ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.

New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Volume XVIII, Issue 2, 20 February 1919, Page 114

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.

IN order to ensure reply to questions, correspondents must give their name and address, not necessarily for publication, but as a guarantee of good faith. Letters should be addressed to the Editor.

PROPAGATION OF LOGANBERRIES.

A. L. Frost, Huapai: —

Would you kindly advise me what time would be best to put in loganberry cuttings ; also, will they fruit the following season ? I presume the cuttings should be taken from old rods, not this year’s growth.

The Horticulture Division

Cuttings taken from the rods of loganberries will root; new rods root as well as the old if the wood is ripened ; May is a good month to take them. The most thrifty plants, however, are obtained by pegging down rods firmly to the ground. Plants from cuttings of the rods are slow to make growth, though they do very well afterwards. They will not in any case bear fruit the first year, however they may be raised. The second year should see a small crop if the plants are from layers, but not if from cuttings. You would be well advised to purchase plants ; it would save at least a year, probably two or three. ■-

CALVING-AGE FOR HEIFERS.

John Udy, Pakuranga :

For the dairy, at what age should a heifer drop her first calf ?

The Dairy Division :—

Experience shows that this age will depend entirely on how the heifer has been grown. Provided she has been growing well and continuously she should have sufficient size to drop her first calf at a little over two years of age. If she has not grown normally well a later calving is recommended, which may be deferred until the heifer is two and a half or even three years of age if necessary. Experiments have indicated that it is not the carrying of a calf while the mother is small that causes her to be undersized as a cow : it is rather the giving of milk at a time when all her food is required for maintenance and growth.

CHESTNUT-TREES.

R. S., Waingaro :

What is the reason of chestnut-trees in this locality bearing fruit but the nuts having no flesh inside them, being quite flat and empty ?

The Horticulture Division :—

Without closer knowledge of the conditions in which your chestnut-trees are growing we are unable to say definitely why the nuts do not develop. The chestnut requires a deep, friable soil, preferably sandy loam, though not very rich. A dry subsoil is essential to success; if the soil or subsoil is wet the conditions are unsuitable. A thin soil overlying a hard subsoil would also be unsuitable.' Seedling trees are frequently ten or twelve years before they bear perfect nuts. Where conditions are suited , to the requirements of the trees chestnuts thrive and bear good crops without attention of any kind. All that is necessary is to keep the soil about them clean till they get a good roothold, and then leave them , alone. The chestnut does not bear well in mixed plantations where it has to contend with the roots of other trees.

BLINDNESS IN SHEEP.

“ Mai re,” Ohakune :

A number of my sheep went blind at shearing-time. The eyeball and pupil became a whitish-grey, and round the eyelids there is a great deal of inflammation with a discharge. Can you inform me as to the cause and cure of it ?

The Live-stock Division :—

Blindness in sheep may be due' to a variety of causes, the simple forms being due to colds, injuries, bush-fires, &c., or results of constitutional derangements. Such animals should be placed in a well-sheltered place where they can avoid the light as much as possible. Local treatment consists of bathing the eyes with a 5-per-cent. solution of borate of soda once a day. When doing this see that the solution gets into the eye. Some forms of blindness are of a contagious nature, and the affected animals should be isolated where treatment can be adopted. In all cases of blindness the animals should be placed not only where they are sheltered from the weather and light, but where feed is plentiful, and given access to a salt lick. The remedy for contagious blindness is the same as for the simpler form, but add to it a i-per-cent, solution of creolin. It is advisable in all cases to administer 2 oz. of Epsom salts when first treated.

MANAGEMENT OF WATTLES.

“ Subscriber,” Tauranga : —

I have a belt of black-wattle {Acacia decwrens) five years old, with an average height of 20 ft. The wind frequently breaks branches off, and very often whole trees are blown down. Could you advise me what month of the year it is best to top the trees, and how much should be cut off ? Should they be thinned out, and also what distance apart ? Can the seed be set in autumn as well as in the spring ? . '

The Horticulture Division :—

The best' method to follow for lightening the trees .to prevent -damage by wind would be to shorten branches to remove sufficient of the weight. They will bear shortening to a considerable extent, provided plenty of leaf-growth is left on the branches cut. The same principle may be applied to the tops. The best time probably would be the latter end of winter, just before spring growth begins, but it would not be likely to injure the trees whenever it might be done. Wattles appear to do well at any distance apart, from a few inches up to many feet. The best distance probably is 4 ft. apart. There appears to be nothing against autumn sowing in your district; the last half of March should be a good time.

CONTROL OF FIELD-DAISY.

“ Subscriber,” Poverty Bay: —

Which is the best method of eradicating the ordinary field-daisy ? It generally grows in clumps, and just about | in. above the ground. It flowers in early spring, the flower being small with a yellow centre. I have tried cutting the roots, but they seem to come up again just as thick.

The Fields Division :—

The roots of the daisy are mere fibres which strike down perpendicularly into the soil. It is because of the abundance of these rooting side branches that daisies are so hard to destroy. Harrowing, spudding, or scarifying fail to produce the desired effect. Besides, every head of flowers allowed to ripen sheds a large number of oval hairy seed-vessels which burst open in a few days after they touch the soil, and from these seeds a fresh supply of plants spring. The labour of attending to ploughing, scarifying, &c., is, from the nature of the plant, endless. A better plan is to starve out the daisy by encouraging grass to overgrow it and by mowing seldom. This procedure is generally very effective, as the plant is very sensitive to shade. When, however, daisies have overrun the soil there is no remedy except draining, paring, and burning, and incessant tillage. Top-dressings of sulphate of ammonia are often effective, and tend to kill the weed. ’

SOIL-TREATMENT.

“ Gardener,” Otaki Railway

The soil here (river-silt) cakes together almost like cement, except in newly broken ground. What would be the best crop to grow and dig in to correct this, and is there any other treatment you could suggest, apart from adding sand or other soil ? Stable manure is not available.

The Horticulture Division

Either white lupin or mustard ■ would be suitable crops for turning in. Probably mustard would best suit your purpose. It grows very quickly, so that two or three crops might be grown and turned under between now and next planting season. A dressing of burnt lime, 2 tons per acre, would be beneficial.

ABSCESS ON HORSE

B. H. Andrews, Rotorua :—

I have a draught horse that this season developed a large water-bleb on the left shoulder. I bathed it, punctured the bleb at the bottom end, and got about a pint of watery fluid out of it, and after disinfecting the puncture allowed it to heal up. Now, although he has not been worked since with a collar, he has developed a still larger bleb. Kindly advise me how to properly treat this trouble.

The Live-stock Division

These serious abscesses invariably fill up again if the wound is allowed to close too soon. The proper way to treat a case of this description is to open the abscess at its most dependent part, making a large incision, and after all the contents have been evacuated syringe out with tincture of iodine. The wound must be kept open to permit of free drainage, and injections of antiseptics given daily.

ROOT-FUNGUS OF FRUIT-TREES.

H. Ward, Te Puke :—

Two years ago I planted fifty apple-trees on fern land. Half the trees have now died. A white fungus takes the roots, they rot off in a short time, and the tree dies. Could you let me know of any preventive or remedy. I limed the roots of the trees, but it has done no good.

The Horticulture Division :—

Root-fungus is proving a very difficult problem in circumstances such as yours. There is no doubt that the mycelium of the fungus is present on the fern, &c., ploughed under. Good results are claimed to have followed application of sulphate of iron. The method of application is to strip the soil from the roots and apply a handful of the sulphate close around the trunk. If the weather is dry the sulphatemay be dissolved in water and applied in liquid form. '

COWS CHEWING WOOD AND BONES

A. C. Goodison, Pukeatua:—

Could you advise me what to give milking-cows that spend half their time chewing wood and bones ? I have plenty of feed and give them. plenty of changes, but notice that those .that are the worst seem to go off their milk and lose condition. They are all young cows. The land here has had a good deal of top-dressing this season with lime and super. ■

The Live-stock Division

In some cases this unnatural craving appears to be purely and simply a habit, the animals otherwise being in good • health. In most cases, however, it

is due to some deficiency, in the food which the animals are endeavouring to supply themselves with. This is usually the want of lime or phosphoric acid in the soil, consequently the grass has not the proper chemical constituents it should have. The general remedy is to top-dress the pastures with either basic slag or superphosphate. Should the top-dressing you mention not have this effect we would advise giving your cows i oz. doses of compound syrup of phosphates and iron (Parish's Chemical Food) every day in a pint of water ; or you could give them i oz. doses of precipitated phosphate of lime in a feed of bran each day. Also it is sometimes advisable to place rock salt in an accessible position for the cows to lick.

STORAGE OF POTATOES.

“ Potato,” Mahurangi:—

Please advise me how best to keep potatoes. I have tried storing them in ■a bin, but during the winter they decay or sprout and shrivel.

The Fields Division :—

Darkness and low temperature are primary requisites in storing potatoes'. An important point is to reduce the temperature as low as possible directly after the product is stored. The ideal temperature is 35 0 F. If the ground is well drained, so that there is no danger from water in the winter, inexpensive potato ■storage may be made by merely digging a trench about 5 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep and as long as is needed to secure the required capacity. The roof should be given a pitch merely sufficient to shoot water, and a gutter dug to keep the rainwater from running into the pit. A rough cave hollowed out in a hillside is also afgood plan. Potatoes have been known to keep fresh for over a year in an old mine-tunnel, with a current of air passing through. The temperature in this case remained' at about 40 F.

POLLARD POISON AND SHEEP.

"Amateur,” Tuapeka Mouth: —

How long does pollard rabbit-poison retain its strength, after being laid, to be a danger to sheep ?

The Live-stock Division

Under favourable conditions pollard poison will retain its strength for some weeks after being laid. Sheep, however, do not readily take this poison when laid in plough-furrow or after turning the sod with the spade. On the higher .sheep-runs the general practice is to lay the baits on the bare spots, and there is little complaint of sheep being poisoned with it when laid thus. Like all other poisons, however, care requires to be exercised in laying it, and if on farm lands it is a good plan to turn back the furrow or sod before again turning on the sheep.

MUSTARD FOR GREEN MANURE.

“ Subscriber,” Neudorf: —

I have some mustard growing which I want to plough in for green manure Will you please tell me what is considered the best stage in the development of the plant for ploughing in so as to get the greatest benefit, also the best means of covering, &c.

The Fields Division :—

Mustard should be ploughed in when the crop is succulent and about 12 in. to” 18 in. high. To cover it properly it is often necessary to run a roller over the ■crop in the direction in which the plough follows, and attach a chain and weight to the coulter of the plough in such a manner that the weight may trail along the bottom of the previous furrow about the middle of the mouldboard. r .;.' ..

BLOOD IN HEIFER'S MILK.

“ Inquirer,” Methven : —

' After separating the milk of a two-year-old heifer, calved about three months, there is a residue of blood left on the case of the bowl of the separator. When the heifer first calved she was easy to milk, but is now rather hard than otherwise. She is apparently in perfect health, and is not a heavy milker. I shall be glad if you will tell me the cause.

The Live-stock Division :

Several causes may give rise to the presence of blood in the milk, but from your description of the case we are of opinion that the trouble may be due to mammitis. You might try fomenting the udder and applying camphorated vaseline after each milking for a week or so.

MUD-FEVER IN HORSE.

“ Returned Soldier,” Masterton :—

I have a draught mare which is affected with a kind of rash on her legs similar to horse affected with greasy heel. The rash extends to above the hocks and behind the knees. All the legs are more or less swollen, and the horse has gone very lame in the front legs. Can you inform me by this description what the disease is and treatment for same ? .

The Live-stock Division :—

The trouble affecting your mare is mud-fever. As the majority of the cases are the result of indigestion caused through improper feeding a change of diet is essential. Give a dose of physicaloes or linseed-oilwash the legs thoroughly clean, and then apply a lotion composed of carbolic acid, one teaspoonful to a quart of water. Small doses of Epsom salts given occasionally have a beneficial effect. . '

SEVERING NAVEL-CORD OF CALF.

“ Milker,” Mangere : —

I shall be glad if you will tell me the correct way to sever a new-born calf from its mother when it comes into the world with the navel-cord unbroken.

The Live-stock Division :—

The proper way to sever the navel-cord is by applying a ligature about an inch or so from the navel and then severing the cord immediately below the ligature. .

SCOURING TROUBLE IN CATTLE.

John Thomasen, Taihape : —

I should like to know the cause of a lot of my yearling cattle getting very bad with scour. They seem to pass nothing but nearly water. I have had some die with the complaint, and the other day I got one nearly dead, so I killed it and opened it to see what was the matter. All the lining of the inside of the stomach was about an inch thick, like frozen ice, but soft like jelly, and full of water.

The Live-stock Division : —■

The trouble affecting your yearling cattle will no doubt be parasitic gastritis—in other words, worms in the stomach. Medicinal remedies are of little use in these cases. Prevention must be relied on. As the parasites are invariably found on low-lying, swampy, badly drained land, place the animals on dry pasture, and give an allowance of good nourishing food —crushed oats, bran, hay, &c.

HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENT.

POTENTIALITIES FOR NEW ZEALAND.

The following matter is from the report on hydro-electric development by Mr. E. Parry, M.I.E.E., ’ Chief Electrical Engineer, Public Works Department, presented-to Parliament during the last session. The report as a whole covers the North Island scheme only, but the extracts here given are mainly general in character and of special interest to agriculture and other industries. Mr. Parry states :— . ' ■ ■

THE FUNCTION OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER IN THE STATE.

The development, distribution, and marketing of electric power on a comprehensive scale has since the war come to be generally recognized as one of the most essential agencies in national reconstruction. Previous .to the outbreak of war its importance in national life was but dimly sensed except by a comparatively few persons possessed of an unusual amount, of imagination and foresight, and it is evident from reading Hansard of a few years ago that even the far-seeing ones regarded electric power more as a means of industrial development in the narrower sense in which the term is commonly used than as the nerve-system of the community and as touching every phase of national life.

Neither was it recognized ' at that time that national organization for production and the promotion of national efficiency was a function of a Government. The war has made it imperative that the nations shall be reorganized on a national scale, and that in future the marshalling of the forces of production must be a definite and conscious function of the Government of a country. The change in the attitude of public men towards electric-power development is well illustrated by the recent action of the Government in Great Britain. Before the war the generation and distribution of power was left to private enterprise ; it is now proposed to set up a body of Commissioners to co-ordinate the activities of the various power-supply -authorities and to bring them into line for the advancement of the national interests, and by - so doing it is recognized that the organization of power production and distribution will result in a national saving of not less than /i 00,000,000 per annum ; or, putting it in another way which is very striking, the coal saved would be sufficient to generate' continuously not less than fifteen million horse-power. The largest hydro-electric system owned by the State is probably that of the Swedish Government, which has three large hydro-electric stations aggregating over 200,000 h.p., supplying power to a large system for electric smelting, railway electrification, and general industrial supply. • ' Another of the most notable instances of the development of hydro-electric power by the State is to be found in the Province of Ontario, where the system is managed by a body consisting of three Commissioners. They commenced operations in 1908, and the load has now attained a magnitude of 160,000 h.p. The total length of primary transmission circuits is about 1,500 miles, and of secondary transmission circuits about 1,600 miles. ’ Altogether some 143 municipalities are supplied. The supply reaches to a distance of 254 miles from the main source. .

Another notable instance is to be found in Tasmania. Originally a concession was granted to a company authorizing them to undertake the generation and distribution of power in Tasmania ; but the company failed, and after some negotiations. the State took over the works and completed them. They started with 10,000 h.p. of plant, which was augmented by 8,000 h.p. soon after, and a further 16,000 h.p. of generating plant is on order. Arrangements are being, made for developing other sources, as the present source is quite' unequal to the demand. The magnitude of the contracts entered into is a feature of this undertaking. One contract alone amounts to 25,000 h.p. for electro-metallurgical. purposes, and .it is significant that when the State took over the plant from the company such big demands were not anticipated. Nor was there any indication that the business of electric smelting would attain such proportions. The total contracts already

entered into amount to 42,000 h.p., and further contracts amounting to 50,000 h.p. are being negotiated. ' • New Zealand, now at the outset of its career as a nation, has a unique opportunity of securing the utmost possible efficiency for all time by developing its water-powers on such a scale and by providing for such a wide-reaching system, of distribution that electric power shall become available to every householder throughout the Dominion, and available at any point where circumstances require the application of power. ■ - The functions of that Department of State which deals with the generation and distribution of power is one involving great responsibility and wide. range of knowledge, as it touches every phase of national life in its industrial aspect. It has to generate and transmit electric power ; it has to make contracts with local authorities and other State Departments and individuals ; it has to negotiate terms with industrial organizations outside New Zealand which may be desirous of taking advantage of the supply of hydro-electric power ;' it has to finance local authorities to enable them to reticulate their districts ; it has to finance powerusers to . enable them to convert from steam or other power to electric power ; it has to assist industry . by carrying . out experiments in industrial processes on a commercial scale, for the lack of which a great deal of talk concerning industry and science is lacking in cohesion. It may further be required to undertake the manufacture of a special class of product in the national interest.

ELECTRICITY IN AGRICULTURE

The extension of the Lake Coleridge supply to the country districts in Waimairi, Eyre, Halswell, Paparua, . and Springs has served to demonstrate its convenience, utility, and its . effect in lessening the drudgery of farm life and in increasing production, especially so in dairying districts. Electricity as a power agent is so flexible and adaptable, and its -uses therefore so manifold, that there is scarcely an aspect of human activity to which it cannot be applied, the number of processes to which it is capable of being applied on farms being about 125. The supply of electricity to farms and homesteads has already attained considerable dimensions in some parts of the United States of America, the extent of which is not generally known. A census made by the Western Power Association of California in 1915 gives the total horse-power of electric motors on farms at 190,141, and the estimated figure for 1918 is 200,000.

'. Electric pumps are largely used in the districts mentioned for pumping water for irrigation purposes, which accounts for a large proportion of the power used, but after allowing for this there remains a substantial balance for other purposes. One of the most remarkable and deplorable movements of the present day is the drift of the country population into the towns. Various reasons have been advanced to account for this tendency, but it will be admitted that the drudgery associated with farming is one of the main if not the primary cause. This drudgery will certainly be lessened when a general supply of electricity is available and the farming community has had time to become habituated to its various uses. In fact, the movement will then be in the opposite direction, as the stimulation given to production and the improvements made possible in the conditions of living, will result in closer settlement of the country areas. At the same time these districts will be brought more closely into touch with the towns by the construction of light railways, made possible by a general supply of electric power.

ELECTRICITY AND INDUSTRY IN GENERAL.

Using the word “ industry ” in a more restricted sense of manufacture, the importance of supply of cheap electricity for manufacturing purposes is one of paramount importance. It places at the disposal of the manufacturer a subtle and flexible form of energy which is adaptable to every kind of power, to heating, or to electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical uses. He is able to extend and adjust his business to the growth of demand without being hampered with the many considerations which a manufacturer has to face if he has to provide a generating plant or increase its capacity. These advantages are of course well known and appreciated, but what is not appreciated enough is the importance of a general supply of electricity available for use anywhere in the Dominion. At present if a manufacturer wishes to avail himself, of a supply of electric power .he has to locate his works in the vicinity of a town where he can get a. supply, or he has to consider the question of the coalsupply and the cost of coal, with the result that the factory is not always placed where it is best suited for the exigencies of the business. - Moreover, it is quite

certain that a number of industries which might be carried on are neglected altogether owing to the element of power being difficult to procure.

We have abundant evidence of the effect of a supply of cheap electrical power in Christchurch and district : within a comparatively short time —less than a year in fact —the preliminaries were settled and contracts made for supplying power to every factory within an economical radius of supply from Christchurch. But what is more noticeable is the way in which a cheap supply of power has stimulated the industrial mind into activity in many directions, such as the manufacture of caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, calcium carbide, and steel smelting. Another fact worth noting is that for the lack of sufficient machinery in the Government power-house one large electric-smelting industry which contemplated starting at Christchurch or wherever power was available was lost to the Dominion —which is regrettable, as it promised to be the beginning of a large development. The general distribution of electric power makes possible a much larger use of the electrically propelled battery vehicle which has proved so successful in the Christchurch district, and has already been adopted by some of the dairy companies in the North Island for the collection of their cream, with pronounced success.

WOOD-PULP INDUSTRY.

The wood-pulp industry is one which has assumed large dimensions in Sweden and Canada, and, whilst forest reserves have been set apart in New Zealand for this purpose and preliminary steps taken to establish the industry, no actual work has been done up to the present. The provision of electric power at suitable points would greatly assist promoters in overcoming the initial difficulties, and would no doubt lead to the establishment of a wood-pulp industry and of allied industries using wood-pulp in its various forms.

ELECTRO-CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO-METALLURGICAL INDUSTRIES.

Such industries as employ electricity as a heat agent or chemical agent are distinguished from the general industrial uses of power by the fact that the cost of power forms the largest item of expenditure, whereas in general the power expenses are small in proportion to the total expenditure upon production. Such special industries cannot, for the reason stated, afford to pay the same price as the average 'obtained for general industrial purposes. Nevertheless provision has to be made for such industries, as they have a very important place in national production and development. Such industries range, from comparatively small magnitudes, from the power standpoint, to very large dimensions. As a rule they are local in character, depending upon the occurrence or deposit of a mineral, and it' is essential that a supply of power should be available wherever the circumstances are such as to favour the establishment of an industry of this kind. It will even be found that in some cases it will be profitable to bring raw material to a convenient locality where an abundance of cheap power is available, and to have it treated there. - .

ELECTRIFICATION OF MAIN-LINE RAILWAYS

The provision of an adequate and dependable supply of electric power which shall be available when and as required at such points as may be desired by the Railway Department is indispensable to them if they are to be enabled to keep pace with the development of the country. It should be clearly understood that railway electrification does not mean the displacement of steam locomotives altogether and at once, but the gradual substitution of electric haulage for steam haulage on grades and in tunnels when and as the limits of steam haulage are reached, after making every possible improvement short of entire duplication and extensive regrading. The steam locomotive is easily the most economical tractor under ordinary railway , conditions, but its speed becomes severely limited on grades because there is a limit to the power which can be accommodated on a steam locomotive. The electric locomotive, on the other hand, does not generate the power, but merely converts electric power to mechanical power, which, it draws from- a power-station situated elsewhere. The electric locomotive, being able to draw on a large central generating-station for its power, can when required supply large amounts of power and so maintain higher average speed and ■ increase the capacity of the line for traffic. ■ . .

For example, let it be supposed that the limit under’steam haulage has been reached in some portion of the division of the Main Trunk line between Taumarunui and Taihape—that is to say, no more traffic can be conducted over it. This means

that if this constitutes the critical section the whole Main Trunk system- and its tributaries, and to a lesser extent all other lines, are limited by the capacity of the section or division mentioned. If now electric haulage be substituted for steam haulage on this section it would enable possibly twice the amount of traffic to be conducted over it, and by so doing at once double the traffic capacity.of the whole Main Trunk system, and substantially enhance the value of the whole of the New Zealand railway system, without any further expenditure than that necessary to electrify the section in question—assuming, of course, that there are no other sections with the same or • approximately the same limitations. The only alternative to this would involve regrading and reconstruction, which would inevitably introduce longer tunnels, which in themselves would offer an obstacle to an increased traffic, and at the end it would be found that recourse would have to be had to electrification. The point to be noticed is that a general system of electric-power distribution is necessary in order to enable the Railway Department to deal with any tunnel or section with steep grades as soon as the capacity under steam haulage is reached, and that if a supply of electric power is not available for use when and where required the development of the country will be retarded and progress hindered.

SUBURBAN-RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION

The question of suburban-railways electrification is already an urgent one in some cases, as, for instance, between Wellington and the Hutt. There is no doubt in my mind that had the law permitted of it an electric tramway would have been in operation between these two centres long ago, and it is evident that before long the need of a more frequent service will become so great as to necessitate a removal of the present legal obstruction, unless a service of the same general character is provided by the Railway Department. In course of time, in all probability, as a result of the growth of the population, an electric service on both the road and the railway will become a necessity. ■ There is, of course, no question as to the advantages of electricity where frequent service is required is a matter of common knowledge ; but at the same time, although the necessity may be great, it will be found that the actual conversion is postponed until the matter becomes an acute one, unless facilities in the way of obtaining a supply of power are available. These delays may not have the same direct retarding influence' as delays in main-line electrification, but the argument in favour of a provision of electric power is equally valid.

AGRICULTURAL RAILWAYS

Another branch of electric haulage which may possibly have an important influence upon the destinies of New Zealand is the construction of light railways, by which I mean railways constructed with grades usually adapted for a good class of road or, in other words, a tramway, which shall serve the country in the same way as a tramway serves a town and its suburbs, except that farm-produce would be conducted over it as a matter of course. These would not take the place of main or branch railways, but would act as feeders thereto. They, would relieve the roads of heavy traffic, and would promote exchange between town and country and form an important link between producer and consumer. It is possible, of course, that there is no immediate use for this class of railway in New Zealand, but if there is no system of general electric supply’ the matter cannot be put to a test, as it would never pay to provide a separate power-station for each line. . In any case it is quite certain that there is a future for rural railways where the population is closely settled, as we have the example of Belgium before us, and it is only a question of time before the necessity for them will arise in New Zealand.

Yield of .Wheat, 1917-18 Season— Government Statistician has issued the following statement : According to returns received from threshing-mill owners throughout the Dominion up to the 30th November, the quantity of wheat threshed during the past .season was 6,437,002 bushels. The actual yield of wheat from all holdings of an area of one acre or over (exclusive of those within borough boundaries) as given by farmers in connection with the annual collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics amounted to 6,807,536 bushels. The difference of 370,534 bushels may be accounted for by some stacks still unthreshed and by small quantities threshed otherwise than by regular threshing-mills for which no threshing returns have been received.

WOOL-PURCHASE BY IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT.

During the recent session of Parliament a comprehensive statement was made in the House by the Prime Minister (Mr. Massey) regarding the purchase and distribution of New Zealand wool by the Imperial Government, also as to the share of the surplus profits on the 1916-17 clip payable to growers. The position given remains unaltered in the main,- except that the 1916-17 clip is now practically all shipped from the Dominion. The statement is as follows : —■

The purchase of the New Zealand wool clip of 1916-17 by the Imperial Government, approved by the Woolgrowers’ Conference of the 22nd November, 1916, was on the basis of the average price realized for each quality of wool for the season 1913-14, plus 55 per cent, thereon. ' In addition thereto half the profits on the sale of all surplus wool not required by the Imperial Government or our Allies for military purposes would be returned to New Zealand, and if, on the other hand, there was any loss, such loss would be borne by the'j Imperial Government.

■ A schedule of average sale-room values of the main sorts, of ; New Zealand greasy wool in January, 1914, was approved by the Conference as representing the average 1913-14 values, and subsequently agreed to by the Imperial Government. In addition, the Imperial Government agreed to pay for the wool in cash, free of exchange, on the fourteenth day after day of valuation, and to pay all charges incurred for exhibiting for valuation, storage, &c. —the valuation of the wool constituting the net return to the owner for the wool delivered into the broker s store.

In 1917 the purchase was extended on identically the same terms to cover the 1917-18 clip, and negotiations have now been practically completed for the purchase to be extended for the period of the war and for one year subsequent to the 30th June after the cessation of hostilities. Valuations have been made on the basis agreed upon, and the result for’the. 1917—18 clip to the 30th June shows the total purchase for all classes of greasy wool to be 522,325 bales for £11,854,82.2, equal to an average price of iq-gbd. per pound. A comparison of the actual sales of wool made in New Zealand during the 1913—14 season with the prices paid to growers for the 1917—18 clip shows the following difference in favour of growers :■ 1913— 14 sales of wool in New Zealand at auction (comprising fleece, lambs, pieces, bellies, locks, and crutchings), 264,834 bales average weight per bale, 3471b., equals 91,897,3981b. ; gross return, £3>4°7.934, less brokers’ charges (estimated), £127,797 ; net return to growers, £3,280,137, equal to 8-57d. per pound 8-57d. plus 55 per cent, equals i-3-28d. per pound. 1917-18—522,325 bales, net weight 190,101,4241b.; purchased ■ for £11,854,822, equals i4-96d. ' per pound ; valued at 8-57d., plus 55 per cent., would equal £10,526,699 ; advantage to the growers, 328,123. This excess of approximately ifd. per pound is accounted for by the basis prices taken being higher than the actual sales made in New Zealand in 1913-14, and by the saving of brokers’ charges for commission, cataloguing, storage, &c., borne by the growers prior to the requisition of wool by the Imperial Government.

DISTRIBUTION OF WOOL

On the arrival of the wool in the United Kingdom all wool that is suitable for combing goes to the top-makers direct, and is combed on commission, and practically all of it is made into cloth for military purposes. The scoured wool and wool for woollens are reappraised in the United Kingdom, and are issued at fixed prices put upon them on that side. About 75 per cent, of the total crossbred wool, including the British clip, consumed in the United Kingdom during the year ended 30th June last was used for Government purposes. About 20 per cent. New Zealand wool is used for civilian purposes, but it is impossible to say the exact proportion, as New Zealand wool is frequently blended with Australian. The Imperial Government, in addition to selling in original packages, is engaged in carbonizing, blending, scouring, and top-making processes, and issues such wool at fixed prices. The Imperial Government control over profits for all wool up to the spinning stage is complete, but not State control over later stages of

civilian goods, partly owing to diversity of processes, and also practical difficulties in the way of extending similar control to other trades.

SURPLUS PROFITS

The War Office is now engaged in completing its wool accounts for the year ending 31st March, i-918, and it will be understood that it is a complicated, lengthy, and laborious task. Such figures will include the greater quantity of the New Zealand 1916-17 clip, but not the whole. In fact, a portion of the 1916-17 elip has not even yet left New Zealand. In the making of tops Australian and New Zealand wools . are blended according to their suitability, and not according to their origin, and wool of different seasons' clip is similarly dealt with. The wool control and operations in the United Kingdom have been rendered much more difficult than in pre-war times by diminished transport and storage facilities and by. depleted staffs.

It is thus impossible in the circumstances of to-day to ascertain the. profit realized on the New Zealand clip for each separate year. Although no such provision was made in the original bargain, the Imperial Government has decided that the profit-sharing arrangements should be extended so as to include . the results of the processes of top-making and carbonizing, it being the desire of the Imperial Government to deal with such questions in a broad and equitable manner. It will be understood, however, from the processes of blending above referred to that the division of the results of the operations between New Zealand and Australia will be to some extent a question of estimate, in proportion to the total values of Australian and New Zealand wool used in the two operations. There is no doubt, however, that the calculation will be made in a manner satisfactory to all parties.

The position regarding surplus profits may be summarized as follows : About 20 per cent, of the New Zealand clip is issued for civilian purposes, and half the profits made on such sales will be returned to New Zealand growers. The accounts now being completed include the greater portion of the 1916-17 clip, and the amount for distribution should be available early in 1919 for a pro rata distribution on a basis to be arranged. Further distributions will be made available on subsequent clips during the following years. Woolgrowers will, of course, understand that the amount for distribution is unlikely to be individually large, but no indication of the amount is yet possible.

MAXIMUM PRICE OF -SACKS.

An Order in Council under the Regulation of Trade and Commerce Act, gazetted on 24th January, fixed the maximum price of corn-sacks throughout New Zealand as follows : The maximum price, when sold to farmers or other users on the usual trade terms, for delivery ex ship or ex store at the Port of Lyttelton or at the . Port of Wellington is ;o be is. 76. each for 48 in. sacks and is. 6d.- each for any smaller size. When sold for delivery otherwise the maximum price to be the same with such addition only as represents the additional cost of delivery to the seller. When sold otherwise than on the usual trade terms the maximum price io be a price equivalent, as regards the seller, to the prices aforesaid. For the purposes of the - Order stores at Christchurch or Addington are deemed to be stores situated within the Port of Lyttelton.

Shipping between Australia and South Africa. — Reporting under date 10th January, the New Zealand Trade Commissioner, Melbourne, stated that an improvement in this service had taken place, and by the end of March ’ two steamers monthly would be running.' At date of advice the. “ Austral Book ” was loading 6,000 tons of merchandise, and was to be followed by the “ Manica ” with 6,500 tons in February, the “ Swazi ” with 6,500 tons early in March,- and the “ South Africa ” with 2,700 tons at the end of that month. This development will, of course,- benefit New Zealand transhipments as well as Australian cargo.

CONTROL OF BLACKLEG: AMENDED AREAS.

Amended regulations under the Stock Act, for the control of blackleg in cattle, altering the boundaries of the several infected areas, were gazetted on 9th January, ' 1919, and came into force on that date. The areas are now defined as follows :— ' ■ ''.. ■

, Infected Areas “A.” No. 1 Area. The counties of Franklin, : Waikato, Wai pa, Piako, and Matamata as at present constituted ; that portion of Raglan County as at present constituted situated north of the southern boundary of Te Akau A6 and A3, and generally of the northern boundary of the Parish of Whangape to the . Waikato River ; that further portion of Raglan County as at present constituted lyingwestward of the Waipa River from a point commencing at the northern boundary of the Parish of Kara mu where it meets the Waipa River to the watershed, thence along that watershed in a southward direction to the boundary of the Parish of Pirongia, following the western' and southern boundaries of that parish to the Waipa River near Pirongia ; that portion of West Taupo County as at present constituted north of the Puniu River, the Owairaka Stream, its watershed, and the Waiteti Stream to the Waikato River ; and these portions of Ohinemuri and Thames Counties as at present constituted on the western side of the mainrange watershed to the Waiwhakauranga Stream, following same to the Firth of Thames. . . . /

No. 2 Area.— All. that area in the Taranaki and Wellington Land Districts bounded towards the north generally by the Mokau River from the sea to. the north-western comer of the Mokau-Mohakatino No. ig Block; thence by the western and south-western boundaries of that . block - and the north-eastern boundary of Mokau-Mohakatino No. ij Block to Tawhitiraupeka Trig. Station ; thence _■ by Blocks IV and VIII, Waro Survey District, to the TongaporutuMangaroa Road ; thence by that road to the westernmost comer of Section No. 22, Block V, Ohura Survey District ; thence by the eastern watershed of the Tangarakau Stream, over Mahoewaruwaru, Tatu, and Peneta Trig. Stations to the Ohura Road ;. thence by the said Ohura Road to the Heao Stream ; thence by that, stream to the northern boundary of the Whangamomona County ; thence by the leading spur eastwards to the western watershed of the Ohura River ; thence by the watershed to the Wanganui River at Onetea ; thence by the right bank of the said Wanganui River to the point where it meets the southeastern boundary-line of the Taranaki Land District ; thence towards the south by a right line to the intersection of the Patea River with the south-eastern boundary-line of the Hawera County ; thence towards the south-east by the said south-eastern boundary-line of the Hawera County • to the sea ; and ’ thence towards the south-west, west, and north-west by the sea to the Mokau River aforesaid.

t nfected Areas “ B.”

No. 1 Area. The counties of Waitomo ‘ and Manukau as at present constituted, and West Taupo County exclusive of the southern portion lying south of a right line from Trig. 1390 (Pareora) to the mouth of the Waihora Stream at Lake Taupo, and also exclusive of the northern portion included in infected Area “A.”

'No. 2 Area.— All that area in the Taranaki Land District bounded towards the north-west generally by the south-eastern boundary of the Hawera County from the mouth of the Manawapou River to where the confiscation-fine intersects the Patea River ; thence towards the east generally by the said Patea River to the ocean; and thence towards the south-west by the ocean to the. place of commencement.

Note.—An article on “Blackleg and its Control,” together with a summary of the Blackleg Regulations, was published in the Journal for August, 1916.

ESTIMATED YIELDS OF WHEAT AND OAT CROPS.

The following estimated average yields of wheat and oats for the current season. (1918-19) have been compiled by the Government Statistician from reports furnished by the Fields Inspectors -of the Department of Agriculture: Bushels per Acre. . Bushels per Acre. Wheat. Oats. Wheat. Oats. Auckland ' . . 23'00 30'43 Marlborough ", ..'26’56 , 43'27 Hawke’s Bay .. 25-42 31’15 Canterbury . . 28’47 . 35’44 Taranaki ' .. 22-18 28-78 Otago .. . . 29-41 35’35 Wellington . . 22’99 30'82 Southland .. 25-35 33'41 Nelson . . 20-00 . . 30-00 Average (estimated) for Dominion, season 1918-19 .. 28-32 S 34-90' Average (actual) for Dominion, season 1917-18 .. 24-23 1- 31'64

According to the foregoing estimates, taken in conjunction with the acreage grown, the total yield of wheat for the Dominion should be approximately 6,265,000 bushels, as against an actual yield of 6,807,536 bushels in 1918, The percentage of the oat crop threshed in 1916-17 was 31'44, and in 1917-18-32-00. Assuming that a similar proportion is threshed this year, the total yield of grain should be 5,140,000 bushels. The oats threshed in the previous season yielded 4,942,759 bushels. Owing to the wet and cold season experienced the harvest is exceptionally late, and realization of the estimates depends largely on forthcoming weather.

FORTHCOMING AGRICULTURAL SHOWS.

Rangitikei A. and P. Association : At Taihape, 26th February. . Egmont A. and P. Association : At Hawera, 26th and 27th February. Ohura A., P., H., and I. Association : At Nihoniho, 27th February. Franklin A. and P. Association : At Pukekohe, 28th February and Ist March. Hawke’s.Bay A. and P. Society: At Hastings, sth March. ■ - Katikati A. and P. Association: -At Katikati, sth March. A- . : Marton A. and P. Association: At Marton, sth March. Taranaki Agricultural Society : ; At New Plymouth, sth and 6th March. Hikurangi-Otonga Ridings A.,P., and I. Association: At Hukerenui, 12th March. Rotorua A. and P. Association : At Rotorua, 12th March. •' "A Taumarunui A. and P. Association : At Taumarunui, 12th March. Wanganui A. and P. Association : At Wanganui,- 12th and 13th March. . Mangonui A. and P. Association : At Kaitaia,' 14th March. Ashburton A. and P. Association: At Ashburton, 20th March. Matamata A. and P. Association : At Matamata, 20th. March. ' ' ' Strath Taieri A. and P. Society : At Middlemarch, Ist April. Oxford A. and P. Association: At Oxford, 3rd April. Methven A. and P.-Association: At Methven, 3rd April. A Temuka and Geraldine A. and P. Association: At Winchester, 3rd April. Malvern A. and P. Association :At Sheffield, 16th April. . , ; Mackenzie County A. and P. Society : At Fairlie, 21st April;

(A . & P. Association secretaries are invited to supply dates and location of their shows.) r - i

Areas in Orchards, Gardens, Plantations, &c. -Particulars of areas in occupation and cultivat on in New Zealand under this class, according to the 1917-18 statistics, are as follows : Commercial orchards, bearing, 12,689 acres— bearing, 13,865 acres ; orchards for private use only, 7,898 acres ; vineyards, ,253 acres ; market gardens, 2,551 acres; nurseries and seed-gardens, 441 acres; private gardens and grounds about residences, 53,689 acres; plantations, 65,534 acres.

0 1-4 d o "I a 03 fl g - tn aj d 2 r O ~ o2 MH to o 'o d 44 ’cS -*-> > a 28 H & <D ..rd a Q (D ‘ ■H rt Q a o d O o tuO G •h ° tn r-, O o <D . 5d .2 S r Q. Sp. S3 <n go ■ d 3 2 ' ■si Q 0 rd Q -4-. tn • a <D o 2 > CJ rd T5 q p4d > e. d 'd £ M d ft 2 •2.S o ■g '“fl s « d * M d 42 2 0 flow a: M tn > <U " T3fl !>, S 8 £ rt g> > p £ ° © >,« 42 IS tn d ,rH 2 § 3 2 ol « 43 „ M-w rt £ a .2 xi ©.S3 < a! -w ■7 > m I " s 0 S z S .12 d fl©

Kind. Country of Departure. Auckland. New Plymouth. Wanganui. Wellington. Napier. Lyttelton. Dunedin. Invercargill. Totals. Gypsum United Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons. 2 £ 23 Tons. 1 £ 13 Tons. £ 2 Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons. 3 £ 38 Nitrate . Australia 4 66 4 66 ■ ... 4 66 Blood-and-bone Australia 20 304 44 649 64 953 * ’ .. 44 649 64 953 Bonedust . Australia 819 9.352 50 605 869 9,957 rock Guano Australia Caledonia Island Makatea 1,006 4,621 2,710 7.764 150 495 • • * ■ 60 165 • • 974 3.028 1,124 1,066 4,621 3,523 2,875 7,764 •• 495 60 •• 165 974 3,028 1,124 1,066 4,62r 3,523 2,875 7,764 Total 5.627 10,474 150 495 60 165 974 3,028 6,811 162 14, Superphosphate Australia 2,330 14,126 677 3,444 1,902 11,295 1,242 6,540 ♦Less 22 * Less 58 180 1,024 6,309 36,371 .. 1,242 6,540 ♦Less 22 * Less 58 1 80 1,024 6,309 36,371 iron Sulphate Kingdom United Australia ■■ 20 I 278 ' 20 I 278 .. 20 1 278 20 278 Total •• 20 279 20 279 Other . Australia 50 403 50 399 100 793 200 1,595 Total .... 14,280 63,421 ♦ September

IMPORTATION OF FERTILIZERS: QUARTER ENDED 31ST DECEMBER, 1918.

District. Horses. Asses and Mules. Cattle (including Cows). Cows. Number Sheep 1917-18. Number Lambs tailed, 1917-18, (includLambs) at April, 1918. Pigs. Goats. Milk. Dry. Angora. Other.' Auckland . 96,543 63 947,764 247,177 32,328 868 816,253 844666 79,905 ,905 2,832 Hawke’s Bay OOO 40 95 429,815 37,925 5,362 5,731,556 2,565,203 6,308,338 16,267 322 794 Taranaki, ... 26,010 1 354,083 139,698 7.941 . ,039,755 375,455 960 37,640 349 4,264 Wellington . 854 ■ 23 556,576 117,434 13,418 5,392,250 2,535,927 5,724,165 39,136 978 357 Nelson | 9.143 54,985 16,696 2,556 419,451 182,320 473,270 9,965 876 i,442 .. ■ 54,985 16,696 2,556 419,451 182,320 473,270 9,965 876 1,442 Marlborough 7,605 36,038 620 9 I ,294 967,092 608 660 7 6,910 432 ,079 Westland . 3,271 37,627 747 ,782 62,772 860 , 66,907 3,4.43 826 819 Canterbury 69,507 45 176,558 53,082 7,027 4,060,431 ,296,009 5,135,942 38,395 236 140 Otago 42 24 127,006 8 3 6,807 ,645,682 ■1,190,655 3,097,291 15,524 5 27 .' Southland . | 31 2 149,013 42,185 4H39 1,562,570 788 877 844 11,509 2 45 Totals 1 37 253 2,869,465 710,562 ,654 749 ,194,167 26,538,302 258.694 5,931 ,799 [From and statistics December, J

LIVE-STOCK IN NEW ZEALAND: 1917-18.