NOTES ON RURAL TOPICS.

Otago Witness, Issue 1916, 6 November 1890, Page 6

NOTES ON RURAL TOPICS.

A correspondent. in last week's Witness draws

attention to the importance of Snbaoiiing. subsoiling and draining, and expresses a hope that these subjeots may be treated of in Rural Notes. lam very much obliged to "Subscriber" for hie suggestion, whioh furnishes me with subjeofc matter for a good many notes, and I Bball endeavour to comply with his request in a practical way, so far as can be done within the limits of a few columns. To go into the subject fully would require the compass of a good sixed volume. I may say, however, in the first place, that both subsoiling and draining have been touched upon more than once by me, but only in a brief, discursive manner. There is not the slightest doubt but that drainage is of

the very first importance in agriculture, in so far as clayey and retentive soil 3 are concerned ; in fact, it may be truly termed the very foundation and corner stone of profitable" farming, for without it certain soils are practically sterile and incapable of producing anything in unfavourable seasons. But is it onlynecessary to write up the sub j aot in order toensure the adoption thereof? It is assuredly a> gocd thing, a necessary thin#, and in some< cases absolutely essential to the propermanagement of the farm. But so is co-opera-tion a very good and desirable thing, and: "Agricola" bas done his best to induce hiss brother fatmers to be of that opinion, and to> put it into practice ; so far apparently with' little success. lam well aware that farmers acknowledge the wisdom and profit of doing a great many things that they are quite unable to carry out simply because of the laok of capital. To revert to the subjeot of this note, subsoiling operates with very- great advantage in loosening and breaking up the " hard pan " of. day that underlies the top Boil in clayey districts. This " hard pan "or impervious layer prevents the subsoil from absorbing rain, and' also prevents roots of plants from penetrating; to their full extent in search of nourishment for the plant. For all- the goo* a _ hard clay subsoil is to tbe surface Boil this last may aB well be laid upon a board or upon a macadamised road. By stirring up and breaking tbe subsoil of clay to the depth of a foot or so the top soil is mora quickly relieved of btagnant surface water, and the plant roots are enticed to a greater depth in dry seasons, thereby being better enabled to withstand the effects of a drought. Nor ia a drought, as " Subscriber " truly remarks, so severely felt upon subaoiled land, because more rain is absorbed by it through tbe Boil being rendered porous to a greater depth, and the water, which would otherwise run off or beevaporated, is thus stored up, and is available in dry weather for keeping the top soil moister than it would otherwise be. As regards themeans by whiob subaoiling is effected, it can, I should say, be most efficiently and inexpensively done while the soil is very wet. Stiff,, wet -clay, if broken up, will dry into harct lumps, but theße lumps will again attach themselves and stick together in a macs when exposed to pressure while wet. But tear up the' subsoil when comparatively dry, and thepieces will crumble down to a oertain extent and admit air and water to pass through it. The cost of subaoiling a Btiff retentive day will probably be repaid in the first crop, and much gain will be undoubtedly derived from tbe same during succeeding crops, Therefore, before the subsoil has been again consolidated by compression and treading tbe farmer will have recovered the -post of subsoiling many times over. I feel convinced, from personal experience and from general observation, that a comparatively sterile soil can be converted into a fertile one by means of subsoiling, and there are a great many districts of Otago and: Southland, whioh would derive great benefits from aubsoiling. But after all subsoiling isonly an apology for tile drains, and while aa excellent thing in its way it doea not go far enough. It is really a perfeot auxiliary to tile drainage, and the two together work wonders.

In order to go to the root of the evils that subsoiling only partially removes

THe we must resort to a thorough • Droinag*. system of underground drainagev But the enormous cost is th& obstacle that stands in the way of its adoption by scores of farmers who are perfeotly well aware of its 'advantages. Although the productiveness of the soil is so largely inoreased. by being well drained that the outlay is soon, repaid, if the farmer haa not the necessary capital what ia the use of telling him that he< Bhould drain his land at once. In this oonneotion, however, I may. mention the c»Be of am old Scotch farmer who was bo impressed with, the idea' that his clay soil farm only required tobe properly drained in order to render it manytimes more profitable, that after waiting manyyears to be in a position to tile drain a portionof his farm he at last got an advance from his banker for the purpose, and the result entirely justified the means and more than fulfilled his expectations', I have known instances in whioh tile draining haa paid for itself in three seaßona ; sometimes in less ; and the farmer referred to above ' said he never made money out of hia farm until he drained it. Underground draining doeß not neoessarily mean tile draining, foe where stones are plentiful the bottom of tho drain may be filled with stones, whiqh will answer as well as tiles if properly paoked in* Brushwood, too, is ÜBed for economy's sake, but is of course not nearly e'o durable. When one goes k the expense of digging the drains it is just an well to go the whole nog and put in good hard- burnt tiles whioh will laßt a lifetime. The mole plough drains appear to work very well in marshy land where the soil is such that the mole can pierce it readily and yet be stiff enough for the drain to retain its form for some time. In ordinary dry clayey soil, however, where tile drains are neoeseary the mole plough would not, I think, be able to force its way except in the very wettest seasons. I Bball, however, deal more fully with this mode of draining later on, and now propose to enumerate the various advantagesderived from a system of tile draining, or, in fact, from any kind of covered drains — ba they stone, brushwood, or tiles. From the beat authorities and from my own knowledge and experience, I gather that the advantages may be classified as under : (1) Removes stagnant water from the surface. (2) Removes surplus water from under the surface. (3) Lengthens the seasons. (4) Warms the soil and equalises the temperature. (5) Prevents " freezing " or " heaving " out. (8) Prevents injury from drought. (7) Improves the quantity and quality of the crops. (8) Increases the effeots of manure. (9) Prevents " rust " in wheat or rot in potatoes. (10) Stiff soils are more easily and more cheaply worked. I shall endeavour to set forth these points in detail aB concisely as ia consistent with practical value, but first must devote a note to the manner in which underground drains work.

The following is a very cheap and simple, but moßt satisfactory, experiment How Drainage for the purpose of demonstratworks. ing the advantage of draining. Take two flower pots or two open tinß (the halves of a kerosene can would answer the purpose), the one having a hole in the bottom and the other without any hole in bottom or sides. Into each put the same quantity of soil of tbe same nature, and also put similar Beeds or plants of any sort. (Wheat is as good as any for the trial.) The pot or tin having the hole in the bottom will represent a soil with underground drainage ; the other an undrained soil. Let both have the same degree of sunshine, and give both the same amount of water. If seeds are planted, (those in the drained pot will germinate much more quickly than those in tbe other. In fact, theaa last may not come up at all, but at all events ifc will soon be seen that the plants in the one will be thriving and strong (if the soil suits them), while those in the undrained pot will look yellow, spindly, and sickly. Thus the effect of draining ia demonstrated, Now, as to the manner in which it operates :— lf both pots, or tins, are placed in open dishes or saucers and water poured into the latter, the plants m the

drained pot will draw up as much as they want by means of the capillary attraction in the boil. If water is too frequently put into the saucer the soil will only Buck up as muoh as will sustain the plant in good health, the rest can stand in the saucer until it is required or evaporates. In any case the plant will not get water-logged, because the water lies below the level of its roots. Now, how is the unfortunate plant in the undrained pot getting on with this style of watering from below. Having no hole for the upward suotion of the water, it is cut off from moißture below just as a plant is that has a hard layer of clay beneath its roots, and, of course, having no moisture from above or below it ia suffering from drought, thus showing the benefit of drainage.

Drained soil is naturally more porous than an undrained soil, for the pores of »nh»ge the aoil whioh in the latter case BeaoTei stagnant are f u n o f landing water are in W»t«r From the the former filled with air ; conBurfke*. sequeatly when a rain falls upon a drained Boil, that whioh does not run off the surface is absorbed by the soil and drawn downwards through its pores until it reaches the drain, and therefore, the soil having taken up as much as it requires, passeß the rest into the drain. And another thing, as the water passes through the soil it leaves the pores open, and the air follows its downward course, refilling the pores of the earth with a fresh Bupply of nitric aoid, ammonia, and other gases which fall with rain or are contained in the atmosphere. Now it must necessarily follow that if. the water cannot find an outlet downward it must lie in the surface coil until used np by the plants or evaporated, and in the meantime it becomes changed from a healthful to a poisonous substance by the continued action of the heat of the sun and of the air. Deep subsoiliDg would, of course, help to take the water below the level of the roots near the surface, but with heavy and continued rains the subsoiled portion would become saturated, and the evil results mentioned would follow. But there iB another drawback to undrained soil, and that is the coldness engendered by the stagnant water, and also the beat lost to the coil by being expended in evaporating the water. We all know that water pannot be drawn np by the son until converted into watery vapour, and a tremendous amount of sun heat is required to tarn this water into vapour, instead of warming the soil and assisting vegetable growth. It iB no wonder that the wheat or grass looks yellow and sickly in a waterlogged soil when we consider the faot that four times as muoh heat iB required to turn water into vapour aB would bring it from the freezing to the boiling point. When, therefore, we see wet land steaming on a hot spring day after rain, we may be certain that all the heat iB being employed in. carrying off the surplus witer as steam (or visible vapour), instead of warming the soil around the roots of the plants. Itseematomathat in this note alone I have made out a pretty strong caße in favour of drainage, and yet there are nine other points to deal with. I must hasten on to the next, or the Editor will be horrified.

Superabundant water under the soil is chit fly caused by springs bubbling up, iiemoTe Snrpins and, in the absence of an outlet, water from saturating the soil at all seasons under tho Seti. of the year. Underground drainage taps all these springs if the drains are Iproperly laid off and remove surplus water from this oause, and thereby render the land warmer {and better in every way. Springs that throw up water >to or near the surface can be drained by open drains, but these, though cheaper, are a great hindrance to cultivation, and, ■ moreover, .are a constant ■ource of expense in clearing from weeds and the treading in of stock, so that in tbe long run a tile drain would be both more efficient and economic. When water stands in a soil at a certain depth below the surface it accounts for the change that often takeß plaoe in the appearance of a crop whioh maybe looks well and thriving until the roots reach this water, when the orop suddenly turns sickly and loses its vigour from that time forward.

Although we have had a very dry winter this year it is not always the case, lengthen* and probably will not so hapthe 8e«on». pen again for some years. I think I may safely Bay that the etafd of the ordinary uudrained clay lands of Otago and Southland has been of about tbe name degree of dryness and fitness for tillage during the winter as they would be in a season of the average amount of rainfall if tile drained. Now we all know how early the crops have been sown this spring, and how well the turnips held oat through the winter, {and why ? Simply because the land was not waterlogged and unfit for either the working of teams or the treading of stock. , According to all that is claimed for under draining, the boon that Providence has granted us this year in a light rainfall and a consequent pleasant and profitable seed time can be obtained at any time at our own will by so relieving the soil of stagnant and surplus water that the land is never bo boggy and miry that we cannot pat a hoof upon it during the winter and often until late in the spring. In fact, so far as my experience goes, the land is more unworkable in spring than in winter. Draining, therefore, enables tbe spring tillage to be commenced 10 days or a fortnight earlier than upon undrained land, acd also keeps tbe soil in a workable condition later in the autumn ; thus doing away with the hurry scurry atten dant upon being obliged to rush in the orops as soon as land is free from mud and slush.' Late sowing makeß late reaping, and also bring* rust and all the other undesirable accompasi menta of late ripening. Complaints are often made that wheat cannot be grown in South Otago and Southland beoause of the shortness of the seasons, and disagreeable comparisons bave been made between Northern and •Southern wheat. A suitable system of drainage would enable farmers to get crops into the ground earlier, and bo make sure of a vigorous growth before midsummer droughts and of maturity before the froßtß of autumn. The farmer at tbe extreme South who is sometimes inolined to repine at the shortness of the growing season and the coldness of his soil, would thus practically gain a degree of north latitude without having to sell out and move np North.

As the rain falls through the air it acquires

the temperature of the atmosDroinage wumi phere, and if this be higher than The suiwoii aud that of the surface soil this

Eqnnii.e. latter is warmed by it, and if The Tcmporatarc the rains be copious and sink

into the sub3oil they will also warm it to the depth of the drains. Therefore the subsoil in well-drained land is not only warmer beoause the evaporation iB less, as mentioned in a previous note, but also because the rains in the summer season actually bring down warmth to the subsoil. It has baon repeatedly proved by experiment that the temperature of water discharged from covered drains is always several degrees above f reeziDg point at tho coolest season of tho year ; and as beat naturally tends upward it follows that the soil is warmed from below, so that the soil during autumn, winter, and spring is

Dunmore) waa first prize two-years-old, and the unbeaten yearling, W, Gabbie's Chatham, was h.c. Old MarchioneßS II was first dry mare, and the other mares and the working horses were extremely good. The butter was splendid, and Mr Yorke, our English visitor, who judged, stated that such quality was seldom Been at an English show. Timaru on Tuesday ani Wednesday was i eBS successful than usual, sheep in particular being sparsely entered. Merinos were much fewer than last year. Messrs A. H. Smith and H. Hoare were the principal exhibitors of fine combing, the former taking most of the prizes. Mr A, M. Clark had most of the strong combing classes to himself, bnt Mr O. G. Tripp came in for a couple of firsts. Messrs A. M. Ulark and J. Bonifant fought a very equal battle in English Leioesters, the former taking the championship. Messrs Little Bros*. Border Leicester were the feature of the show. Messrs A. M. Clark, Bruce, and M'Laren divided honours in Lincolns— not a very grand lot— the former taking championship. Other breeds and fat sheep were poorly represented. Ayrshire cattle were a good show. Messrs Rogerson and Fleming took the majority of prizes, Mrs (John Campbell and Mr E. T. Rhodes coming well up in the female classes. The horses, aB m more than one previous year, made the show. No Surrender, by King or the Vanquishers (the lately deceased laßt year's champion), was ohampion, and another of the same horse's stock was firßt prize yearling. Lord Cranley, by Laird o' Kilbride, was the prize two-yaar-old. The "classing" trouble was very evident in the light horse classes. Bundoora beat Ravenswing and Eimberley in thoroughbreds, and Berlin was, of coarse, first in the harness class. The stook of Berlin, Hanlan, Master Agnes, and Ravenßoraig were good. Dairy produce was good, but not largely shown.

Aahburton on Friday was the best of the many successful shows held by this wellmanaged association. Sheep were remarkable for J. Bonifant's fine exhibits of English Laicesters and Mr M, Friedlander'a magnificent Hampshire downs, and a grand lot of fat sheep of various breeds and crosses. Cattle, though nothing extra, were the best shown there of late years. The draught horses were the beat ever Bhown at Ashburton— indeed, visitors remarked that the draughts were the test lot ever exhibited in the colony. Diplomacy was champion Btallion. Messrs John Small, W. J. Stoddart, P. Cunningham (Southland-bied), J. Gilmour, J. Grigg, Clarke Bros., and others were successful exhibitors, Mr Small taking most points. Johnny Faulkner was alone in thoroughbred entires ; Tasman'a half-sister Tasmania defeated Miss Kate (dam of Sultan) and another

much' warmer than the air at night although a little colder than the air during the d»y. From this data, then, we may infer that the soil oi a drained field is free from the extremes of temperature of day and night air, which Bhows that drainage both warms and also equalises the temperature of the soil. The reason why drained land gains heat while waterlogged laud remains cold is contained in the scientific faot that heat cannot be transmitted downward through water. If the pores of the soil contain air instead of water, heat gets into the soil very readily. Let anybody prove this by filling a camp oven with water, and patting a good fire on tho lid, but none under the oven. It will take a very long time for the bottom of the oven to get warm ; bat tarn oat the water, and let the oven be fall of air in place of water, and the result will be very different. Agbicola.