STUDY IN FARM MANAGEMENT

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 70, Issue 1, 15 January 1945, Page 9

STUDY IN FARM MANAGEMENT

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DRAINED alluvial river flats are the most productive areas found throughout North Auckland. These areas carry rich paspalumwhite clover or paspalum-ryegrass-white clover pastures. Over 75 per cent, of the milking cows in the northern peninsula are grazed on the pastures on river flats. In addition, the pastures provide luscious feed for the fattening of beef cattle reared on the hill country.

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E. H. ARNOLD,

Instructor in Agriculture, Whangarei. ■ /

r 1 ’HE areas of flat alluvial land in I North Auckland vary in size from patches of a few acres to stretches thousands of acres in extent. The total area as estimated by the Soil Survey Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research covers 216,000 acres. The soils are divided broadly into two major types: the clay flats or meadow soil areas covering 131,300 acres, and the remainder, which are more recently formed soils of more diversified types, extending over 84,700 acres. Considerable areas of river flats are found in the river valleys entering the Awanui, Mangonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, and Kaipara Harbours, and elsewhere, as at Waipu. The largest single area is the Ruawai Flats, of approximately 33,000 acres, adjacent to the Northern Wairoa River. However, on this river are further areas extending over 34,000 acres. These 67,000 acres, together with the adjacent hill land, comprise the Northern Wairoa district. NORTHERN WAIROA DISTRICT. The Northern Wairoa district embraces the whole of the Hobson County, and the north-western portion of the Otamatea County. It stretches from Donnelly’s Crossing in the north to the Kaipara North Head and Matakohe in the south. From Tangiteroria in the east it extends to the coast in the west. The area covers a region of hills and dales, of gum hills and river flats. No great mountains with their accompanying deep valleys exist. Above the river flats on the east rise rolling hills of claystone, sandstone, and limestone. On the west, between river flats and the sea, lie hills of consolidated sand.

The predominating feature of the area is the Northern Wairoa River. Tidal and navigable for a distance of over 60 miles, the river, now as in the past, greatly influences both settlement and farming. Until about 15 to 20 years ago, when existing roads were improved and many new roads formed, the river provided the only means of

ingress and egress to the district. Further, it provided the means of transport and communication within the area. The ring of the bushman’s axe, the screech of the timber mills’ saws, the whine of the flax stripper, and the dull crunch of the gumdigger’s spade or spear sounded widely throughout the district. No demand existed for farm produce, except that obtained from a few acres of cultivation, a beast or two, and some pigs. In time settlers took over worked-out timber land, cleared the stumps, drained the swampy flats, grew pasture and grazed sheep for their wool and cattle for their hides and tallow. Later dairying was undertaken. Kegs of salted butter were shipped to Auckland. About 1896 several small cheese factories were erected and the first small shipment of cheese was made from Ruawai. In 1870 the first sheep in any considerable number were introduced, 2,000 being brought overland

from Hawke’s Bay. But at the close of the century little further had been accomplished. Sheep and cattle products provided the major source of the farm income. The dairy industry had languished. With the advent of the cream separator and the refrigerator, dairying revived and developed vastly. In 1902 the Northern Wairoa Dairy Factory at Dargaville manufactured 64J tons of butter. This past season 3401 tons were produced. In 1916 the factory at Ruawai made 160 tons of cheese, equivalent to approximately 64 tons of butter. This past season the production of this latter factory was 1722 tons of butter. In 1902 the district produced 64| tons and 42 years later 5123 tons. And this is less than one quarter of the estimated potential future production. Today the river has little part in transport. Direct rail connection as well as quite good roads provide communication to the district. Many miles of all-weather roads have been formed throughout the area. Motor lorries have , replaced the cream launches of former days. . Electric power was introduced as late as 1937. The Climate The average annual rainfall recorded at Dargaville over the past 21 years is 46.95 in. This was distributed on the average each month as follows:

These figures would indicate that the rainfall for the summer months should be sufficient for continued good pasture growth. However, the usefulness of any rainfall depends not only on the total precipitation, but also on its incidence. In some seasons little rain has fallen from November to

April. During other summers the rainfall is made up of short periods of heavy rains, interspersed with long rainless spells of high temperatures. Occasionally a wet summer with many wet days each month occurs. Spring conditions are not reliable. The variation from a long, cold, wet spring to one short, mild, and of moderate rainfall may occur during consecutive seasons. In fact it is a truism to state that-no two seasons are alike, and that there is no average season in the district. However, the climate generally is ideally suitable for all-the-year-round pasture growth of the . pas-palum-ryegrass-white clover sward which is found par excellence on many Northern Wairoa farms. Although climatic factors do influence the seasonal production of pasture, other decisive factors are present which prevent the climate being exploited to the full. The Soils The river flat soils consist of approximately 46,000 acres of alluvial

heavy clay loams and 21,000 acres of more recent river alluvials. The latter soils vary considerably, due to wide variety of hill country from where they have been washed down during floods. Soils formed from the alluvium from volcanic hills such as those in the Kaihau Valley at Maropui and Mamaranui are of high fertility on which paspalum pastures predominate. Soils formed from debris of the limestone country are quite good, but those from that of the sandstone and claystone hills are generally poorer. Many areas of peat are found, particularly in the short valleys leading off into the sandstone hills. The larger area of grey-flecked heavy clay loams has been built up by fine silty material deposited in the tidal reaches of the Northern Wairoa River. They are typical meadow soils or ground water soils; the water-table is high and rises to or near the surface in many places during the wetter months. Excessive wetness in the winter and early spring months occurs. When insufficiently drained and badly

poached or pugged by stock they lose their desirable crumb structure and while wet become a tenacious mass unable to maintain good pasture plants. In season pugged areas become a sea of yellow buttercup. Upon drying out in the summer they crack and open up badly. When adequately drained they possess a most desirable crumb structure and will carry a vigorous paspalum-ryegrass-white clover sward which prevents opening up under dry conditions. The soils of the hills between the flats and sea are sandy loams. Near the coast are small narrow areas of recently stabilised sand dunes possessing a soil of 5 to 6in. of light sandy loam above free-running sand. Next is a stretch one to three miles wide of reddish sandy loams overlying a consolidated sub-soil. Between this area and the river flats are the sandy gum lands, hills stretching for many miles and up to five miles wide. The soil is badly leached and an iron podsol soil has developed. Below 12 to 18in. occurs an ironstone hard pan which prevents drainage, making the sandy loam on these hills wet in winter and dry in summer. On the eastern side the hills range from sandy clay loams to heavy clay gum lands. A large area consists of limestone soils of high fertility. In the northern area near Kaihu poor dry soils of basalt volcanic derivation occur. . Drainage Requirements The heavy clay loams of the flats are rather difficult to handle. Much of the land is low-lying, and tidal water interferes with efficient drainage. Naturally the soil of so large an area has variations in texture.. These depend on the proportion of very fine clay in the soil, the variation in depth and quality of the darker top soil overlying the clay subsoil, and the height above or below the river level at high tide. These variations were indicated by the different types of natural cover, such as raupo, flax, manuka, cabbage trees, puriri, white pine, and rimu. The first step was the working over of the profitable areas of bush by the timber mills. The initial development into farms consisted of drainage. Efficient drainage is definitely the first and foremost requirement in the successful establishment and maintenance of good pastures on these flats. Without it white clover and English grasses will not grow. Even paspalum will not thrive in excessively wet fields. Little or no drainage results in rushes and raupo; partial drainage restricts the pasture growing season, making the land suitable only for summer fattening areas; while efficient drainage permits profitable dairying. The main outlet drains, together with stopbanks and flood-gates, have been put in by the Local Drainage Branch of the Lands and Survey Department, drainage boards, groups of

settlers, and individual farmers. These form the basis for individual farm drainage by means of open drains. Where drains were put in before there was much heavy stocking of the land, and where they are deep, and the water gets away rapidly to and through efficient outlets, a complete system of these, together with small paddocks, has proved fairly effective in keeping the land dry in normal winters. But there are always portions of paddocks from which the surface water is not removed quickly enough to permit of stocking. Deep and numerous open drains are objectionable, in that overdrainage occurs in the summer, and cleaning and maintenance prove costly. . Thorough drainage, which means maintaining the water level sufficiently below the surface, rapidly removing the harmful excess water from heavy rains, together with keeping the level of water within the reach of the roots of pasture plants as long as possible during dry weather, is obtained only by combining a system of comparatively shallow, open drains leading to an effective outlet drain to carry off flood waters with a system of underground drains to remove the water rapidly from the surface soil and lead it to open drains. 'With such a system the pastures are earlier, topdressing and harrowing more effective, poaching of the surface considerably reduced, weeds such as buttercups and rushes suppressed, and the effects of drought in drying-out pastures lessened. For efficient underground drainage tiles are undoubtedly the best, but practically no tiling of land has been carried out on the Northern Wairoa flats. This aspect of drainage must, when labour and finance permit, be given very serious consideration. In the past on some areas very effective drains of manuka fascines have been installed with good results. Where the work has been well carried out they have proved fairly permanent. To-day the cost of obtaining suitable manuka (now scarce) and constructing the drains proves as much as laying tile drains. Over the past 15 years considerable areas have been improved in drainage by the mole-drain plough. Varied results have been obtained. While on some areas mole draining has solved the problem of underground drainage, on other areas much money has been wasted. Poor and mediocre benefits have resulted from the failure to clear all roots and stumps, to give the surface of fields some preliminary grading, to avoid drawing the mole across depressions and blind creeks, to provide effective outlets to each conduit, and properly to connect up two mole drains when they cross each other near the outlets. Further, poor results obtain' when the work is performed at the wrong time. However, while certain areas do not lend themselves to effective mole-draining, many farmers have made good use of the mole-drain plough. An effective system of mole drains 9 to 12ft. apart costs 12/- to 15/- per acre, and even if they last only four years, the work proves worth while. Pasture Establishment Following the initial drainage work, the earlier farmers, after cutting down the remaining bush and scrub, burned off and surface sowed the land. In those days certified seeds were not available, and seed mixtures varied greatly. Where drainage was poor or inadequately maintained pastures deteriorated rapidly and were replaced by rushes and other swamp plants. Where drainage was fairly good, but. grazing management poor, tall fescue, a constituent of most mixtures sown, took charge. With the spread of paspalum, also included in many early seed mixtures, followed later by ‘ the gradual decay of the softer timber, the clearing of stumps and logs of puriri, the levelling of the surface, oversowing with perennial ryegrass and white clover, liming, and topdressing, harrowing and topping with the mower, many thousands of acres of high-producing paspalum-ryegrass-white clover pasture have been established. At one time maize for grain occupied several thousand acres of the flats. In addition, supplementary fodder cropping was practised. To-day maize growing is confined to small areas for grain for pig feeding on the farm, and fodder and root crops are a rarity. , After cropping the land was ploughed and sown down to pasture. Results varied. Where poor seed and unsuitable seed mixtures were used the pastures had only a short life. Where cultivation was insufficient and liming and fertilising inadequate pastures

did not establish properly and were difficult to maintain. The resulting pastures became paspalum dominant. “Paspalum Farm” and Wintering-off The paspalum dominant pastures, and, to a much larger extent, the inadequacy of the drainage of the heavy soils of the flats brought about during the wetter months the practice of win-tering-off the stock on the adjacent hills. Paspalum does remarkably well on- the river flats and will withstand flooding for several weeks at a time. Paspalum has proved an excellent pioneer in bringing in this alluvial land. It requires, however, high soil fertility for maximum production. On adequately drained land it combines well with ryegrass and white clover, but requires careful management of grazing, harrowing, and topping. Where drainage is poor and management inefficient the dominant paspalum sward results. Practically all farms on the flats winter the stock off on the hills. On the rank summer and autumn growth of paspalum the cows are grazed during the early winter. When this is finished and the land is becoming wet the stock are moved off to the adjacent hill country. This is usually surface-sown country, and may be limestone hills in cocksfoot and ratstail, or sandstone hills in danthonia and browntop. . Where the farms are immediately adjacent to the hills the one farm usually embraces both types of land. Where the farm is wholly on

the flats grazing areas are rented, but usually a second farm is held for a winter run-off. On the hill area the summer and autumn growth is ungrazed, and this provides pasturage in the form of natural, uncut, but poorquality hay. Here the cows remain until calving time. A study of information obtained from the Northland Herd Improvement Association shows that of the dairy cows grazed on the flats 5 per cent, have calved before or are being carried over at July 1, 12 per cent, calve in July, 42.5 per cent, in August, 25.5 per' cent, in September, and the remaining 15 per cent, later in the season. Although the system of winteringoff has increased total production, it has some radical weaknesses. In general, the hill country pasturage is not the best feed for in-calf cows. Digestive troubles, mainly through impaction, occur. Some farmers are improving the position by making hay on the hills for feeding during the winter, or by carting baled hay from the flats to the winter run-off. Although calving dates are later than in many other districts, if the spring is wet, the surface of the fields cuts up badly even after the cows are brought down on to the flats. There is a definite shortage of feed for newly-calved cows in the spring months, August to October. It is normally expected that a cow will come into full production within six to eight weeks after calving. The peaks of butter production at both the Ruawai and Dargaville factories do not occur until mid-December. Pas-

palum does not commence growth until October and even December in some seasons. Paspalum is a good servant, but a bad master. When dominant and especially when allowed to become rank the growth is unpalatable and, in many cases, indigestible to stock. When kept short through topping, together with white clover, the pasture produces a succession of leafage ideal for milking cows. Rank paspalum suppresses white clover. In dominant dense paspalum swards ryegrass is not found. Clovers must be present to supply cheap and effective nitrogen to the grasses, and to balance the feed to provide a better milkproducing ration. Ryegrass is necessary along with cocksfoot and white clover to provide stock grazing until the paspalum takes up the running in November or December. Improvements to pastures on many farms have taken place in the past decade, but considerable work is required to cover the whole of the flats with the desired combination of paspalum, ryegrass, and white clover. The first and most important step is improved drainage. Then follow ploughing and resowing of a suitable pasture mixture or the oversowing of ryegrass and white clover; better management including topping and harrowing; and adequate topdressing. Maintenance of Pastures Sub-division of fields and rotational grazing, although recognised as necessary, are possibly not adequate. Control of paspalum pastures requires small fields. Topping with the mower, performed fully on some farms, is generally insufficient on others to avoid and control rank growth. Harrowing of pastures is not general. Topdressing pastures has extended slowly. All the river-flat soils require lime in abundance. During recent years liming has received an impetus. Lime works on the limestone hills adjacent to the flats show remarkable increases in output. The soils require phosphates. Basic slag proved very popular when available, but superphosphate gave good responses only with adequate liming. Potash does not give responses; apparently liming assists in releasing sufficient from the clay portion of the soil. Full results on many areas are not obtained from topdressing, due to poor drainage and the rank growth of paspalum. Hay and Ensilage The conservation of surplus pastureinto hay and ensilage is not a strong feature of Northern Wairoa farming. This, no doubt, is due to the practice of wintering-off, a major factor in reducing the amount of hay and ensilage made. It has been ascertained on many occasions that 12 to 15cwt. of hay or its equivalent is required per cow for feeding over the winter period. In 1941-42, if all the hay made had been fed to milking cows only, each

cow in the Hobson County would have received 3jcwt., and each cow in the Otamatea County 2|cwt. over the winter period. It must be remembered that it is being assumed that dairy cows only received all the hay. Other cattle were carried and these received some portion of the hay crop. Even with the feed available on winter run-offs, a serious deficiency in , adequate winter feed for,stock is revealed. In general, stock are not well wintered and the feed provided could well be doubled. Ensilage has not been taken into these calculations. In 1941-42 only 296 tons was made in the two counties. This is far from sufficient to provide supplementary feed for a dry summer or when the paspalum becomes rank. Cropping Small areas of turnips are grown for summer and autumn feeding of milking cows. Occasionally a few acres are sown to green cereals for early spring feeding. At one time maize for grain was an important cash crop on the flats. Yields of 80 to 100 bushels per acre were common. With low prices and the increase in paspalum pastures, greater profits were to be obtained, from dairying. The maize crop now occupies less than 400 acres, about half of which is harvested for grain and fed to pigs on the farm. Prairie Queen, Ninety Day, and Johannsen’s White are the chief varieties. Cattle Although Shorthorn cattle formed the foundations of the early dairy herds, Jerseys now predominate. In some herds Shorthorn blood is still evident. Odd herds of Ayrshires and Friesians. are found. In recent years considerable improvement has been brought about by the introduction of pedigree bulls of proved production strain. Average cow production is not high. The feed conditions throughout the year are unfavourable for maximum production. The majority of . farmers must cull on disease; not on cow production. This fact cancels out to a great extent the advantages of good breeding. Further, it is no doubt the reason that only 10 per cent, of suppliers to the Northern Wairoa and Ruawai factories test their cows. s Certain areas of the flats are utilised for the summer grazing of beef cattle. Herefords and Shorthorns predominate, but quite a number of Black Polls are seen. Stores are brought down off the hill runs to be finished off on the luscious paspalum-white clover pastures on the flats. These flats are suitable for, and in time may become notable for, the rearing of chilled beef. In fact, until drainage conditions are greatly improved many areas of the flats are more suitable for fattening stock than for dairying. Pigs Just as district characteristics affect the butterfat production of the area, so do they influence pig production. Almost entire reliance is placed on skim milk for feeding pigs. Some district farmers purchase sufficient but economical amounts of meals, especially for feeding brood sows and sows with litters before the flush of skim milk occurs. In recent years more attention has been given to the growing of small areas of crops, especially maize and, to a lesser extent, pumpkins. English Berkshires and Tamworth, together with all degrees of crosses, account for over 90 per cent, of the pigs kept. Large Whites with a few Large Blacks comprise the remainder. The Tamworth boar, mated to the .Tamworth-Berkshire sow, is popular and does well.

District breeding practice aims to have only breeding pigs on the farm during the winter and early spring. The more successful farmers arrange the first farrowing in late May and June, with a second in late November and December. The first litters are turned off at seven months as baconers, and the second at good porker weights with a few pigs at baconer weights. In general, however, the first farrowings occur about August, the pigs of which are sold at heavy baconer weights after eight months’ feeding. The second litters arrive during FebruaryMarch. The resulting pigs are usually found as poor light stores or weaners in May. They are quitted at any price if possible, and if not sold, are allowed to take their chance under starvation conditions. On many farms such second litter pigs make the financial returns less than if no second farrowings occurred.

Time, feed, and energy are spent for a loss. Few of these late second litters survive, and thus there are never sufficient pigs on the flats to cope with the skim milk in the spring. A large trade in stores from the hill farms has resulted. On certain farms, where it is undesirable to have the sows farrow in May and June, the first litters, born about August-September, are disposed of as baconers, while the second litters farrowed in February-March are carried over the winter as thriving stores on farm-grown crops—maize or pumpkins —with meatmeal and grazing of ryegrass pastures on the better-drained paddocks. This practice avoids unnecessary losses of wintering pigs and buying in of costly spring stores.

But all success in pig keeping depends on suitable housing to meet the system followed. During recent years vast improvements have been made and new types of housing more suitable to district requirements are becoming more and more evident. The old draughty box on stilts allowing the drainage to seep through the floor boards, forming a cess pool below, so common up to a few years ago, is disappearing. On farms where the sows first farrow in May-June covered housing, of which the “Preston” is typical, are popular. Where sows do not farrow until later and stores are wintered on maize the “Dargaville” fattening and store pens, together with movable farrowing houses in small fields, are favoured.

The marketable products of the Northern Wairoa are butter, pigs, and fat cattle from the flats; wool, fat sheep and cattle, store sheep and

cattle, butterfat, and pigs from the adjacent hills. New modified methods are raising the productivity of the land of timber and gum, of swamp and hill once considered useless for farming. Much has been done, more remains to be accomplished. The management of one of the more progressive farms is now studied. THE NORTHERN WAIROA DEMONSTRATION FARM. This farm of 125 acres, owned and operated by the Northern Wairoa Experimental and Demonstration Farm Society (Inc.), is situated approximately 1J miles from Dargaville on the corner of the West Coast and Kaihu Roads. The work of the farm is controlled by six practical district farmers, elected annually, together with an officer of the Fields Division of the Department of Agriculture. It must be stated that those directing the policy of the farm have exactly the same material in the way of land, stock, labour, and finance that the ordinary farmer has at his disposal—no more and 'no less. Certainly a small Government grant is made annually to assist with the experimental programme of the farm, but this grant is swallowed up several times over in the abnormal expenditure (and loss) occasioned by such work. The basis of the high production and success of the farm is sound farming practice; the result of the pooling of the knowledge of successful local farmers, of scientific agricultural workers, and individuals trained in farm finance.

The property when taken over consisted of 28 acres of sandy gumland hills in weak browntop and danthonia pasture, reverting to manuka, and 99 acres of river flat, typical of the northern district, made up of some 60 acres, poorly drained, in poor browntop and paspalum pasture, and the remainder undeveloped swamp land. During the first season 35 cows were milked for a butterfat production of 581 b. per acre. Improvements of all types followed until the slump period, when, like all other district farms, a difficult time was experienced. Since 1934, when a

marked improvement in butterfat production commenced, with better prices and careful planning great progress has been recorded. Seventy milking cows will be milked next season and the butterfat production per acre has already been over 1401 b. All herd replacements are reared on the farm, while all stock are wintered on hay and ensilage on the hill portion. Today 72 acres of the flat are in highproducing paspalum - ryegrass - white clover pastures, 3 acres devoted to pig paddocks, 1.5 acres to a pampas grass plantation, 2 acres on which maize for pig feeding and seed were grown last year, seven acres cropped with pumpkins under contract, and 7 acres drained but undeveloped swamp pasture. The sandy gumland hill pastures are showing continual improvement .through the feeding out of hay during the winter to the stock. Drainage, Layout, Shelter The previous occupiers had put in an unsatisfactory drainage system, which was haphazard in layout and with no definite outlet. The flats are low-lying . and the water level in the drains is badly affected by the tidal action of the river. The construction of a deep and adequate main outlet drain was carried out. A 2ft. floodgate was provided, and subsidiary drains dug along fence lines. This provided for the area to the west of the Kaihu Road. During successive years several fields were mole drained with , quite good results. This work enabled pastures to be improved and established with a considerable rise in production. Later it was realised that the system was still far from adequate, so during the past eight years the layout has been remodelled and improved. The flood-gate was unable to be sited near the edge of the Kaihu River and was placed on the lower side of the road culvert, some 18 chains.back from the river. This long drain, 10ft. deep in places and open to tidal waters twice a day, was difficult and costly to maintain. The drain silted up rapidly, rendering the working of the gate ’ ineffective. In the

early winter of 1939 an electric flood pump was installed. Maintenance costs of the long drain were cut drastically and drainage was obtained for twentyfour hours of the day when necessary as against the limited time between tides when the flood gate operated. Following this all farm drains were deepened, and new drains constructed to cut off more effectively the hill water from the flats. The average annual costs of running the pump for the first three years worked out as follows: —Interest, £7; depreciation, £5/12/-; power charges, £5/19/10 —a total of £lB/11/10 per annum. Improvements in farm production quickly resulted. The land was drier in the early spring, ryegrass gave infinitely earlier and better growth, cows could be calved earlier, and higher production was ensured. The production figures for the three months, July to September inclusive, reveal the economic value of the pump. The butterfat production is as follows, July to September (inclusive): —

1938 .. .. 23301 b. butterfat 1939 .. .. 23921 b. 1940 .. .. 29411 b. 1941 .. .. 35221 b.

During the period the herd had not been increased in numbers, but it was possible to provide them with more and better feed during the spring months. Calving now takes place from mid-July to the end of August, and not as previously, mid-August to the end of September.

Following the above work drainage improvements were made to the area east of the Kaihu Road. This involved the drainage, stop-banking, and installthe drainage,' stop-banking, and installation of flood gates for 21J- acres. Of this area 12 acres were underdrained with manuka fascines. In order to obtain thorough drainage of the farm flats consideration is to be given to tile draining, which has been placed in the list of post-war improvements.

As is the case on all farms taken over after some initial development work has been done, any improvements to farm layout have been difficult. The original fence lines, drains, and buildings, considered along with improvements in pasture and stock management over the past decade, do not make the position any easier. The farm layout is not ideal for modern farm practices, and the cost of a radical change is prohibitive. However, the existing sub-division does enable a system of controlled rotational grazing to be followed. The standard subdivision fence consists of three 3in. barbed wires; 45in., 30in. and 15in. from the ground respectively, tightly strained on three posts to the chain together with battens between posts. An electric fence outfit proves extremely valuable for temporary fencing of crops and especially for closer sub-division for better utilisation of the pastures.

Shelter, both tall and low, has been provided. On the sandy gum hill a breakwind of Pinus pinaster, Pinus insignis, and Eucalyptus Macarthurii has been planted. Protecting the house is a fine belt of Pinus insignis. On the flats Pinus insignis, macrocarpa, and Cupressus Macarthurii provide tall shelter, while pampas (which proves ideal), flax, and Acacia verticulata do well. Pasture Establishment During the existence of the Farm Society a constant improvement in pastures has taken place. The former low-producing pastures have been converted in some paddocks by ploughing and resowing, and in others by topdressing with lime and basic slag or superphosphate, from poor browntop and paspalum swards deficient in clovers into ryegrass-paspa-lum —white clover swards. The combined results of improved drainage and increased ryegrass and white clover have brought the butterfat production peak earlier. Previously the peak was reached in December, just as is common still over the Northern ’ Wairoa flats. During recent years the butterfat. production attains its maximum in October, and this is maintained at the same level through to December and even to early January. It has often been stated that, once broken up by the plough, the North- . ern Wairoa flats take several years after sowing before a satisfactory covering of grass and clover can be established. Experience on , the Demonstration Farm proves this statement to be incorrect. When the land is treated with thorough cultivation, dressed with adequate quantities of lime and phosphate and sown early with certified strains of grasses and clovers, excellent results have eventuated. The best results have been obtained by ploughing during the late spring, working down, summer fallowing during which regular harrowings and discings were given, applying lime at the rate of one ton per acre in late January, and sowing the seed during the last week of February together with 3cwt. of superphosphate per acre. The seed-bed was rolled with the Cambridge roller both before and after sowing the seed. Where it has been necessary to grow turnips for feeding the milking herd during the summer a modification of the foregoing has given good results. Spring ploughing takes place earlier, and care is taken to feed all the turnips early so that the grass seeding takes place by the end of March. Half the lime is sown with the turnip crop, the remainder immediately the land is free of the crop. The land is not ploughed again, but thoroughly disced and harrowed to no more than 2in. deep. Rolling and seeding then follow as before. The absence of the ploughing within a few weeks of sowing ensures that the natural consolidation is not lost. This

practice of cropping may result in the spring ploughing being performed while the soil is still too wet and does not crumble up freely, and also means a later sowing than is desired. Experience in preparing a so-called seedbed by means of discing and rotary hoeing of old pasture or unimproved land, although producing some results, proved far inferior to the use of the plough. The standard farm seed mixture is:

Per acre. Certified perennial ryegrass 251 b. Paspalum 51b. Certified cocksfoot .. .. 51b. Certified white clover . . 31b. Broad red clover . . .. 21b. Timothy .. .. ’ .. 21b. Lotus major .. .. .. Jib.

If sufficient paspalum is present or likely to come away from previous seeding, the paspalum is omitted, and the cocksfoot is increased. In normal times the new pasture received a further 3cwt. of superphosphate per acre the following August or September. By such practices high-producing pastures are established in the shortest time possible. Pasture Maintenance The high productivity of the improved pastures of the flats is maintained by careful management. Fields are rotationally grazed throughout the

season. During . the summer months the mower is kept busy topping off the rough uneaten patches and paspalum seed-heads. Harrowing to spread the droppings takes place before the pastures are spelled for the winter and again if necessary later on in the spring. After comprehensive trials carried out over many years the following top-dressing programme was adopted until fertiliser supplies were recently restricted. At first the lime content of all fields on the flats was raised by liming at one ton per acre. Annual dressings of scwt. of lime were made, followed along with wt. of superphosphate per acre, except where 3cwt. of basic slag was applied. The fields closed in May to provide an early bite for the newly-calved cows and also those with a suitable ryegrass content received super; while those areas with a paspalum-white clover sward, from where most of the summer butterfat production is obtained, received the basic slag: > Topdressing is completed each year by the end of March, the lime being applied from February and the phosphate following. Early topdressing proves very beneficial in increasing the bulk of early feed, i.e., the ryegrass. Autumn growth of white clover is stimulated, and this in turn supplies the necessary nitrogen for the ryegrass to make good growth in the late autumn, winter, and early spring. Recent wartime innovations in the farm topdressing practice are the use of liquid farmyard manure, a profitable practice, and the use of serpentine super.

Hay and Ensilage While such matters as improved drainage, good pastures, topdressing, and good stock enabled the farm to build up a high standard of production, it is the ample provision of feed that enables the farm to hold an honoured position as far as production is concerned in the district to-day. Details of the position over recent years are: —

During the past two seasons the extra labour for ensilage making has been unobtainable. The turnip crop follows the maize crop when necessary. These figures reveal that the feed provision ranges from 12cwt. to 16cwt. per head of stock wintered, a . figure well above the district average of approximately 3cwt. Cropping As the district soil and climate conditions are suited for all-grass farming, cropping is confined to the growing of turnips some seasons for summer feeding of the milking cows, and to the growing of maize every year for winter feeding of pigs. One to two acres of Johannsen’s white maize—a highyielding variety proved by extensive trials —are sown. The average yield is 90 bushels per acre, while one season a yield of 108 bushels per acre was obtained. The Dairy Herd The dairy herd of grade Jerseys, with a dash of Shorthorn in some animals, averages 60 to 65 cows. Butterfat production ranges from 16,000 to 17,0001 b. per annum. Cow production has gradually been raised from a figure of less than 2001 b. butterfat per annum to a herd of average of 3071 b. in 277 days Obtained in 1943-44. Herd testing has been continuous and full records of breeding and production are kept on usefully-designed cards procured from the Dairy Board. From the records thus kept much useful information is passed on to the Dairy Board in their sterility surveys, etc. Purchases of butterfat - backed pedigree Jersey bulls, usually as yearlings, are made from time to time. An important point is that the new bulls of the same family strains are procured. All herd replacements are now reared on the farm. At one time difficulty in rearing was experienced. Deaths at the yearling age were frequent and these were put down to stomach parasites. However, since a change was made in feeding, particularly up to 12 months of age, no further deaths have occurred. This definitely indicates that much of the trouble experienced is due to poor

feeding and not to stomach worm infestations. Twelve to 16 calves are reared each year. All calves are individually fed and receive full milk to three weeks of age. A change to skim milk supplemented at first by linseed meal and later by crushed oats follows. The skim milk is cut out about the end of November, and each calf receives lib. per day of crushed oats for

the next six weeks.,. As early as possible the calves are rotated round the paddocks ahead of the cows to graze the best of the pasture. Later they are grazed on the kikuyu areas of the hill. In early May the best of the hay is put out to enable the calves to become accustomed to feeding before the winter sets in properly. From midJune until the weather improves in August each yearling receives 11b. of crushed oats per day in addition. The farm thus rears well-developed heifers and obtains efficient butterfat producers for replacements. Conditions on the farm enable the cows to be mated to calve at an earlier period than is common in the district; 5 per cent, have been carried over or calved by July 1; 41 per cent, calve in July; 34 per cent, in August; 14 per cent, in September, and the remaining

6 per cent, later. As the cows dry off in the autumn they complete the grazing of the flats until early May. They are then grazed on the hill pastures, where they receive hay and ensilage. Immediately prior to calving they are brought down, individually as necessary, to the “springer” paddock, changed each year, and one of the drier and better-sheltered fields on the flats. The milking herd then is rotated round, grazing the winterproduced ryegrass growth. Hay and ensilage feeding continues till the weather improves, usually in late August. Pasture growth is ample until late summer and autumn, when ensilage and in some seasons turnips are fed. Pigs The management of pigs, which provide an ever-increasing proportion of the farm income, has progressed along lines peculiar to district conditions. On this farm has been developed the “Dargaville” type of fattening pens, combined with an open-air system of movable farrowing pens in small fields of at least one-third of an acre in size.

Pig pens, or rather paddocks of this size, even on the heavy clay flats have held, for over eight years, a good sole of pasture, mainly of ryegrass. The pens, besides being used for their primary purpose of feeding pigs to baconer weight, are valuable to house v winter stores. A pedigree Tamworth boar is used with either pure English Berkshire or Tamworth-Berkshire cross sows. The pigs from such matings give good type baconers which do excellently under the conditions pertaining on the farm. The first litters born August-Septem-ber are disposed of as baconers, while the second litters farrowed FebruaryMarch are carried over the winter as light stores and sold as baconers in October. This breeding programme is possible owing to the maize crop. It avoids having litters of sucking pigs on the farm over the severe winter period mid-June to July, brings the feed demand in line with the skim milk supply, and enables all pigs to be turned off at baconer weight. Of course, breeding does not always work out “according to Hoyle,” and sometimes pigs of heavy store weight are on hand when the skim milk supply goes off. If the pigs are approaching baconer weight, maize is used with meatmeal to finish them off; if of medium store size, maize again carries them along in a thriving condition to the spring supply of skim milk. The introduction of winter feeding of maize has considerably improved the financial returns, as shown in the following table: —

Average of three years:— Before growing the After growing the maize crop. maize crop. Pig flesh per 1001 b. of butterfat . . . . under 401 b. 60-701 b. Return per lb. of butterfat . . . . 1.38 d. 2.46 d. Net return per cow ... . . . . £1 9s. 7d. £2 13s. 9d.

The net income from the pigs was increased by an average of £73/11/6 per annum for the three years after introducing the maize crop, as compared with that received during the three prior years. The farm management practices featured above are those of the ordinary work of the farm as a commercial dairy farm. Experimental and trial work has not been inconsiderable. The income from the ordinary farming operations has had to meet the costs of the running and maintenance of the farm, as well as, with the Government subsidy, provide funds for experimental work. The practices described can well be put into operation with suitable minor adaptations on many district farms. The farm committee, an energetic body of local farmers, have, by their careful planning, considerably raised the standard of management and production of the farm. Thanks are expressed to the Director, Soil Survey Division, Scientific and Industrial Research Department, for data in the soil map, and to the Lands and Survey Department for drawings of maps.

PLAN OF NORTHERN WAIROA DEMONSTRATION FARM

Inches. Inches. January . . 4.90 July 6.11 February . 3.28 August ... 4.50 March . .. . 2.16 September 3.56 April .... . 3.58 October .. 3.27 May . 4.66 November 2.59 June . 5.45 December 2.87

Hobson. Otamatea. acres. Otamatea. acres. Area under cultivation 201,678 168,513 Area in pasture 194,822 162,070 Area of river flats . . 34,496 32,896 Pasture cut for hay and ensilage . . 4,025 2,687 Annual crops 943 594 No. No. . Dairy cows in milk 34,425 30,418 Other cattle . . 41,743 38,600 Sheep shorn 107,749 118,040 Pigs . . . . 14,003 12,149

LAND AREAS, CROPS, PASTURES AND LIVESTOCK, HOBSON AND OTAMATEA COUNTIES, 1941-42.

Season. Hay. Ensilage. Turnips. Acres. Tons. Acres. Tons. Acres. Tons. 1940-41 . . 255 40 14 84 25 72 1941-42 . . 18 43 125 80 35 60 " 1942-43 ..31 59 * ■ — ' 3 69 1943-44 . . 225 69 — — — —