WATER BORES AND IRRIGATION.

Otago Witness, Issue 2004, 21 July 1892, Page 6

WATER BORES AND IRRIGATION.

(Continued.)

In a preceding article a sketch was given of the results following borings for water for irrigation and sanitary purposes, nnd doubtless many settlers, especially if in Southland, will sa} r they have a superabundance of the fluid ; and at seasons of the year so they have, while at others constantly recurring the outcry is of drought. Even on the Taieri plains there is annually "a feast or a famine." No doubt much could be done towards equalising matters by the construction cf clams at eligible places on hillside creeks, and water channels therefrom, but the cost of the maiutenarce of these and the necessary co-operation of the surrounding settlers (always a difficulty) have retarded any efforts in this direction. But the question arises, Would not successful bores be much cheaper, as they would not only provide a supply of water for irrigation purposes when needed, but every member of tho proprietary would be thereby provided, as occasion required, with a motor power for his threshing machine, cbaffcutter, bulb-bruiser, cream separator and churn ? Experiences in the United States in reference to the benefits resulting from irrigation, and an available water supply, afford us a lesson which it would be well to take advantage of ; therefore the measure adopted in the State of Dakota only two years ago will illustrate the importance of the subject as it is regarded there. In Dakota in 1889 the State Legislature passed an act "to provide for the sinking of artesian wells and the construction of watercourses therefrom." The provisions briefly stated are : Upon application from 10 freeholders for the sinking of a well, and upon deposit of a description of the land to be benefited, the Artesian Well Commissioner appoints three viewers, who inspect the site and after examination report. If the report is favourable to the well, any claims for damage, &c. that may be put forward and substantiated are paid out of the county treasury. The report accepted, surveys and levels are taken by tho county surveyor, and the comissioner advertises for tenders to contract for the work. A board of assessment, composed of certain local officials, is appointed, who, after estimating the cost of construction, levy an assessment, which is limited, upon rateable property ; this rate being known as the artesian well fund. The State subsidises the fund by a contribution of one-tenth of the cost of the well and channels, and should any towns be benefited a proportion of the cost, not exceeding a quarter of the amount to any ono of them, is levied on them. In Colorado, again, the " Irrigation Code " in that State defines •• subterranean and artesian wells." It declares that water channels and courses which flow in them, found beneath the surface not already appropriated are public property, and are dedicated to the uses of the people of the State. Records are to be supplied to the county clerk of the character and sinking of all artesian wells, of the stratum passed, volume of water, &c, and all details of importance. Bored wells must be properly cased to prevent escape of water, and proper appliances used to arrest or regulate the flow. Every person complying with these provisions, and using the water for beneficial ÜBes, shall be deemed to have appropriated them to the extent to which they ought to be applied, " but no person controlling an artesian well shall suffer the water to run to waste." This last enactment indicates the value of subterranean water channels or catchments in the estimation of American authorities.

One valuable feature in the recent boring operations in New South Wales is that the geological formation of immense districts wide apart has been definitely ascertained. In reference to the section of his report bearing on this branch of the subject — the necessity for records of bores — Mr Boultbee says : — " From the many demands for information generally made by the public upon the department charged with this work, and for specific information regarding the strata, &c. in existing bores in the different localities, it became at once apparent that the information at its disposal was gravely inadequate. Steps were therefore taken, with the Minister's sanction, to initiate as complete an artesian well record as could be made, and to that end the different boring companies and private firms who had undertaken work of this class were communicated witb, with a view of obtaining a record of the positions, numbers, details, and sections of the various artesian wells sunk by them in the colony. This was in most cases cordially responded to and the information (approximate, however, in some cases) was giveu, while in others no reply has been received — the public importance and great utility of such record being probably not recognised. The record obtained is given in the appendices, and sections of each bore have been prepared, so far as the information afforded permits, and the positions accurately shown on the artesian well map attached. The nucleus of a permanent record that will in each year increase in value and importance is now established, and will be of the utmost service in guiding future operations, whether public or private. The importance of the collation of this class of information does not appear to have been at first recognised in America, nor was it commenced with the earlier boring operations ; the collection, therefore, of the arrears has caused infinite trouble and expense." He therefore suggests that all persons who either contract for or undertake the work of boring for artesian water should be required by the Government to furnish the fullest information as regards strata, depth, &c., and that samples of each stratum pierced should be afforded for examination. Assuming that bores for artesian water in this colony would serve no useful purpose from a farmer's present standpoint, it is almost certain that such operations would bring to light much valuable information hitherto unrevealed regarding the geological strata of the country. NOTES ON RURAL TOPICS. It is to be feared that we colonial farmers do not sufficiently consider the imWasted portance of making, and preWealth. serving from waste when made, the manure of the farmyard, in fact, I dare swear that many who are now i terming here who were accustomed to pay much

attention to this matter when farming in Great Britain or Irolaud, are to be found among those who do not trouble about taking any straw to , the farmyard for the purpose of converting the ' same into manure. Prior to the introduction of guano and artificial fertilisers which arc now so common, farmyard manure was the sheet anchor of the British farmer, and by it alone, or in conjunction with compost, chalk, marl, and lime, ho was enabled to restore to his land a portion of the fertility exhausted by the usual farm crops. A compost, as it name implies, consists of a mixture of any kind of useless vegetable matter, such as leaves, peat, moss, the long grass cut from banks, ditches, and other waste places. This vegetable matter is gathered into heaps several feet in depth, and left for some months to ferment and undergo Certain chemical changes which cause it to become fit for manure for the root crops. Applied to clay soils it not only has a manuriul effect, but also improves and lightens the texture of the soil in the same way as farmyard dung. If we were to burn less straw and turn more of ifc into manure there Would be no necessity for such a large outlay in artificial manures. Farmyard manure being bulky involves a good deal of labour in carting and spreading, but as that is a work which can be done in the winter during frosty weather it is not a great drawback aftef all. Generally speaking farmyard manure contains moa,t, if not all, of the ingredients necessary for the fertilisation of the soil preparatory to the raising of any farm crop ; therefore it may be called a general manure, while the different artificial manures are termed special manures, as being necessary to tho production of some special crop. Of course the value of animal mauure depends very much upon the kind of food upon which the animal has been fed as well as upon the kind of animal from which it is obtained. Therefore it follows that tho dung from a beast whjch feeds upon expensive and nutritious artificial foods must be, and is, richer in valuable manurial ingredients than that from an animal fed upon the usual run of farm fodder, straw, roots, and' hay, &c. All farm crops extract nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid from the soil, and these three are the principal elements necessary in the composition of any manure. But three times as much nitrogen as phosphoric acid is removed from the soil by a crop, and as farmyard mauure contains that proportion of those two elements it follows that it is a very suitable and useful manure to apply to the land. The average farmyard manure contains about 121b of nitrogen, 111b of potash, and slb of phosphoric acid per ton, and any manure containing anything like that amount and proportion of these essential ingredients should assist in producing good crops of any kind, provided the soil is able to do its part. I have spoken of farmyard manure as a general manure, but it is necessary to mention that tho quality is very irregular, and depends in a very great measure upon the manner in which the liquid part of the manure is preserved. The manure owes a large portion of its nitrogen to the urine, and if this is allowed to run to waste or to be washed out of the manuro heap by heavy rains, it must follow that the manuro cannot be so efficacious. Without a proper proportion of liquids the manure heap heats and becomes dry and mouldy, the most valuable constituents passing off in vapour. A great deal has been said in the old country about the importance . of keeping the manure heap under cover, but iE a concreted pit is made for it there oannot be much waste of urine, and if the solid portion begins to heat the liquid must be pumped over it occasionally.

Besides being a complete manure, embodying all the essential elements for Farmyard raising a farm crop, farmyard v. manure is also to be commended Artificial on account of its durability, and Manure. in this quality it leaves all artificial fertilisers far behind. Its duration as a manure extends over three or four or more crops, according to its richness, and lime is about the only other manurial substance which can compare with ifc in this respect. Then also farmyard manure possesses the power of acting mechanically upon the soil, and it is well-known that however necessary manuring jnay be there are other things the soil requires as well. A good application of dung adds bulk and porosity to the soil, and thus renders the soil more free and open, and accelerates drainage. No one can avoid noticing how warm-looking and mellow is the texture of soil that has been incorporated with well-rotted mauure. A well dunged field cannot become very wet or sticky in wet weather, nor will it bake and cake in dry weather. Now, though artificial manures are extremely good and useful for forcing root crops, they can claim none of the many good points possessed by good farmyard muck besides its manurial value. Therefore, if we can only make it of inferior quality as a manure it is well worth carting out to improve the texture of the soil. Dwellers in town and in country are pretty well aware of the efficacy of barbed Bnrlietl Wire wire in stopping a breach in a lUski. fence and also iii opening a, breach in one's garments. It has proved a valuable ally to the farmer in keeping unruly cattle and pigs within bounds, and also to the happy possessor of a suburban villa, in keeping straying cattle and horses from taking liberties with his pet shrubs and trees growing by the road side. Notwithstanding its good points (no pun intended), its employment involves some degree of risk and responsibility to the owner or occupier of the land upon which the wire is placed. As a writer in a Home paper aptly puts it, having a barbed fence is something like keeping a bloodhound to protect one's yard. The protection afforded is very effectual, but the owner of the dog is liable for any damage done by him to the bodies" and limbs of bipeds or quadrupeds with whom the dog's barbs may come into contact. The British law has been appealed to pretty frequently of late years in connection with damage done by barbed wire, and the law has decided that barbed wire must be placed in the same category as dynamite, firearms, wild beasts, and deadly poisons. Therefore if any harm comes to man or beast through accidentally falling foul of barbed wire, the person who put up the wire is held responsible just as he would be if his bull were to get abroad and do serious damage to anybody. There is, I believe, an ancient maxim of law which is founded upon common justice, and which demands that a man must so use that which is his own so as not to injure another. If, however, a man or beast comes to grief against barb wire through wilfully tresjiassing, that is their own look-out, as they had no business to be there, but if they should accidentally or involuntarily come into contact with the wire and sustain any damage, then the owner of the wire is held to be responsible. An important case concerning barbed wire was recently tried in Birmingham, when an action was brought for the recovery of damages for the loss of a mare which was fatally injured by coming into contact with a

barbed fence, It appears that both the plaintiff and defendant occupied adjoining land divided by a thorn fence which was protected upon the one side by several barbed wires. The defendant put the wire there with the consent of the plaintiff's landlord, but the plaintiff objected as tenant and occupier. By some means or other not stated his mare injured herself upon the barbed wire, and in spite of all care died. He claimed Lls from defendant, who disputed all liability on the ground that the plaintiff took a lease of the land knowing that the barbed fence existed. The judge, however, ruled that defendant had erected the fence at his oiyn risk, and must abide the consequence of his action, and a verdict for the amount claimed was given against him. The Scotch Court of Appeal has also decided that such fences are dangerous and that anyone erecting them must take the risk of damage to man or beast.

Drainage by means of open furrows or ditches is not to be recommended except Surface on account of its cheapness, but, Draining, unfortunately, that is a very

strong recommendation in the eyes of a good many farmers who have not the means of carrying out a more permanent and therefore more expensive system. Messrs Hornsby and Sons of Lincolnshire are making a special plough for the purpose of cutting narrow furrows for draining surface water from grass land. I have not as yet seen any of these ploughs in the colony, but I recently saw a description of one in a Home paper, and it appears to be extensively used in some parts of Britain and Ireland. It is a light single plough on the swing principles, with a circular coulter and a peculiar share and mould-board. This plough can also be converted into a ridging plough, suitable parts being supplied by the makers. A British farmer giving his experience of the plough says that a ploughman and a pair of active horses with a man to step out and set up the poles get over about six acres per day, the drains being about 30ft apart aud the depth 6in,^the width at top of drain being about 3in. The sod which is turned out is chopped into short lengths and thrown over the grass, and if this is done in winter the sods become pulverised by frost, so that a chain harrow run over them in the spring will crumble them iuto a nice top-dressing. It seems to me that the mole plough would make a better and more lasting job on land that required drainage in this way, and though the mole plough would cost more to work, that would be counterbalanced by the saving of the grass and 6oil thrown out by the surface drain plough. Shallow surface drains merely relieve the top soil or surplus water, while the mole drains are effective in drawing off water from subsoil as well, according to the depth at which they are placed.

We have now arrived at the middle of tho winter season, and although Snow we have left the shortest day »ii the some weeks behind us, it is a true Land. sayingthat "the cold strengthens as the days lengthen," and the recent slight fall of snow may be expected to be followed by a heavier one in due course in the elevated districts. A good coat of snow is an advantage to the autumn-sown wheat, as it prevents it from being nipped and turned rusty by the frosts and lifted out of ground by the daily thaws. Snow on the farm is, however, very objectionable, and extremely unpleasant in many ways, especially as regards the welfare of the stock and the turnips. It is a very great mistake to plough while there is snow on the land to a greater depth than half an inch or so. When snow is ploughed into the land it makes the latter very cold, and is likely to keep it so right into the spring. It turns the soil into a sort of ice house, and a great deal of heat is required to penetrate far enough to do away with the chilling effects of the snow, and germination of spring crops is thus retarded. Land always works badly when suow has boen ploughed under, and it is safe to say that a farmer had much better lie in bed than turn out to plough while several inches of beautiful snow adorns the landscape. Many old farmers have a theory that a heavy coat of snow lying upon the young wheat all winter causes weedy crops, owing to the weeds — especially thistles — and weed seeds being protected from the frost as the wheat is. In those districts where land has been held tight in the grip of frost the field work appears to be behindhand, but it must be remembered that the mellowing influence of the frost will render spring workings more easy, and that though the teams may now be idle as regards tillage work, the end of the sowing season will see tho work finished in fairly good time. Though a farmer may try to keep muddling along through the frost and the snow, thinking every hour's ploughing is something gained, such work often proves of little benefit, and does not materially forward spring operations. One should submit philosophically to hindrance of work in the fields during the dead of winter, but it is a serious matter to be kept off the land in the spring by heavy floods. Rain, frost, and snow in the winter season is only what we should expect and be prepared for as much ;is possible, but a very wet spring is disastrous in many ways which are too well known to farmers to need enumeration. Considering how frequently and severely the farmer suffers from the effects of Farming unfavourable weather one of the Against most important questions that The Weather, can engage his attention is how he may best secure himself against this loss, and how, also, he may adapt his work and his methods to the probable variations of the seasons so as to reduce that loss to a minimum. But though it is undoubtedly an important matter that he should dodge the seasons, how is it possible that he can foresee what like the season is going to be. We have had a series of dry seasons, but what man on earth can tell whether the coming one will be dry or wet ? Even if it were possible to know for certain beforehand what the character of the spring and summer will be, there is not much that the farmer can do to avoid the consequences. He may take certain precautions, but after all is done he is at the mercy of the elements, and his best laid plans may draw a blank. For example, a farmer might prepare for a dry summer by ploughing deep for spring crops, working the land into a very fine tilth, and rolling down as firmly as possible in order that the moisture may be retained as long as possible, I say he does this on the chance that the coming summer is going to turn out n very dry one. Well, perhaps, just as he has sown and rolled down his spring crops of wheat and oats, a heavy downpour of rain follows, and the fine and smooth surface of the fields is battered so with the rain that the soil forms into a tight and hard cake on the surface, and the seed cannot come up evenly unless the ground is stirred again by harrowing. Irrigation is a precaution against drought, and thorough drainage agaiust floods, and lucky is the man who is provided with these means of fighting the elements, but what avails tile drains against a wet haymaking or a dripping harvest season ? Many farmers are handicapped by not having sufficient means for providing a thoroughly good equipment of implements and machinery for the farm, thus

enabling them to make a better stand against unseasonable weather. For example, what a potent weapon is the binder in protecting the ripe crops from the destructive nor'-westers ? The falling barometer warns the sailor of the approach of a gale, and in'a few minutes he can reef sails and trim his ship in readiness, but such a short notice is not sufficient to admit of a field of wheat being cut before the gale arrives, therefore the barometer is not of much service to the farmer. His better plan is to begin cutting as soon as possible, and continue day and night until the crop is all cut. Never mind the stooking just now, tho wind won't hurt the sheaves, but instead of the gale comes much rain, and the poor farmer is driven to distraction if not to ruin. Agricola.