1938 Was Historical

Waikato Times, Volume 123, Issue 20693, 31 December 1938, Page 10

1938 Was Historical

Year Of Diplomatic Coups And German Territorial Expansion EUROPE SAVED FROM BRINK OF WAR CAVALCADE OF WORLD AFFAIRS

TWENTY YEARS of international political unrest reached a zenith in 1938, a year of diplomatic surprises characterised by the most sweeping German territorial expansion in history, which made the year one of immense historical importance. History was made in 1938 as never before. Citizens of every state the world over became vitally affected by the activities of one man. That man was Herr Adolph Hitler, Fuhrer of the German Reich, who dominated the world’s history of 1938. In prominence, too, came

Prime Minister Arthur Neville Cham-1 berlain of Great Britain, who spent anxious moments fighting for peace, j Unlying significance of world affairs j during the year has been the query: ‘Tan Europe be saved from war?” First the bloodless conquest of j Austria, then the crisis which cul- 1 minated in the sacrifice of CzechoSlovakia, made tension rise daily, j Atrocities of war in Spain and China bad no restraining influence on the totalitarian states, whose creed of guns rather than butter electrified j e whole atmosphere. Peace was 1 saved and the “guns” remained silent, but no sooner had the greatest ( m 24 years ended in peace ■ than the world began to ask, for how j long?

Throughout the year, however, Mr Chamberlain strived to place Britain in accord with other nations. First the Anglo-Turkish agreement, then the Anglo-Eire and the Anglo-Italian agreements and the Munich conference. The latter was followed by the Anglo-German declaration and the Anglo-American trade arrangement.

Hitler Over Austria ALWAYS a fundamental point in Hitler's expansion dream, the occupation of Austria by the Germans became a realisation in March of this year, and, without so much as a battle, the Dictator’s home country became part of the Reich in one of the greatest post-war coups. It was on February * ’ 4 that events leading up to the Anschluss were set moving. On that day Pranz von Papen was arrogantly dismissed from the German Legation in Vienna. Papen, who had made HiLler Chancellor of Germany, was not in disgrace, however. He had been assigned to a new mission by his chief. It was he who, using a degree Af aunning, persuaded Dr. Kurt von Schuschnigg, Chancellor of Austria, to visit Hitler at Berchtesgaden, ostensibly for friendly discussions. Schuschnigg was greeted by a nine hours’ storm of impassioned words, reproaches and threats. Hitler, however, promised to preserve Austrian independence, but Schuschnigg was advised to hand over the police department of Austria to Arthur Seyss-In-quart, in whom Hitler had confidence, to release all Imprisoned Nazis and change the tone of the Press. Schuschnigg was told not to delude himself that any help would be forthcoming from England. France or Italy. Germany was ready do occupy Austria if he failed. Facing stark, relentless and overwhelming force. Schuschnigg had no option. He capitulated to Hitler's demands. Upon the fulfilment of the'Dictator’s decree, Schuschnigg was faced with unprecedented Nazi demonstrations in Vienna. The mob shouted {or Hitler. By March 9 the Austrian Chancellor had fulfilled his half of the bargain to the letter but Hitler was obviously not going to keep his promise of an independent Austria. Hitler W despatched an ultimatum for Schus-

chnigig to arrange a plebiscite. The Austrian Chancellor agreed upon condition the Nazis were ordered to preserve order during the voting. Hitler stormed a refusal and ordered Schuschnigg's resignation in favour of Seyss-Inquart, and to give two-thirds of’the Cabinet seats to Nazis. Again Schuschnigig yielded and virtually Austrian independence ended. On March 12, Inevitably on a Saturday, without objection from England, France or even Italy (always a champion of Austrian independence}, the Germans entered Austria. Within 12 hours tin; first detachment of 1000 troops swelled to 1,200,000, 700 planes had landed and 10,000 German police Hooded the country. The political seizure of Austria was completed overnight and the map of Europe was changed again. The broken Schuschnigg disappeared into a concentration camp in Germany. By securing Austria, Germany increased her man power, money and munitions. The Reich secured the iron ore of Styria, the timber, the industrial factories, and. more important, she reached the back door of Czechoslovakia.

Czechs Make the Headlines THE WEEK-END of May 21 became memorable in the eventful story of European affairs in 1938. Zero hour almost struck on that date and the world was near to another conflagration. Then it was that Czechoslovakia really loomed as the cockpit of international tension. The week-end tumult arose as the result of the movement of 170,000 German troops within striking distance of the Czechoslovakian border, ostensibly on “routine manoeuvres.” Tension between Germany and Czechoslovakia rose hourly as Herr Konrad Henlein, leader of the Suaeten German minority in Czechoslovakia, traded on his claims of unsatisfactory treatment from the Czech Government, claims which, while acknowledged by the world to be founded upon justification, were exaggerated tremendously. In Germany Hermann Goering said: “Clashes in Czechoslovakia have become so bad that Germany can no longer regard them as accidental and the Prague Government must take responsibility for what happens.”

Meanwhile, Dr. Itodza, Czech Prime Minister, offered to negotiate with Henlein and his sudetens on terms for the appeasement of their problem. Dr. Edouard Benes, capable diplomat wtio was president of Gzechoclpvakia, ordered partial mobilisation of his country's highly mechanised but comparatively small military forces. Then France spoke with the backing of Soviet Russia: “If Germany crosses the Czech frontier that will automatically begin war. France will furnish the’utmost help to Czechoslovakia if she is the victim of aggression.” The Franco-Soviet pact thus accepted the challenge of the Rome-Berlin axis and the crisis in Europe was over for a time at least. If Europe faced its most anxious moments since 1918 during that fateful week-end, more anxious and more grave events over Czechoslovakia were to follow.

Redrawing Europe’s Frontiers THAT greater crisis was destined to place the world in a state of tension unprecedented since Serajevo. Even in New Zealand and, to be more parochial, in Hamilton, paradoxically, it made springtime a period of gloom. The original problem in Czechoslovakia in which the minorities had been seeking autonomy and equality of citizenship with the Czechs, a problem which

not created by the design of Hitler. The minorities question had been a big political issue in the country ever since the declaration of independence and the creation of the new democracy after the Great War. Certainly it had been used by Hitler for the attainment of his ends. It developed into a real crisis this year according

to the Dictator’s carefully prepared plan, being scheduled to he tackled just as soon as the Austrian Anschluss had been completed.

The week-end of May 21 was to have been the signal for German domination of Czechoslovakia but the democracy retaliated with a stern front. After that the following months in European history of 1938 were characterised by the growth of the Sudeten German minority’s clamouring for autonomy, kept hot by the technique of the German Minister of Propaganda, Josef Goebbels. That was the main feature of the trouble from May to July when the important decision of the British Government to send Lord Runciman as an independent mediator between the Czechs and Sudetens was made. The discussions which followed delayed Hitler for a further two months.

Next highlight of the now growing crisis was the important Nationalities Statute issued by the Prague Government on August 3 to ensure equal rights and equal responsibilities of individuals of ail nationalities. Some of the main features ol' the Statute were that children would be taught byteachers of their own race, ci\il servants for any one district to be appointed from the race predominating in that district and more latitude in use of foreign languages. Autonomy,

ixowever, was not granted, a fact which Berlin objected to on behalf of the Sudeten Germans, and thus kept Uive the crisis. The British Fleet

I ,ut out to sea and the French army mobilised, and tension grew. Tne Balkan countries would not guarantee to Hitler that they would remain neutral in the event of war and then on September 7 the Sudetens broke off negotiations with the Czechs. A little relief came when Mr Chamberlain dramatically flew to meet Hitler at Berchtesgaden on September 15, but the conference ended suddenly. Then a Franco-British plan to cede the Sudeten area to Germany without-a plebiscite and to guarantee the new Czechoslovakian frontiers was propounded and on September 22 Chamberlain met Hitler again at Godesberg to be more or less confronted with a German ultimatum for cession by October 1. Czechoslovakia

refused the terms and the German Free Corps moved over the border. Tension was then higher than ever. From Warsaw came the demand for self-determination for Czechoslovakia’s 82,000 Poles, and Hungary demanded the same for 690,000 Hungarians. The nations prepared lo fight. Tension ended on September 28 with the Four-Power Conference at the invitation of Hitler after proposals made by Chamberlain. Cession of the Sudeten German area in Czechoslovakia with provision for plebiscites in other districts was agreed to with the Powers guaranteeing the new Czechoslovakian frontiers. Hitler entered Czechoslovakia on October 3 and two days later Dr. Benes, Czech President, resigned. At the Munich Conference were Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler and Mussolini.

The Munich Four-Power Conference started a new era in European history. The terms agreed upon at that historic conference were, in effect, little different from Hitler's Godesberg ultimatum, but uppermost in the public mind ut the time was the feeling of relief that peace had been saved. An international commission had been appointed to fix the ffnal frontiers. When the agreement began to be carried out, however, press messages indicated that Germany was not adhering to the Munich agreement but taking even more than that first demanded at Godesberg. With the electricity and water supplies of Prague and Brno taken into German territory the two leading cities of Czechoslovakia more or less fell to the mercy of Hitler. Factories, railway stations and points of strategic importance where there were only small Sudeten German minorities were seized. Czechoslovakia lost in all about 10 per cent of

her industrial wealth. So came the most spectacular annexation in modern history. Some of the Sudeten Germans sought a refuge in Czechoslovakia. They were sent hack, for Czechoslovakia could not afford to risk having any further German minorities within her new frontiers. In Sudetenland merciless treatment awaited them. Trouble was not all over for 'Czechoslovakia, however. On November 18 the Ruthenians petitioned Hungary and Poland to free them from Czech i rule. Two days later autonomy was granted them from Czechoslovakia. In the same week a crisis between Poland and Germany seemed likely, for the 1 Poles were disappointed that their , plans for a common Poland-Hungarian frontier over Czechoslovakia had been thwarted by Germany. Germany did not want Poland and Hungary to secure a hold of Slovakia and Ruthenia and she remained master of the situa- ’ tion in averting another crisis. Frantic Armaments Race HISTORY will remember 1938 for the year of the world's greatest arma-

ments race when Great Britain made plans to catch up on lost time during the previous six years and set a furious pace which was to cost the nation £1,500,000,000 before 1941. The United States of America speededup arms manufacture too as signs of throwing off the cloak of isolation began to appear. Italy’s big naval programme gave further testimony of the mad race for arms, while Australia made the most lavish plans in the Commonwealth’s history to spend £43,000,000 in defence measures. Meanwhile Nazi Germany, original pace-makers, worked the arms manufacturers at full pace and Soviet Russia in no way lagged behind. Elaborate air raid precautions were made by Britain during the Czechoslovakia crisis. During all this, incongruously, or perhaps congruously enough, peace appeals rang out all over the globe. Chief player in this role was President Roosevelt. Mr Chamberlain in a more material way fought for peace and perhaps earned more of his treasured ambition of becoming known as “The Peacemaker.'’ Fir© Over China WITH political tension focussed on central Europe, the Sino-Japanese war, which has been waging throughout the year in the East has not commanded a great deal of interest but, nevertheless, the issues at stake are important. The war has been raging since August, 1937, and month by month as the fearful toll of life and property continues, Japan appears to be making less headway. If any war could be called a good thing for a , country, the Eastern conflict appears to be advantageous to China, irresj peetive of the millions of Chinese who ; have suffered horribly from it. for it has been the only event which has brought political unification to China — 1 the three hostile factions of National j Government which is personified by i Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, bat- ; tiing war lords and the Communists : have united H-ainsL a foreign enemy, i Another hcncirt China has received ; from Hie war so far is Hint her in- • terior has been opened to modern in- . tluences as a result of the Govern- | inent moving inland, universities have | been founded there, factories from i the great industrial cities of the | Yangtse River have been moving ; machinery inland during the year and i motor roads and railways are being ; pushed inland with inereditable speed, j There is no access to the Pacific Ocean in this new inland China but I during the year the new united nation | has been building new roads towards

Europe, primarily to ensure access to I the world's munitions markets. A I vast highway for trade has been comj menced through Burma and another I through Chinese Turkestan. What is | really making China resist so well, however, is the nation’s unconquerable spirit. The troops, the best China has ever fielded, have been fighting confidently during the latter stages of 1938, utilising their own methods of guerilla warfare, nagging and harassing the Japanese by trickery and surprise attacks. The Japanese report great victories at regular intervals and the Chinese have claimed successes, but from independent observers it might appear that Japan continued to flounder militarily and diplomatically during 1938. Meanwhile, the “heroic” Chinese resistance, as the League Council described it, continued to astonish the world almost as much as it has astonished the j Japanese. In December Japan made ! peace offers, the terms to be abandonj ment by China of extraterritorial j rights, abolition of foreign concessions and China’s participation in the anticommunist bloc. China rejected the terms on Christmas Day.

Conflict In Spain THE dreadful Spanish War lingered into its third year during this bleak 12 months of 1938. The chief feature of the conflict has been the failure of General Franco to push home a victory, and as the war theatre still flames the main interest to British peaple has been the political position in the country and the efforts of the Non-Inter-vention Committee. The political position has been a little obscure. Mr Chamberlain has been endeavouring to reach some agreement for the withdrawal of foreign troops. The Government forces went to the frontier for repatriation but Franco claimed that 60,000 remained with the Government forces. President Negrin then invited a League of Nation’s committee to investigate the position independently. Independent observers from France and Britain, however, said that, except for the German airmen and technicians, Franco's army was no longer a serious force, while the Republican Army was well disciplined and trained and fairly well equipped, except in the air force, where it was outnumbered at a ratio of 7 to 1. Spain is in the melting pot still.

Whither the Jews? A RACIAL problem to many countries in the past, the Jewish question came into prominence again during 1938 as the result of the decrees u. Hitler and his Nazi followers. Tuproblem of the Jews has been burn ing for centuries, now quietly aim now with flames that leap lu 'the sk\. as is the case to-day. The profile.;, is not only Jewish and German, fiut .. Polish, French, English, and American problem; in fact an international problem, in reality a problem of humanity, of justice, of political expediency. In Germany during this year antiSemitism reached a pitch of homicidal insanity. The purge started in 1933 with the rise of the National Socialists. who were determined to “purify" the German blood. Since then tinattack on the Jews has become more fierce. Prior to these new outbursts. anti-Semitism in the West had practically burnt itself out. Concealed in the ashes, however, was a spark which could still be fanned into a veritable conflagration even in a supposedly highly civilised country like ! Germany. | Fur purely political reasons, a nation that, was once in the van of Western ; civilisation lias decreed the exterminu- ! tion of Jewish nationals. A new and i more violent pogrom against the Jew: 1 was levelled in Germany in November j after the fatal shooting of Dr. von ! Rath, secretary lo the German Em-

bassy in Paris, on November 8. Seven-teen-year-old Polish Jew, Herschel Gryneszpan, was responsible for the murder, his motive being “a wish to avenge the Jewish people.” A new anti-Jewish wave swept Germany. Von Rath died two days after the shooting and the Nazi pegrom reached a point where £80,000,000 damage was done to Jewish property in Gerrnany. by the Nazis and the Jews were obliged to pay for the extent of the damage to the Reich.

Refugees poured into other countries, which feverishly arranged to accommodate . the stricken people. The renewed purge came to the horror and indignation of the civilised world, for whether philo-Semites or antiSemites, people were shocked by the methods Nazis were using. Press messages from other countries all revealed the wave of sympathy for the Jews. To ' make matters worse, Germany blamed Britain for being behind the von Rath murder.

In Hungary in April the Hungarian Jewish laws were passed, decreeing that Jews must not hold more than 20 per cent of the posts in economic fife. The percentage was quite a liberal one, however, for in Hungary only 4 per cent of the total population is Jew. Poland has the greatest percentage of any country in the world and Rumania is next. In January Rumania passed anti-Jewish measures which sacrificed the welfare of about a million Jews.

Revolt In the Desert

BRITAIN, too, had its Jewish problem in 1938. In Palestine friction between Jew and Arab gave Great Britain diplomatists many anxious moments and no effective solution to a problem which grew to major proportions during the year has yet been found. Britain was faced with a nation-wide revolt in Palestine. During the year the Imperial Government lost control over much of the territory it controlled. A Syrian adventurer, Fauzy Kawakji, leads the revolt with at least SUUO men in his army. His ally is Abdul Rahim el Haj Mohammed de Dennaba. Kawakji rightly belonged to the French side of the border. To keep out the Arab intruders the Britisli built a barrier known as “Tegart’s Wall” along the entire length of the frontier between Palestine and Syria. It consists of three rows of steel pylons connected by barbed wire entanglements, and machine-guns are posted at strategic points. The idea was by no means popular with the Arabs and in June the British were forced to send a special military force to patrol it. The British Government hoped to supplement the wall by an elaborate system of military roads, but it has always been the first move of the Arab insurgents to cut the highroads leading to the coastline. Bands of village guerrillas caused the authorities far more trouble than the organised Arab armies, however.

The trouble in Palestine broke out in April, 1936, but this year it reached proportions of major concern. A few months ago Britain had nine infantry battalions, a motorised regiment, 30 bombers and about 7000 armed police in the territory. At the end of July the trouble took a graver turn but the British would not resolve to answering terrorism by terrorism. A Royal Commission had recommended a division of the country, but this proved unacceptable to both Arab and Jew 7 . In May of this year a new partition committee under Sir John Woodhead was sent out to consider the actual details of partition. They were there three months and saw the Arab revolt change to open warfare against the British and the Jews. Woodhead went home in dismay leaving the position unchanged. In August the Jewish leaders began to lose faith in Britain and changed a non-retaliation policy to one of answering outrage oy outrage. British soldiers have therefore been obliged to take action against both Arab and Jew terrorists.

In August a secret trip by air to strife-wracked Palestine was undertaken by the Colonial Secretary, Mr Malcolm MacDonald. He thought partition into separate Arab and Jewish States with a British corridor was the most hopeful solution. In October the fear was expressed in England that foreign capital was assisting the Arabs. Early in November the Arabs went on strike. On November 9 the Peel partition scheme was dropped by Britain on the advice of the Palestine Partition Committee and Britain, therefore, continues at the present time to govern the whole of Palestine. Arabs : end Jews have meanwhile been asked to confer with the Imperial Government. Fato of the Colonies DURING the ypar the vexing question of Germany's demand for the return of mandated colonies lost after the Great War came into prominence again. Hitler, however, seemed to be of the opinion that it was not a j problem for any immediate crisis and j considered that conciliation would j bring a peaceful solution when the j time arrived. Many mandates, how- j ever, protested against any return to ' German control and South Africa became anxious regarding Nazi propaganda in German South West Africa. Tanganyika petitioned Britain to remain under British mandate and South Africa expressed the fear that a return of any mandates would mean a Nazi domination of all Africa. In December the colonial position was debated in the House of Commons, which voted against the return of any mandates. The first or Chamberlain’s foreign agreements drawn up in 1938 was that between Britain and Italy. The main features of the Anglo-Italian agreement, which was not ratified until November, although Italy sought ratificaion in June and was refused, were that Britain should recognise the Italian conquest of Abyssinia and that Italy should withdraw troops from the Spanish war. Italy was also to reduce her garrison in Libya. The terms ended the three years of war in radio propaganda between the two nations, also the costly naval vigilance of the Mediterranean. 700 Years of Strife Settled WITH the Anglo-Italian terms agreed upon, the British made another historic agreement at Lhe end of April, this time with the new Eire. It made ! relations between the two countries j the best for 700 years and settled dif- i ferences which throughout that period I had been a thorn to the unity of the « English and the Irish. Malcolm Mac- I Donald, Dominions and Colonial Secre- j tarv, was the man responsible for the settlement. In brief, the agreement gave a cash payment of £10,000,000 by Eire to the United Kingdom in final settlement of all financial claims of either Government. Thus was settled Eire's land annuity payments originally set down to be paid in annual instalments of £4,000,000 to £5,000,000 for a period of 40 or 50 years.

The payment ended the severe trade restrictions imposed by Britain on Eire for her defalcations. The Britisli Government transferred to Eire the Admiralty property and rights it held in Ireland and both countries abolished the “special duties” of the economic war in a general trade agreement. The settlement will remain in force for a period of three years. De Valera has thus removed the last British yoke over his country but the responsibility of protecting Eire will still fall upon the British. Although Eire settled an old grievance with Britain, De Valera has again raised the partition question during this momen-

tous year. He first suggested ft plebiscite to allow the people of Northern Ireland Lo vote for or against union with Eire, but abandoned that plan in favour of one which would leave Northern Ireland under practically the same constitution as at present, except that instead of sending 14 members to the House of Commos, to send those members to a central Irish Government in Dublin. In the North this plan was flatly rejected. The Nationalists of both Eire and Northern Ireland say that as the British Government was in favour of ceding minorities to their true kinsmen, as expressed in the Munich agreement, there was nothing to atop a unification of Ireland. While the problem is at present a serious one in Ireland, border clashes having occurred on one occasion in November, the British Government has not yet revealed its hand in the matter. Just before Christmas several arrests were made in the North following an attempt on the life of Lord Cra'gavon. Prime Minister of Northern Ireland.

Anthony Eden Resigns OTHER events were of great irriport- ! ance, too, events which in an ordinary year would have been of immense significance but which, in the historio twelve months of 1938, can have only bare mention. Early in January Anglo - Japanese tension was rile. The mat real bombshell of the year fell with the resignation of Mr Anthony Eden, Foreign Minister of Britain, who disagreed with Chamberlain's policy of commencing Anglo-Italian agreement talks before the withdrawal of Italian troops from Spain. Viscount Halifax assumed his oillce. In August the tension on the Russian-Japanese border was settled on the brink of war. Japan withdrawing her chargee. November was an important month also. Then it was that the American Ambassador in Germany, Mr Hugh Wilson, was recalled by his country to discuss relations between the two countries. The incident was followed by the recall of the German Ambassador from Washington. Italian claims to French Tunis, Corsica and Nice caused concern early in December, but although a crisis was predicted for February next, Mussolini did not appear to push the question in the face of determined opposition from France. <J( tremendous importance in a troubled year was the visit of King [ George VI and Queen Elizabeth to ' France, where they received a very friendly reception and strengthened the bonds between the two great I democracies. The Duke of Kent's [ appointment as Governor-General of j Australia in October was of tremendous diplomatic importance also. Several weddings of foreign Royalty figured in the news of 1938, the general gravity of which was relieved by the interesting Anglo-Auatralian cricket series and the humorous radio panic in America in the broadcast of the “Man from Mars.” Two resignations of French Prime Ministers and severe industrial unrest in Franco, especially in November, were features of the diplomatic year. In France, during these disturbances, the Left Party split somewhat. A financial recovery was reported late in December.

In November Turkey lost its President, Kamai Ataturk. who died after a great career for his country. He was succeeded by General Israet Inonu.

An important pact, the Declaration of Lima, was signed at Christmas by 21 American republics, which reaflrmod the solidarity of the American continent. They would co-ordinate if the peace of any one State was threatened.