The Orchard and Vineyard

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume 61, Issue 1, 15 July 1940, Page 57

The Orchard and Vineyard

Contributed by the Horticulture Division

Orchard Notes

Stocktaking in the Orchard

Seasonal Work Tree plantings and preparation of the soil. Push on with the pruning and complete as early as possible; gather up and burn all prunings as they are often a source of disease infection. Dig around trees where necessary. Overhaul the spraying outfit. Spray stone fruit trees for insect pests, using lime sulphur 1 in 15, that is, 1 gallon of lime sulphur to 15 gallons of water. In August spray all stone fruits with Bordeaux mixture 5-4-50 for the control of the various fungus diseases. Clean up and attend to all shelter f belts, inspect drains. Clean up packing shed if this has not already been done.

r T -, HERE are times when every person THERE are times when every person engaged in fruit-growing should take stock. It is poor practice to continue growing fruit year after year without reviewing the various operations of the past season, which could well be done at the close of any fruit season. Here are a few points to give a lead in this stocktaking. (1) The crop produced. Could you have produced a heavier crop of fruit? Possibly you could have done so had you given more attention to certain details. Have you been pruning the trees in such a manner and along the lines most suitable to your particular varieties and soil conditions without sacrificing quality for quantity? (2) Were you satisfied with the quality of the fruit produced? Perhaps you could have increased the percentage of high-grade fruit if you had cut out more of those crowded fruit spurs when you were pruning. Remember that multiplicity of fruit spurs neither indicates a heavy crop nor high quality of fruit, but often the reverse. Did you thin the crop in such a way as to produce the highest';'grade fruit? All fruit requires room to grow and develop properly. You may not have given sufficient consideration .to the spraying materials you were using, thereby causing a certain amount of injury, to the foliage and fruit. The soil conditions may not have been altogether satisfactory for the proper' development of the fruit, and you realised when it was too late that you had too great a proportion which only qualified for the lower grades. Try and improve on this. (3) Were all the pests and diseases controlled as they should have been? If not, what is the reason? Is it found in any of the following?

(a) Faulty or inadequate spraying equipment. (b) Incomplete coverage’ of fruit and foliage. (c) Trying to get through the work too quickly. (d) Using spraying materials that have not been certified. (e) Approaching the trees from the same angle each time when by coming up to them from a different angle may have given better results. Analyse all these points carefully and see if you are able to make any improvement in disease control. You do not want excess 1 russetting, black spot, codling moth, , or any other

disease if it can be controlled. ■ It has been done, and you can do it, too. (4) Have you given any thought as to what it is costing you to produce your fruit? If not, why not? Consider the following points and act accordingly. (a) ' Keep a record of the cost of spraying materials. (b) The number of days spent on pruning. (c) The time taken for. cultivation, spraying,, etc. . n (d) The quantity and'prices of the various manures used and the time of application. ■’ (e) Any items in connection with running the orchard. . ; You say there is not sufficient time for this to be done. If you have never tried it you are quite incompetent to' say it cannot be done. Try it, and you will be surprised how little time it takes; besides, you will get quite a lot', of pleasure out of it. After you have done this for a short time you will begin to analyse the figures recorded and to make investigations to find out how and where you can reduce costs. • (5) Are there any other details which if they had received attention may. have improved your position? What about the following? (a) Because of weakness in one portion of the shelter belt the gale spoilt a portion of the crop. This could have been prevented had you been more observant previously. (b) Are there some varieties which: are uneconomic? Consider working them over to better and more profitable varieties; it may mean a..small .temporary loss, but eventually you would receive better returns. Try and correct even the smallest errors or

faults and see if it is not worth while. Others have been successful. Why not you? (6) Have you noticed that in one portion of the orchard the trees were showing unmistakable signs of deterioration? Perhaps this is caused by one of the following: —■ (a) Imperfect drainage. (b) Existing drains being partly choked. (c) Unsuitable soil conditions. All fruit trees resent having wet feet; therefore, every care should be taken to see that sufficient drainage is provided. If already drained, see that drains are not blocked, thereby ceasing to be of any value. (7) Did you give all the attention to cultivation that was necessary for the complete and proper functioning of the trees during the past season? You do not believe in ploughing now you have the rotary hoe. This rotary hoe is quite good, but does not fully take the place of the plough in the orchard. Ploughing is necessary at least once each year in either late autumn or early winter for the following, reasons:

(a) To provide conditions for taking away excess surface water during periods of heavy rainfall. (b) To bring up the soil so that it is exposed to the sunlight and air. (c) To prevent the soil becoming waterlogged, which is likely if it is allowed to lie close and flat all through the winter months. It is advisable to turn the soil up to the trees before the winter rains set in; remember to plough with or along the slope of the land, otherwise it* is not possible to get good conditions for draining excess water away. (8) Are there any improvements that could be made in the gathering or harvesting of the fruit? Why pick immature fruit and expect the consumer to buy large quantities? You have possibly done this in the past. Why not try another plan and allow the fruit to reach a greater degree of maturity? You will, of course, be guided by the following: — (a) Whether for export overseas. (b) Whether for immediate consumption. (c) Long cool -storage or short storage. (d) Whether tree-ripened fruit is desired.

All such matters require consideration; however, it is just as easy to do things in the right way as in the wrong. Try and view fruit-growing from two different angles—your own and that of the buyer or consumer. The consumer is the person who eventually determines the price you will get and the quantity you will be able to sell. Try and give him the quality and he will increase his consumption. (9) What consideration have you given to the manures you have been using in the past? Have the results obtained from their use been quite satisfactory? All trees require phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and potash, and they also need organic matter, which is the base of all plant life. Some consideration should be given to this, and some means used in order to keep up the supply. (10) The packing shed in which you have been accustomed to grade and pack the fruit. Here are a few points for consideration. (a) Do not be content to continue trying to handle the fruit under cramped conditions.

(b) See that the shed is in a sanitary condition by keeping it clear of decaying and rotten fruit. (c) Do not use the fruit packing shed to store manures. t (d) Have a reasonable supply of fruit cases ordered and made up before the fruit harvesting season begins. These could be stored in a part of the packing shed if another shed is not available. The common cry is that fruit-grow-ing will not pay for the many things

outlined above. If you have not tried them you are incompetent to speak. There are many who have found that nothing but the best ever pays. You can get advice from the officers of the Department of Agriculture on all matters relating to. the production and preparation., of . fruit for the market. I cannot close this brief review on stocktaking without calling your attention to one very important point

“The Foundation.” If this is weak, then the structure is hardly likely to stand for any length of time. Do not despise fruit-growing because some have failed to make a success of it; rather, remember that others have been successful. Try to find out the reasons that make for success. What others have done, you can do. —L. PAYNTER, District Supervisor, Auckland.

Citrus Notes

Have You Considered These Points * In Harvesting ?

again the months for harONCE again the months for harvesting the main crops of citrus fruits have arrived, and upon each individual grower rests the responsibility of so harvesting those fruits that they will have every probability of arriving to the consumer in a sound condition. Think over these points and make sure you are picking correctly. (1) The Time to — This depends upon several factors. For sweet oranges and New Zealand grapefruit the chief is palatability. Do not pick too soon, but allow the fruit to ripen on the tree. The lemon, on the other hand, should be picked more to size, that is, an ideal of 2| to 2| inches in diameter. If fruit is silver-green or just coloured at this stage of growth it should be picked in order that it may be cured, packed, and retailed in sound condition and of a size desired by the purchasing public. Do not pick too soon after a severe rainstorm, and be particularly careful with - wet fruit to avoid the disfigurement of oil spot. (2) Picking Equipment. Before starting picking examine your field cases. You will be surprised to see the odd nails or wood splinters which are sure to cause injury. What about the picking bag? Do you empty it frequently, or is it full of “buttons” and small twigs? How- long do you place your field cases out in the orchard before picking? Do you allow them to become sodden and then fill them with sound fruit? Do you even sterilise your cases and remove the remnants of rotten fruit? If not, do it this year and check wastage. A solution of formalin, 1 gallon to 100 gallons of water, is recommended. This job

should be done in the open, as formalin fumes are apt 'to have an unpleasant effect on the operator indoors. Are your field cases suitable, or are they too heavy to handle when full of fruit? A case about the size of a bushel is . better than a larger case such as an orange box. (3) How Do You Pick Your Crop?— Do you make two cuts, and is the second one close up to the button, or do you make only one, leaving either a mass of dead and dying twigs in the tree or a stub beyond the button of the fruit which will ■ injure other fruits? At this time of the year thorough picking will improve your trees. Do you climb into your citrus trees? If so, how about injury to the bark and the entry of spores of barkblotch? Take extra care and wear gum boots or field boots with rubber soles and no protruding nails. (4) What Do You Put Into Your Field Cases? Everything? That is a mistake. At every picking certain fruits should be discardedfreaks, split fruit, diseased fruit, and excessively malformed or blemished fruit. Why cart that to your shed and then pay to have it sent to your depot when you know it will only be rejected at the —an unnecessary expense to you and to everyone else who has to handle it? Bury these reject fruits at the orchard. Do you fill your cases too full? Is not that going, to cause injury to other fruits when you stack your cases in your shed or transfer them to the carrier’s lorry? (5) Finally, How Do You Handle Your Cases? Cases must be lifted and stacked carefully if fruits are to remain sound. Minor abrasions permit

the entry of spores of rotting fungi. Do not assist them by the way you handle your fruit. Shelter Now is the time to plant shelter trees. Shelter is one of the secrets to success in citrus culture. Is your orchard adequately sheltered, or could it be improved by pines, Lawson’s cypress, bamboo, hakea, acmena, abelia, or some other hedge plant or tree which does well in your locality? What about the draught under your line of eucalyptus or pines? How do you expect to grow good citrus fruits free from blemish when that draught is allowed to continue? Plant shelter this winter and notice the result in a few years’ time. Citrus culture is a long-term job, and shelter is a longterm necessity. Liming Are you going to lime your orchard this winter? It will improve conditions for the lowly plant life of your soil if it is acid, and will thus benefit cover crops and your trees. See that the lime ordered is high in actual calcium carbonate, or if freight is a major problem consider the advisability of applying the lime in the burnt form. If you use superphosphate and your soil is rich in 1 iron or alumina, lime is a necessity. - Make early preparations for spring cultivation so that you may utilise to the full the periods of fine weather durin gthe showery months of July and August.

• —A. M. W. GREIG, Citriculturist, Auckland.

Viticulture

Tannin and its Uses in New Zealand Wines

THIS article has been written with the object of bringing before'the New Zealand wine-maker the facts regarding the use of tannin in New Zealand wines, and of pointing out that the use of this substance in the wines will greatly help the wine-makers to produce a more staple and better product.

The article deals briefly with the normal constituents of wine, the variation of the tannin content from different areas, the use of tannin in winemaking, the value of grape tannin as against other tannins, and how to use tannin.

General

During the last hundred years the research work of a number of scientists has shown us the true meaning of the changes which occur during the fermentation and maturing of wine. As is well known, the quality of the wine depends firstly upon the quality of the grapes from which it is made, and the quality of the grapes is determined by a number of factors, such as climatic conditions, soil and cultivation, treatment of the vines, the variety of the grape, and the degree of ripeness that the grapes reach before picking.

Grape-juice is a complex aqueous solution, and contains a very large number of constituents, the main pnes of which are: —(1) Sugar; (2) organic acids; (3) proteins or albuminoids; (4) flavouring substances; (5) Pectin and mucilaginous substances; (6) mineral substances; (7) tannin.

We will consider \ very briefly what happens to these constituents during the fermentation of the must.

1. Sugar

During fermentation the sugar is split up into approximately equal parts of alcohol and carbon dioxide. Must containing, say, 10 Baume on completion of fermentation will produce approximately 10 per cent, alcohol or 17.5 per cent, of proof spirit.

2. Organic Acids

Although present in only small quantities, malic and tartaric acids are essential constituents of the must. The tartaric acid is in combination to a large extent with potassium, and is partly precipitated during fermentation as potassium acid tartrate. For a wine to be palatable, its acidity must be in proper ratio to its alcoholic strength and body, and in some cases it may be necessary to raise the acidity of a wine by the addition of citric acid.

However, as New Zealand wines have usually an excess of natural acid, it is unlikely that additions would have to be made except in the case of the heavier type of sweet wines.

3. Albuminoids

The must from New Zealand-grown varieties usually contains a large percentage of albuminoids, of which approximately half remains in the wine; the rest is utilised as yeast nourishment, or is precipitated during fermentation. As the yeast cells are largely, of a nitrogenous character, a large amount of their decomposed cells spread throughout the fermenting juice, and the amount of albuminous matter becomes much higher than was present < originally in the grape itself. A serious effort should be made on the part of wine-makers to ensure its total elimination. from the finished wine, and thus prevent condition troubles. The presence of large amounts of albuminous substances in the young wines also causes to a considerable extent bacterial troubles.

The action of tannin is to precipitate albuminous substances and to cause them to settle in the “lees,” which are removed on racking the wine. Wine which contains little or no tannin holds the albuminous matter for a longer period, producing a very detrimental effect on the wine.

The only permanent and satisfactory method of precipitating these substances is by means of tannin. If the wine does not contain sufficient natural tannin it becomes necessary to make up. the deficiency by adding the required amount of pure grape tannin.

4. Flavouring The flavouring substances increase

somewhat during fermentation. The fermenting must contains (1) ' the original flavouring substance, (2) those formed during fermentation, and (3) those produced by different varieties of yeast.

5. The Pectins

Because of the precipitation of potassium acid tartrate during fermentation, the proportion of mineral substances decreases. The amount present in New Zealand wines varies considerably with the different districts, but may be said to be between 0.1 to 0.5 per cent. •

6. Tannins

It has' long been known that a tannin derived from grapes is one of

the constituents of wine. It is known that tannin plays a very important part in wine-making, and that a deficiency of grape tannin in the wine may have very serious consequences for the wine-maker.

The red wines fermented on the skins contain more tannin than the lighter delicate white wines, but, even so, the reds still contain * too little tannin for the successful elimination of the albuminous substances.

As tannin assists the yeasts considerably during fermentation, it is advisable to add tannin to the fermenting must at the rate of Boz per 100 gallons. This tannin added during fermentation is to a large extent used up and precipitated with the lees, and the wine, when fermentation is completed, will still be deficient in tannin, and may require a further addition of from 2oz. to 4oz. per 100 gallons to help deposit the albuminous substances still held in the wine.

Classification Of Tannins

There are a considerable number of different tannins, which are further divided into sub-groups. However, it is not necessary to deal with these different types of tannin, and it will be sufficient if it be clearly understood, that when the term “tannin” is used in conjunction with wine and winemaking operations it indicates one specific variety of tannin, namely, oeno-tannin “a natural tannin derived from the vine and its fruit,” or, as it is more commonly called in New Zealand, “pure grape tannin.”

This tannin does not cause any harshness; on the contrary, its use under certain conditions will reduce the harshness in wine.

One of the virtues of oeno-tannin is that, unlike other tannins, it is not decomposed by fermentation to break up into glucose and gallic acid.

Tannin In

Wine-making

As tannin is a natural ingredient of grapes, it follows that in the ordinary process of manufacture the wine will obtain a certain amount of its requirements during fermentation. Because of the climatic conditions ruling in New Zealand, however, the grape itself is very deficient in tannin, and even red grapes, which are kept fermenting on the skins, sometimes for weeks, are still very deficient in tannin.

Of the New Zealand white wines, which should be fermented away from the skins, it can be said that the tannin content is practically nil. It is therefore necessary to add tannin to both the reds and whites during and after fermentation.

Wines from the high rainfall areas have, as stated, a very low tannin content; for such wines grape tannin has proved its' superiority. Due to its origin, it adds to the wine the necessary tannin in its best form. Because of its mildness, quite large doses of grape tannin can be added without harm. The proper balancing of the wine with grape tannin is an insurance against the risk of secondary fermentation.

If the whole of the nitrogenous matter is properly eliminated, the food supply for the . development of disease bacteria is withdrawn.

Grape tannin also guards -against the flattening, of wine with age, because it assists in keeping the tartaric acid in solution, a most important point for the wine-maker in New Zealand, where the tendency is for wines to throw out tartar deposits in the cooler weather.

Where a wine is too acid, the addition ' of tannin will take the “sharpness” off the wine.

, In wet and unfavourable years the wine may suffer from general debility, characterised by . thinness and absence of stability. In such a year tannin becomes a necessity, as the addition of tannin will immediately act as a filler to the wine, giving it a rounder, fuller character with the impression of greater substance.

In the northern areas of the Dominion a considerable quantity of American East Coast varieties of grapes are grown and used in wine-making. It is in these wines that tannin is so necessary.

Grape tannin is easily soluble, and 1 lb. of tannin can easily be dissolved in 1 gallon of wine or water. The tannin should be added to the wine slowly, and the lot well stirred until complete solution takes place. It can then be poured into the bulk of the wine and the lot roused thoroughly. There are many grades of tannin on the market, but it is essential to remember that only, pure grape tannin is suitable for use. in wines; to use other types is to court disaster.

For any further information on this subject the reader is invited to call or write to the Vine and Wine Instructor, Department of Agriculture, Private Bag, Auckland, Cl, New Zealand. B. W. LINDEMAN, Vine and Wine Instructor, Te Kauwhata.

Tobacco Notes

Provision of Shelter Belts

Z’XNE of the main causes of severe ONE of the main causes of severe losses to the tobacco growers of New Zealand in the past has been lack of shelter for their crops. Many fine stands of tobacco have been raised in districts where soil and climatic conditions (apart from prevailing winds) were "ideal which, however, have often been ruined before reaching the ripening and harvesting stage through the failure to provide protection against damage likely to be caused by high winds. ' ; Many growers in districts where tobacco is now well established have minimised this risk considerably by planting permanent shelter belts. Two of the most suitable and quickgrowing * varieties of wind breaks to plant for this purpose,. particularly in the Nelson districts are Lombardy poplar (.Populus fastigiata) , and acacia (Abizzia lophantha). To obtain the best protection from the minimum of shelter belts, a tobacco plantation should be divided' into sections of approximately five acres, and the borders- of each • section, as well as the boundaries of the plantation, planted with the permanent shelter most suitable to the district. If poplar .is decided upon as a windbreak, either young seedling trees or cuttings can be planted in single rows 2ft. . apart. Where the variety

‘ of wattle mentioned above is selected, it should be sown or planted in two rows (staggered), 3ft. between plants or seed and 4ft. between rows. Before being sown, wattle seed should be steeped for at least five minutes in boiling water. The advantage of using Lombardy poplar for a windbreak for tobacco lands is the tree’s habit of drawing its food supply from the subsoil, using little or no organic matter from the surface soil, so that planting can be ■ done to within a few feet of the break. Where it is not possible to divide a plantation into small enough sections for the permanent shelter to give full protection to the tobacco crop, the most exposed areas of the block should be sown a month to six weeks, in advance of the planting season with maize breaks. These breaks should be sown 3ft. wide, one break to every seven or eight rows of tobacco. The maize should be sown by hand or drilled in at intervals of 3in., with one foot between the rows. If fertilised, cultivated, and given proper attention, these maize breaks should produce a crop which, when . harvested and sold at the end of the tobacco season, would pay for the cost of their production. —U. A. YELDHAM, Department of Agriculture, Wellington.

Cool Storage Notes

Critical Time Approaching

THE critical time in the life of fruit being held in cool storage is now approaching, as by the end of July defects in fruit will rapidly become apparent. Breakdown tendencies -in apples from constitutional causes, such as bitter pit, water core, and mouldy core, will require detection at an early stage to avoid losses. Samples of the fruits from different lines of the various varieties of apples now being held should be cut in order to detect any sign of breakdown tendency or loss of condition and quality. Largely because of the shortage of cool storage space during the export season to meet the requirements of fruit intended for long storage, unavoidable delays in getting some of this fruit into cool storage will in all probability have the effect of

shortening the life of the fruit. This will necessitate a constant inspection for signs of deterioration from causes such as fungal rotting, flesh collapse, and external and internal discolouration, or other signs which indicate that the fruit is reaching the end of its useful cool storage life. Lines of pears held should be thoroughly examined, as advancing maturity caused by delays in the fruit reaching cool storage, or unfavourable cool storage temperatures, will very quickly develop into serious losses if this fruit is held for a longer period than will allow it to reach the consumer in- good condition. . - . When pears have been slowly maturing during cool storage; mould and rots will develop auickly. —A. POWELL, Cool Storage Officer, Wellington.