, Giant Rocca, and Golden Globe. Green or Spring Onions from Sets Stored onions should be examined and those bulbs that are beginning to

shoot should be used or may be planted out in the garden. Draw out furrows 4in. deep and 15in. apart and set the bulbs 6in. apart in the rows just covering them with soil. By this method spring onions can be produced quickly. As growth develops seed stalks may appear and should be broken off as soon as they become visible. However, unless they are used promptly, onions grown in this manner soon become pungent and tough. Potato Onions Potato onions, which are of mild and pleasant flavour, are increased by dividing the compact clusters at the bases of the plants. The small bulbs are transplanted, and grow into large ones which if left form further compact clusters. Culture is similar to that for shallots, which was described in last month’s notes. Egyptian or Perennial Tree Onion The Egyptian or perennial tree onion produces a cluster of little bulbs on the top of a stalk. The bottom also divides, but large bulbs are not produced. The bulblets are used for pickles and salads. The top sets or bottom divisions are planted in May or September, preferably the former month, in furrows 4in. deep and 15in. apart, with 6in. between sets in the row. As soon as frosts are over in spring the tops start to grow. Those produced from the underground bulbs are soon ready for use and those from top sets shortly afterward. This type of onion becomes very coarse and strong as the season advances, but early in the season is quite palatable. Garlic Garlic, a vegetable which is often regarded with disfavour, is eaten, though usually unknowingly, by many, people as a flavouring and seasoning

in prepared food products such as soups and pickles. Garlic produces a group of small bulbs called cloves. The whole bulb is broken up and the small cloves are planted, the best sets being those taken from the outside of the bulb. Garlic does well in a rich, light, well-drained soil, which must be well trenched and brought to a fine tilth. Drainage is important, as garlic tends to rot in wet soil. The cloves may be planted from May to September. Draw drills lin. deep and 12in. apart and press in the cloves from 4 to 6in. apart. If cloves are planted in May, do not cover them immediately; the soil can be replaced level as cultivation progresses. For spring planting replace the soil and level it over the cloves after setting them out. Growing Perennial Crops from Seed Asparagus: Seed may be sown in September or October provided soil conditions are favourable. The soil should be well drained and of a fine, firm tilth with good humus content. Sow seed thinly Jin. deep in rows 12in. apart and thin seedlings later to 4in. apart in the rows. If growth has been favourable plants should have reached sufficient size for planting out into a permanent bed the following August or September. Rhubarb: Though most home gardeners prefer to divide up crowns from established beds, rhubarb can be grown easily from seed sown in September or October. Sow seed lin. deep in rows 15in. apart in any fertile, welldrained soil. Seedlings should be thinned to about Gin. apart as soon as they are properly established and the young plants can be lifted and replanted in a permanent position the following spring. No stalks should be pulled from newly planted beds until the second year and the plants should be well supplied with humus and plant food. Rhubarb does best when grown in a warm part of the garden where it is not overshadowed by hedges or trees. In some districts rhubarb is forced by covering the crowns with boxes or straw and when this is done care should be taken to see that the covering is replaced each time stalks are pulled, because although rhubarb is not classed as frost-tender, when forced it is liable to severe damage if suddenly exposed. Recommended varieties are Victoria Giant and Champion (for summer use) and the everbearing or winter sort Topp’s Winter. Potatoes . In districts free from late frosts potatoes may be planted this month, but in most southern districts it is safer to delay planting a little longer. Government Certified seed, though dearer than uncertified seed, will be found more profitable, as usually it produces more vigorous and diseasefree growth and a higher yield. Potatoes should be procured some time in advance of. planting and placed in shallow trays in full light to sprout. Care should be taken to see that the sprouts do not grow too long (J to Jin. is ideal), as sprouts tend to break off when tubers are being planted if they are too long. If tubers produce more than two strong shoots and the potato is not large enough to cut, the weakest shoots should be rubbed off,

as it has been noted by commercial growers that plants with more than two or three stems produce a large number of small tubers. When tubers are large they may be cut into two or more pieces, according to size, before planting, each piece having at least one shoot. Tubers should be cut into thick chunky pieces rather than thin slices and the eyes should be centrally situated and not at the edges of the pieces. If the terminal eye is at the extreme edge of a piece, its sprout fails to obtain adequate nutriment and weak secondary buds develop. Tubers should be planted within 24 hours of being cut. Preparation of Soil Adequate cultivation and good soil conditions are essential for potatoes, and. land containing an abundance of humus is preferable. Organic matter such as stable or farmyard manure is suitable, but should be applied some time in advance of planting. Too much nitrogen is not advisable, as it tends to produce heavy top growth at the expense of the tubers. In the absence of organic matter a fertiliser mixture of 1J parts of superphosphate, 1J parts of bonedust, J part of sulphate of ammonia, and 3 per cent, of sulphate of potash gives satisfactory results; alternatively equal parts of blood and bone and superphosphate and 3 per cent, of sulphate of potash may be used. These mixtures should be applied at the rate of 8 to 12oz. to 12ft. of row. Planting The most practical method of planting is to open a trench 4in. deep and broadcast fertiliser along it, mixing it lightly in the soil. Tubers can be planted in rows 2ft. to 2ft. 6in. apart with 12 to 15in. between sets in the rows. Close planting is more suitable for early crops. For early planting the soil should be ridged up over the sets, when the trench is being filled in, as this allows for better drainage and

the soil keeps warmer. As soon as plants are 2in. above the ground hoe around them and loosen up the soil between the rows to check weeds and aerate the soil. Repeat this operation every 2 or 3 weeks, as the soil must be kept well worked to grow, good potatoes. When plants are about 9in. high draw the earth round the stems and repeat this operation a month or 6 weeks later. Harvesting The amateur gardener generally has difficulty in judging when the crop is ready to harvest and often the quality of the potatoes is impaired by allowing them to remain too long in the ground. For early varieties digging should begin when the leaves of the plant begin to turn yellow and may continue until the crop is finished. Digging may extend over a month or more. Maincrop varieties take longer to mature, and if they are to be stored, they should be allowed to remain in the ground until the tops have died right down, .as this improves the keeping qualities. When nearing maturity, especially when soil conditions are warm and a rainy period is experienced, they should be harvested promptly or the tubers will start growing and will ■ become soft and unfit for use. When potatoes are ripe the skins are firm; if skins rub off, potatoes should be left to mature further if intended for storing. Diseases Potato blight caused by the fungus Phytophtora infestans is the most troublesome disease in some districts, but can be controlled satisfactorily by spraying plants with Bordeaux mixture, 4oz. of bluestone and s|oz. of hydrated lime to 4 gallons of water. Applications may be necessary as often as every 10 to 14 days in districts where blight infection is prevalent. Prepared Bordeaux powders or, one of

F'-,'''\ rt £&§£W&"• '- V ~*S»WS®**-'*-s»*%|®: ;_ SOWING SEED IN THE HOME GARDEN J

Seed sowing is an important operation; for small seeds the soil should be worked down to a very fine tilth and should be firmed. Upper left—The back of the rake pressed into the soil makes a drill of even depth. Upper right—Small seeds should be sown thinly and evenly along the drill. Middle left—Larger seeds require a deeper, square-sided drill, which should be drawn to an even depth. The seed may be scattered evenly or be placed in rows along the drill. Middle right—Small seeds should be covered by drawing the rake parallel with the drill, and the soil should be firmed gently over them with the back of the rake. At right—Planting potatoes in a trench 4in. , deep and drawing the soil evenly from ; - >•' each side to form a ridge over the tubers. .

the certified copper oxychloride mixtures are often preferred by home gardeners because of their ease of preparation compared with Bordeaux mixture. .

Varieties: For early planting Epicure, Cliffs Kidney, and Arran Banner are recommended, for second early Arran Banner, Majestic, and Aucklander Short Top will be found satisfactory, and Arran Chief, Dakota Red, and Aucklander Short Top are popular as main-crop varieties. Dakota Red produces best in southern districts. Salad Vegetables As salad vegetables are best when young and fresh, frequent sowings are necessary. They should be grown rapidly and require a good, rich soil and a well-prepared seed-bed. Lettuce Seed of lettuce should be sown 1-in. deep in rows 9 to 12in. apart in welldrained and well-cultivated soil of high humus content. In cool weather lettuce do best when transplanted and are usually set out 9to 12in. apart. In hot, dry weather they may be sown thinly in rows 12in. apart and later thinned to 9in. between the plants. Transplanting in hot weather often causes plants to bolt. In southern districts where frosts occur in spring early plants should be raised under glass or in boxes. When plants are large enough for setting out in the open care must be taken to see that they are well hardened off or their growth may be seriously retarded if a spell of cold weather is experienced following planting. Varieties: For growing in winter especially adapted varieties such as Imperial 615 and Neapolitan (winter) are most suitable. For summer cultivation varieties such as Great Lakes and Imperial 847 are preferred, as they stand up better in warm weather. Radish Radishes are easy to grow, require little space, and are ready for use 3 to 6 weeks after sowing. They are adversely affected by hot, dry weather and remain in prime condition only a few days. To be mild, tender, and attractive they must be grown quickly and have plenty of moisture. Seed should be sown thinly every 3 or 4 weeks Jin. deep in rows 12in. apart in well-drained, free, deeply dug soil that contains plenty of humus. Varieties: Of the long varieties Icicle and Long Scarlet are best. Of the turnip-shaped, round, and oval varieties the best are Red Turnip, White Turnip, and French Breakfast.

Spring Onions Varieties of onions suitable for pulling young for salads are White Lisbon or Odourless. For best results successive sowings should be made. Sow seed gin. deep in rows 12in. apart in a well-drained soil that has been worked down to a fine, firm tilth. Endive Endive, an excellent salad plant, is not grown to the extent that its usefulness justifies. It is particularly good for winter use, as it can be substituted for lettuce, which is sometimes difficult to produce in cold weather. For a winter and spring crop sow the seed as for lettuce in an outdoor seed-bed in February and March and keep it moist during dry weather. For the summer and early-autumn crop seed may be sown in September. When about 2 to 3in. high plants should be set in rows 2ft. apart with 12in. between plants in the rows. Cultivate with the hoe to keep weeds down and to loosen the soil. Endive must be grown quickly and must not receive a check or the leaves tend to develop a bitter flavour. Pick for salads or for boiling as greens any time after leaves are 4in. high; the early leaves can be cut and more allowed to grow. Partial blanching usually improves the flavour of the leaves and renders them more crisp and tender. Success-' ful blanching depends on excluding the light from the inner leaves and keeping them dry. A convenient method is to gather the leaves in a bunch when the heart is nearly mature and tie them near the top; this should be done when the leaves are dry. Blanching may also be done with two boards fastened together over the row in the shape of an inverted V, or each plant may De covered with a flowerpot with the hole stopped. Blanching is completed in about 14 days, when the plant should be used as soon as possible, as it is then liable to decay. Varieties: Commonly grown varieties are Moss Curled and Fringe Leaved, the former being the more popular. Horse Radish Horse radish is grown for its pungent roots, which are grated, mixed with salt and vinegar, and eaten as a relish, condiment, or appetiser with meats or other food. Though there is little choice of variety, care should be taken to obtain good healthy planting stock of a strain that is giving good results where it is to be grown. Horse radish does best on deeply worked, . well-drained, well-manured loam. No

fresh manure must be mixed with the surface soil, as this causes the roots to fork. Horse radish seldom develops fertile seed and therefore is propagated from roots or root cuttings, which are very hardy and persistent. If it is not treated as an annual and carefully dug up each year, it tends to spread and become a pest. Horse radish may be planted in September from root cuttings preferably Gin. long and set in rows 2ft. apart between the sets in the rows. Plant the roots in a slanting position with the thick end facing upward and the top of the cutting about 2in. below the top of the soil. The only cultivation necessary is keeping the surface soil free of weeds and occasional hoeing to conserve soil moisture. Since horse radish makes its greatest growth late in the season, harvesting should be delayed until as late in autumn as possible. When lifted, roots may be stored in dry sand and drawn on as required. Seed Drills Apart from wooden markers the most convenient tools for making the seed drills are the ordinary swannecked hoe and garden rake. For forming a shallow drill the rake should be turned teeth uppermost and held at an angle of about 45 degrees and the back pressed into the soil to the desired depth. By moving the rake and keeping it parallel with the garden line and repeating this operation the entire drill is formed. In drawing the drill out with the hoe the blade should be tilted on its edge and only the corner used. By using short frequently repeated strokes the • drill can be drawn straighter and a more regular depth kept than if long continuous strokes are . used. The maintenance of correct even depth" is important because variations are likely to cause irregularity or failure of germination, which will make thinning more difficult or cause blank spaces in the rows. Spacing and Marking Rows Various methods can be used for spacing rows. Some gardeners have the rake or hoe handle marked into 6in. spaces, which is quite a good method, but a 6 to 10ft. length of l|in. x lin. or similar light batten marked at the desired intervals or having Gin. spacings painted on it will be found very useful both for marking off the distance between the rows and the distance between the plants in the row. A good-quality garden line is essential and should be affixed to 12 to 15in. long pegs sharpened at one end. Seed Sowing Good seed is essential to success in vegetable growing. The most careful and efficient gardener cannot achieve success with poor seed even if he gives the closest attention to other factors of production. As the seed is the basis of the crop and its cost is of little consequence in the total cost of production of most vegetable crops, the grower cannot afford to take chances. Only the best seeds or plants obtainable should be used. Quantity of seed to sow: The rate of sowing should be just sufficient to produce a uniform stand without overcrowding the plants and so necessitating undue thinning. In estimating the rate of sowing it is necessary .to take into account several factors.

1. The date of sowing; the earlier sowing is done the greater the quantity of seed needed, because some of the seed will probably not germinate. 2. The physical character of the soil. Clayey soils require more seed than sandy loams, as the seedling is often injured when breaking through heavy, sticky, or lumpy ground; carrot, parsnip, and bean seedlings are especially liable to injury. 3. The size and vigour of the young plants; carrot and parsnip seedlings are weak and are not able to push through a compact, heavy soil. 4. The viability of the seed; the proportion of seed in a packet that will germinate may be ascertained by testing the seeds. 5. Insect pests, birds, and diseases; if insects and diseases are prevalent, more seed will be required. Even if seedlings are sprayed or protected from birds, some are sure to be lost. 6. Manner of sowing seed; if a crop is to mature where it is sown, seed should be used sparingly and the plants thinned to the required distance after germination. If plants are to be shifted, thicker sowing may be practised. Sowing broadcast and in drills: Seed may be broadcast, that is, scattered evenly over a surface, or it may be distributed in straight and evenly spaced furrows or drills. Though broadcasting is quicker, the method is seldom advisable unless the soil is in exceptionally fine condition and free of weed seed. The advantages of the drill system over broadcasting are as follows: — The seed may be sown at a uniform depth. Seedlings grown in drills are easier to thin and weed. It is possible to cultivate the soil, as there is a regular and definite space between plants. Depth of sowing: Depth of sowing depends upon at least four factors, of which the first is size. The larger the seed, the deeper it should be planted. Beans may be planted to a depth of lin. or Is in.; celery or carrot seed should be barely covered. The texture of the soil is the second factor. If the soil is sandy, the seed may be planted at a greater depth than if the soil is clayey. The third factor is moisture. Seed must be sown deeper in dry soil than in moist or well-irrigated soil. The fourth factor, the season of the year, influences the third. There is more moisture in early spring and late autumn than in summer. Seed sown in spring and autumn should be nearer the surface than seed sown in summer, because lack of moisture in the topsoil makes deeper planting necessary. . Covering the seed: Experience has shown that the soil used to cover the seed should be as fine as possible and of free-running texture and should be firmly pressed down. It is often advisable to sieve some suitable soil when covering fine seeds. Very light soils should be firmed with even foot pressure, but the back of the rake is usually sufficient for heavy soils. Firming the soil is a most important operation for securing good germination, particularly of fine seeds.