OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS COLUMN

Otago Daily Times, Issue 15384, 22 February 1912, Page 3

OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS COLUMN

FOR SENIORS AND JUNIORS. (Conducted by M.I(;tSTF.n, to whom r.!l communicaticna must ho addressed.) fMAGIBrKR will 1)0 glad to receive Natnro notos, marked papers amtaining cdiicntionnl articles, diagrams, di.tails of experiments, ete., of scholastic interest to teachers and pupils. Corresjioiident-s must use ONLT ONE HlifK of the paper, and wticthcr using a pen natno or not, must send both name und AUPHM3.J MI'7IKOHOI.W;ICAL NOTIvS. The only metiorologic.il notes to hand wo from Mr Roberts, of Hatifurly, .uid .Mr Howie, tho huad mahter of the \\airoa adiool, Ilawke's Hay, though " \U-*t OoMtot" mumU rainfall rKdrds for Urey liKiuth. Just at tho niouie.nl I cannot recall thu lUnfurlv rainfall for 1911, and I haven't the record by me, but it falls very much short of W.iiroa, jti-t as \\ atroa ItilU short of GroymoiiUi. And tireymouth had only 97.49in'last year, instead of 125.19 in lor 19101 Otira, however, had a pleasant rprinkling on Uwtmbor 8, when nearly 9in 1011. The New Zeahmd Odicial Year Book for 1911 is just out, and on |>]>. 356 63 tho flatistics arc fiivon for 1910- ratlior lwlatnd, for the Year Hoik is Miind time,—and tiiese sUitisticf, together with tho two articles on " Now Zealand Rainfall," to be road bv all taking an interest in tlio mibject Perhaps I'll give extracts with records next 'month. I said I'll givo ixLracl.s next month, and that is partly because 1 want to uet in today " Geographical Notes: On What Does Itainfall IMpenili" taken from the "Noritml Corre4|iondi>iit" fnr Oeoeinlicr last. j'eriiaps "West Coaster" thinks tho West (Jonst in fairly woll oIP for rain. llow would sha liko not 97.49 in, but 905 in—or ovor 26y<U doep—of it? A perusal of tho article and a study of Itanfurly, Wniroa, <uid Greymoiith I'lgures will repay tho trouble spent upon infill. lly tho bye, is thorn over a month .y. ltanfnrly when there is no fixwt iijxjii liio ground? Jatmary gives live nights! Many do not attach any importance lo inelenrolngiivil notes, so, on second thoughts, I'll add some notes on " Weather Wisdom in Agriculture," prci|)are<l from nn artido sent in a month ago. They will come iu nicely just now. t (IKOCiIiAPHICAL NOTKS. ON WHAT POKS HAINFAId, DHI'KND? Tho iu)|KirtJince of rainfall as a geographical and climatio factor is, I think, iiiuch uniler-estiiualod in our tchool.-. and yet tlio subject is n comparatively simple olio, and might Ihi taught even to thu younger children. Rainfall, fertility, products, industries, centres of population, so may run tho argument. The conditions necessary for rainfall must bo emphasised. They aro as follow: 1. Titwii: must in; Moi.-ntini: in hie .tut - that is, evaluation must liavc taken place. This is greatest when warm air inis.si« over a large surfuiv of water. Then since the trnpiia is the warmest region on the surface of thu earth, and tlio trade winds blow over this region," ton arils the equator, tlio liint prineiplu may Ih> established—namely, " Rainfall with dbtawo front llio eipiator." (let the children lo give nuuiorons examples from the rainfall map. 2. Tin; atmosi'llKiu; mc.st mi: cooi.kd, then isiiidemation takes place and rain falls. Air is cooled cJiiellv by Ix-ing dellcclcd upwards. Moiintnins delleet Ihe wind upwards. Ilenc.i our second principle, " Heavy rainfall (xvurs where high mountain ranges mi'et warm, moist winds; and rainfall diwasos with distance ou llio leeward side of such moiintjuiis. Our own islands lorm a striking illustration The prevalent winds are tho louth-west aiiti-tradis, which havo coma across tho ocean from a warmer region, utid are therefore moisture-laden. They aro defbvted upwards by Ihe uiountains of Killarnoy, tho Lake district, Northern Highlands, ete. Tho consequent looliug brings ,U>oiit eoudensation, and thiM thu alxjvo-named districts are tlie regions of heaviest rainfall in tho Hritish Isles. On tlio east coast rainfall is considerably less. Contrast for exaiiiplo Sealhwaito (Lake district) with an average annual rainfall of 130 in with llio coast of Cleveland in Northlitsl Yorkshire with an average of alxiut 15in. A pccoikl very good example mt,y Iki tiiken (nun the trades, which dejHisit their moisture on the ivislern slopes of tho Ainlw, lmtist) no sullieieiilly hlk'll land intervenes. Note the result—the minilur of si reams whic.li llow down these slopes to form tho Amazon, tlio largest river of the world. | When llio children havo fully grasped thew two principles they may mark on a .-'jap of the «\>rld tho regions of heaviest rainfall. It would bo a good plan to givo tho children blank maps, ami ask lliem to fchadu iu such districts Of course, t|n> teacher is quito well uwaro that it is of no use attempting to touch tho principles underlying rainfall before tho children thoroughly understand prevalent winds, their direction, ete. Knowing both these, the pupils will liiul nidi questions as tho following of great interest, and will answer iheiu in an intelligent manner: — 1. Mxplain why lhero is a " rainless district" in Porn 2. Diseu.-M the rainfall of Kgypt. 3. What is a divert'.' Mxplain tho existence of tho Sahara. 4. Compare the rainfall of Hritish Columbia ami Multiloba. 5. Why are the Kluisia Hills tho rainiest region of tho world? (Over <100 in). Speaking of thu Kluisia ltills and their euoniieus rainfall remimls me of a very inte»«ting urtiele 011 thb. dLstricl, written by Mr I'. lico Faulkner, F.R.d.S. As wo should cxpivl in sitcii a warm, moist district impenetrable jungk' tin' home of wild elephants and swarms of black tnotikovsis the charactcristio feature of the landscape, Yet even hero ancient and modern are strangely mixed, ami Mr Faulkner tclLs us that tile monkeys ate JO accustomed to the horns of the tongu-drivcr ami the boot of the motor car. thai I hoy Ileal all passers by with ab-olule contempt. He sayi that it is net lons ago that a wild bullalo held up a tnoior c,irrying passengers fivm tiauluiii to Shillong the liwuiquarters of the Oov.'rmiK-nt of the province of Ivisteni Heugiil ami A.wuu. Shilling is situated nearly 6iXXlft almve tea level, Iwi! iu a .s-iucer-liki' deprvssion, and the diiuale is thoivforo not so exhilarating as that of lands >01110 SOOfl higher. With an average annual rainfall of over stXliu, it is only natural that the streams should lv numerous and full. Owing to ihe height 11 mi slope of ihe mountain these are verv picturesque, but of little u-e for navigation. Farlhqiiiikiw are very frequent (three or four a «eek), but not of much cs>ns<'quence. The Khasias are a most intere-t----ing |>eoplo, flwrl. sturdy, ehecrful, and dirly withal. In the cold and dry sea.-on the man devotes much of his time to tin* use of the U«v and aiiMW. but he refuses to work for a monthly wage, and stipulates instead that ho must lie considered a day lukmrer. in onier that he may enjoj a day's holiday whenever his village ehailoiiges another to ail archery (vnipetition. 'I'he following is taken (tout tho :Wim tiajctle: " Acomlillg to Or lU»>ker the Kliasian llora is in extent and number of planus tlio richest in India, and prolviblv in all Asia lie and his companion collected upwards of 20X1 plants in addition to many ferns, mmsY, etc., within .1 radius of 10 milos. There are 250 kinds of orvhids.'' Chirrapiingi, the centre ef Dr IKxiker's operations, i s t)ie wc'.li-i place in the ■world. Yet iSliillong, referred to alwve, though only two hours distant by motor oar, has an average rainfall live times les.s than that ef Ohirraptingi. The explanation is simple. The south-west tnonsc*>n meets no serious id«iack' till it stiikes the t'hirrapungi 1!ill-. There, being dell,vted upwnnls to a great height, rapid condensation takes place, with the (otiscipteuce that tiie average rainfall annnints to 13\ds tier annum, while in one uur it wiclnsl tiie ast<mudmg figure of 25yd s siu WllATlll'.U WI?HOM IN AOHICI'LTI'RF. A eorresp,iiiileut a month ago sent me n comprehensive review ,'f, with extracts • ''•"'"t Witslont in Agriculture, n I S 011 Fon>v.stii>g," bv W. I!. iMinlop, arul publislhNl at ls net bv Vinton and io.. t'iaincerv l.atio, li.C. Uv dm

review. I should take the book to be a g'Kul one for teachers to make up a lesson or two from, and I shall get a copy for myself. Often enough. the fact that a bonk is not specially prepared for tho use of teachers is in it." favour, and that, seems to bn tlio wise in this instance. Tho following icinigraphs aw extracts from the review article:— Thorp is no man more interested, from a business point of view, in the w.iilier than the farmer. In any given season it may make liiin or mar him. Truo, he can do nothing to control it. but he can control his ojMTiilions, and adaju them to a great extenl ill regard lo it, if only lie knows what it is going to do. Herein lies the enix of tho whole dfliculty, ai.d Mr Dunlop's success or failure in this Iviok must lie lonsidcred in relation to his ability to help us to get over it. His recognition of this fact is shown in tho following sentences:— In aßriuultural practice, where a knowledge of tlio Heather is of vital importance. it is to be observed llxit those farmers who possess some natural latitude for weather fonx-;isting are considerably morn successful, other things being equal, than those who lack it, and this emphasises the importance of farmers making every effort to extend their knowledge o! tho subject. . . . We would urge upon ihi) agriculturist to regard the weather in the sajno light, commeroially, as he regards the soil. Hotli contain t, ; r\l-up capital, aiul it i. the business of the farmer lo liquidate this capital as economically as iiossible. Unlike capital inherent in the soil, that in tho weather is free and inexhaustible, but it is by no niians always available at a lime when it is most needed. Probably not in one case in 20 does lite fanner, in seeking a new [arm, bethink himself to ask alxiut the weather which generally prevails in its immediate neiglibcmrliood. And yet even a low miles, in certain localities, iiiukes a remarkablo difTeronoo as to what crops can, or cannot, Ixi Rrown with a fair ]>!<>.) M vt of sikccss. For instance, it. would ho foolish to attempt early pnlalo grmviiiL' whore lalo spring fro.At-5 are common: or lo expect to get. barley, of malting quality, where there is n high average rainfall. It is, on this iwwmnt, advisable Uiat a farmer should know the most ini|K>rtant tilings ii|ion which the relative elinuiliu condition* of any farm in the llritisli Isle depend. Mr biinlop says that tliey are:--Altilude.—'Tho lusher tho land tho iowcr the mean averjgo teni[icrature. Aspect.—A southern aspect is warmer than a northern, but in most localities is subjoot to stronger winds. .Shelter.—Most iui|>ortant as regards tho weather conditions of a. farm. High land well sheltered may often bo milder than low land exposed. Nearness to tho Sea.—The nearer tlio sea the less tlio extremes of temjioruturo. Prevailing Winds.—Generally westerly in most parts of Hritain. Wlierc a northerly or easterly wind is common the mean nveraipi temperature is low. Tilt's,} cold, dry winds not only lower the ntniosplierie temperature, but dry tho soil, and thus make the soil temperature low. Humidity,—A moist locality tends lo sillfer less from night frosts than a dry locality. Colour and Texture <>f Soil.—Tho ' darker the soil the more heat it absorbs from tho sun, and the letter it retains this heat. Well-drained Boils are ivuniior 111111 l wet soils. How essential it. is, espicially in spring and autumn, ihe.t the fanner should Know what tho weather in his own locality will proliably be like for a day pr two ahead is now rccogniKxl by tho Hoard of Agriculture, who, as is well known, havt- now arranged Willi tlio Meteorological Ollicc to scud any farmer, who is willing to ;>ay a small feo for teligraphing, a daily weather bulletin. A foiec.ist of even li\o or six hwirs is of great u.io in tsnch an operation as drilling, which » only |>oisiblo in line w<vuJ>er. But these wiiathor bulletins arc not issuod all tJui year lound, and even if they wore thorn i; no roaajn why ivrsoiuil knowledge of forocastijig should bo (iisiwnseil with. Nor must absolute reliance be placed on our old friend the baromeU.r. Mr lJiuilop thinks that too tnuch attention is frequently jiajd to the remarks on the dix:k-face, and not enough to thu actual rising ,-jid l tailing ol llio winds, and their inrtuenai on the are informed, will have to notice a groat deal more, than the Ixironieter if he wisties to lie ttA all suiavsful at [ori'ttiMiii' n '. Some of us say vc.ry unkind tilings alxiut our t»uromcters when, in spito <*f a rise, tn'gins to ruin. This, however, often oocurs when tlio wind is in tlio e.-wt, ftoin caiismi which are explained in the !>cok. | Tho deductions lo lie drawn from a study of tlio winds, mi:! their inllueuoi! or. the uoather. an l iKiiurally of the greato: iinIKirlatioe. Theio are briefly, but (ikwrly, set down, and then wo are introduced to llio study of clout?! and their meaning.-., t'luix:-, aro classified under fotrr lipids: (1) tNiuiuliis. —This form has a rocky or lumpy ap|H'arance. |2) Stratus.—This form Inw in a tiiin Hat sheet. (3)'Cirrus.—'t his form has a wisiiy, (lathery or hairy apiKViiainv. (4) Nimbus.—'litis is any c.loixl from which rain is falling. No. 2 is the typical tine weather oloiui. No. 3 is tho form which all'ords the mo.-t useful cloud indication of coming weatiur. In .suunnor the sky it) cither cloudless or contains iloeey cuius cloud, wiiose motion is extremely slow. In winter a cloudlet sky during anticyclonic (i.e., line; weather, ii common, but it is nearly always (iciwiqsinied l.y a haul frost, due to lati'iation. The iollivw,ing sky signs are, in the aulhor't, opinion, very often of value:— Itapidly-moving cirrus is a sign of worsj weather than slowly-moving cirrus. Hard-edged oiimuhis is a sign of wind. The .sott-er ill-' eloiuls iippear the l'->s wind may lv expcoled, but perhaps more rain. Alter a sjsell of line weather the ap pixKieli of oiirw- and einv>stratus, followed tiy an oveiciuiiiug ol murky vapour, ii a'siiro sign of rain. Solt, wlulo cuiinilu.s during line weatiln'r i> not ncccsTKrily a sign of rain. A high dawn indicate* wind; :i low ti.iwu fair weather. A high (fawn i< whne the >un ap|*nrs abme a lunk of cloud; a low dawn where the streaks of light are very iov. down. Tnere are K-veral meUmrologii'al niM.r.inieiits, hisides tho luromeU'r. the |*atwssiou of which will m t only aid the weather student in his work, but greatly ilu'.riviM l the i in eri st of it. Mr Ihtulop mem ions the .'elf legist) ring thermograph, which u.sts alnna £5 10s. as a t-ivciaily gcuxl itivcstmeiit. For those wln> can alfoid it. tiie tliermoiraph Ls recommended, lor, besidiv giving a continuous n\onl ol leiiiperature changes. lhi> in.-irutih'cit obviously Ims all the advantages of a maximum ami minimum theimometer. Moreover, as well as its meteorological value, the ilier;iioimph is of great use in the gla-.s-hoiin- and for many iuir|x>» on the fa.-m foi fnidini; tin* rale ami extent of heatiiis in a stack, etc.). Aiwtb.v instrument, esiuvially valuable to the fruit-grower, is a spvi.illy-ivinstrticloil t.l>'rieonieler, p'(i<\'d in the orel.urd (or elsewhere). :utd <wtim\ust bv means of eUcirk- wiiw to an il.\Mr:c tell in a shed, or in a oottacc clo.-e by. When lh.-» memirv in the ihernioliK-ter falls to ;ero it (o,it:«\i;-; ttli the wires, and the b'il starl.< rinsing, a most useful warning that n har<l is probably at. iiaiid, and that it is advisable to light the smudge fires, or to lake uiuitever other mrae.s are a\-ailai>le !.>r ihe protection of the b!e-s-onis. Uanfurly. February 3. Dear "Magister."—The folle.wing are the meteorological records for the nxir.th of January;—Maxinuini teni|!eratiire in 1 screen. 84 degn>f. on tin 1 6th: minimum te4i;;vran;re in senwn. 29 degr.vs on tlio ; 2lst and 22nd; mininiuni tomjvratiire on • givutal, 26 degre<is on (lie 22ihl; average maximum in ;c.rwn. 69.45 degrect.; average minimum in screen, 47.7-! degrees; average minimum on ground, 39.29 degree*. Rainfall: 11" points on 12 days; maximum. 47 |v>ims on the Ist. Frost eocurivd on four nights in the screen and live on tho piound.—Your.- truly, A. W. Rohkris. Wairm. Ilawke's Hay. Febrmiry 5. lViir " Magister."-1 rcgrc; that my absence from Wairoa on holiday h«s prevented our weatljer nvortts tnitn King as complefo .is usual. 1 »*nd the folloiving:—

Rainfall: Total (nr Ll<»coinl>cr, 1911, 2.19 in on 11 days; total for 1911, 59.30 in on 158 diivs; previous totals—l9o7, 44.83 in: 1903, 53.18 in; im. 49.75iu; 1910, 56.14 in; 1911, 59.50 in. Avurago for fivo yejirs, 52.64 in. Rainfall lor .lanuarv, 1912, 2.95 in on eifrlit days. Tcmpcriturp: Minimum f<vr Ootiiitar, 1911, ASik'K on iJie sth; maximum (o r Doenwlwr. 1911, 81ilvu' on the 12th; minimum for 1911, 32<1<k <'ii July 17; m<«imiim for 1911, B6<le(j on .luiiuary ?.0. Jons liowii;, li.A., Head Master. fircyniotilJi, February 10. Tlio following is tho rainfall for this year as compared wit.li the corrreixitKliji:; monllis of lust voar: — 1910. 1911. January 9-52 8.45 l'Vhrnary 5.69 1.20 .March 10.83 3.76 April 7.97 8.92 May 13.69 3.58 ,)lino 9.50 7.80 July 5.28 3.43 August 16.41 5.50 September 9.43 9.62 OcioW 18.03 16.76 November 11.15 15.22 1/ccemlior 8.34 11.27 125.69 97.49 It will bo seen from the above that tlio rainfall for 1911 was less than that of tho preceding yrar by 28.40 indies. Tho rainfall (luring IJcoomlwr hist was as follows: —Otira, 28 incites; Krofton, 25; We.stporl, 23; (irvymoiith, 11.27. On lieoemlier 8 a fraction midair nine inches fell lit Otira, u<liilo t.lio m.ixunitm fall at lteofton was two and one-tenth iiwhcs on Docvmliur 26. Till! total rainfall for tho month wns 11.'10 inches—ls days' rain. Wo had unwilled ur.<l slinwcry \v«-athor <Uirinc tho month with moderato to considerable sra on tlio liar. A «trong flood occurred on thu ISth. CORRIWI'ONDHNOK. Appended is " WeM L'n;ister's" letter. (Jlher corrwiHindenee I am holding nvor:— (irey Valley, February 11. Dcvir " .Mngiftor,"—l'rocwtination is in iloisl a tliicf of time. 1 intended sending you along llxi (Ireymouth rainfall for December nooks ago, but kept putting it olf, and now horo we are near tin; middle of February! This summer has oasily Ix-ou tho worst on retard. Up till CliristnuiA th<! weather was wot, oold, and miserable, and altogether most unseasonable, being not at all like summer. Sinoo then it has lieen iiiuch warmer, and we do feel tlio heat In .January the we.ither mu very chnngttiblo, n.nd even if tho day was bright and sunny it could not be trusted for long. In the middle of Uie month the Grey lose in flood once more, and wo feared another old mail " coming down, but though tho water was rather too high for our liking, Mill it did not rcaoh nearly tlio last two big onos. A few days later the l'aparoas had another coating of snow on them. This has indeed been a peculiar scjihoii New Zealand over, has it not! Still it could have been worse I suppose, though it was quito lud enough, Wo till grumbled n great deal alout it over hero. February is generally a lino month, and tho last two weeks and a-half have given little cause for complaint; indeed, tieforo it rained four days ago wo were talking that it was needed. Everything is naturally nruch behind this year, as there was little or no growth for so long, and now it is rather Into fur many things to do much good, lnjeci life must have futferod severely. l*wt year 1 hero worn hundreds of fanall cicadas about, and tboy did make a noise, whilo this year they are fow and faT between. 1 heard the third large one singing away this afternoon, whilo yesterday I heard the first, mason lx*c of the season busily engaged constructing tho clay cells in which her young are io spend their youthful days. Tlio wreitlior must havo killed niiinv of them. Take tlio magpio tnollw for instance. Two years ago they wore very pleniful. Inst year—it w,ns very wet—there could hardly liavo been one for every 20 llio season Wore, whilo I havo not noticed even a eolitxirv ono this. A weok ago 1 wna shown a beautiful silverywliito moth, found about .some shrubs, of a kind I've never seen before. It was indeed a lovely creature.—Willi kind regards, 1 nui, jour sincerely, West Coaster.