Crises In Roman History

Hawera Star, Volume LII, 3 September 1932, Page 11

Crises In Roman History

Intrepid Roman Generals

(Written for the “Star” by T.C.)

TfpV OME from a city state rose eventually to Ird' world power. The path towards that JL position of imperial power and glory was not an easy one. There were periods in her history that were extremely critical when the energies and capabilities of her people were taxed to the utmost. Almost at the beginning of her history there came the great contest with Carthage, under her great military leaders, Hamilcar, Hannibal and Hasdrubal. In the days of the decline of the great Roman Empire came the great contest with Alaric and his Goths. Carthage, the great African state, had become a great Mediterranean power and as a result of her contests with the Greeks in Sicily for the possession of that island she had at length come into conflict with the Romans. Long and fierce were the conflicts fought between Rome and Carthage, until the Carthaginians were finally overthrown at the great battle of Zama in Northern Africa. The Carthaginian leaders were Hamilcar and his two sons Hannibal and Hasdrybal. Hannibal was one of the greatest military geniuses that this world has produced. He had invaded Italy (218 8.C.). At Lake Trasimenus he had annihilated the army of Flaminius; the Roman general. He failed to bring a new Roman army under Fabius Maximus to an engagement, but in 216 B.C. he beguiled a Roman army, 90,000 strong, into fighting a pitched battle at Cannae in Apulia. This army also was annihilated. In spite of these great victories Hannibal was unable to beseige Rome and went into winter quarters at Capua.

Although Hannibal might strike and strike again, he could do more than preserve his own armies from destruction. The armies of Carthage were comprised for the most part of foreign mercenaries. This fact illuminates the reference of Sir Edmund Creasy, who writes: “We percieve at once the inferiority of such bands of condottiere,- brought together without any common bond of origin, tactic s or cause, to the legions of Rome, which at the time of th cPunie Wars were raised from the flower of a hardy agricultural population, trained in the strictest discipline, habituated to victory and animated by the most resolute patriotism. This , shows the transcendency of the genius of Hannibal, which could form such discordant material into a compact organised force, and inspire them with the spirit of patient discipline and loyalty to their chief so that they were true to him in his adverse as well as in his prosperous fortunes. Throughout the chequered series of his campaigns no panic rout ever disgraced a division under his command. No mutiny or even attempt at mutiny was ever known in his camp. Finally after fifteen years of Italian warfare, his men followed their old leader to Zama, ‘with no fear and little hope,’ and there on that disastrous field, stood firm around him. His old guard, the Scipios Numidian allies, came up on the flank and, when at last surrounded and overpowered, tbe veteran battalions sealed their devotion to their general with their blood.” In 207 B.C. another Carthaginian army was thrown into Ttaly. Tbe commander of that army, Hasdrubal. proposed to make a junction with the- army under Hannibal. Could that have been done Rome must have been overcome. Hasdrubal, who had been opposing the Roman armies in Spain, succeeded in completely outmanoeuvring Publius Scipio, the Roman general in Spain. Scipio expected that if Hasdrubal passed the Pyrenees he would do so to the east and thus he fortified and guarded the eastern passes. Hasdrubal, however, passed them on the west and took his army into Gaul. In the spring of 207, with forces augmented by many Gallic chieftains, he crossed the Alps and descended into Italy, where he at once lay siege to Placeutia. •

Great excitement prevailed in Rome when it was known that a second Carthaginian army was in Italy. In this time of great crisis the Romans chose two consuls, Caius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius. The latter had in the previous year gained a great victory over the Illyrians, but had been unjustly accused of peculation in connection with the spoil taken from the enemy. He then retired to his country seat and determined to take no further part in the affairs of the country. Now, however, in this great emergency he was called to be one of the leaders of the Roman armies. The Roman senators were thus taunted by him: “If I was innocent why did yon place such a stain upon me If lam guilty, why am I more fit for a second consulship than I was for the first one?” Livius was appointed to the command of the army that was to oppose Hasdrubal, and Nero to that of the army that was to keep Hannibal in check. The army under Hannibal was at Canusium. The headquarters of Nero were at Venusia. Another Roman army was to the south of Hannibal, and that of Nero was too strong for Hannibal to attack while in ignorance of Hasdrubal’s movements. Hasdrubal had in the meantime raised the siege of Placentia and was advancing down the Adriatic. The Romans opposing him fell back beyond the river Metaurus. Hasdrubal sought to inform Hannibal of his intentions and proposed that they should junction in South Umbria and together attack Rome. The messengers sent by Hasdrubal to his brother crossed the greater part of Italy in safety, but when close to Hannibal's camp were captured and the whole plan of campaign fell into the hands of the commander of the Roman armies of the south. That commander, Nero, saw at once the greatness of the crisis, and immediately determined to lead an army of several thousand men to the assistance of Marcus Livius.

This movement he succeeded in keeping secret from Hannibal. Hasdrubal, however, in reconnoitring the Roman lines, noticed that the armour of some of the Roman soldiers was dull and stained. He noticed also that many of their horses seemed to be out of condition. He noticed, too, that the trumpet that gave the sig-

Carthaginian And Gothic Invasions

nal to the Romans sounded that morning once oftener than usual. He was convinced that the Romans had been reinforced and that he had before him the armies of both the Roman Consuls. He at once made up his mind to retreat and hoped to put the river Metanrus between him and the Roman armies. His guides deceived him and his army was caught in confusion, by the pursuing Romans. Hasdrubal was utterly defeated, and after, by the confession of his enemies, having done all that a general could do, when he saw defeat was certain, and refusing to be captured to grace a Roman triumph, he spurred his horse into the midst of a Roman cohort, where, sword in hand, he met a death that was worthy of the son of Hamilcar. The first news that Hannibal had of his brother’s defeat was when the head of Hasdrubal was thrown into liis camp.

Of Nero’s march it has been said: “Viewed as a military exploit, it remains unparalleled, save by Marlborough’s bold march from Flanders to the Danube in the campaign of Blenheim, and perhaps also by the Archduke Charles’ lateral march in 1796, by which he overwhelmed the French under Jourdain, and then, (driving Moreau through the Black Forest and across the Rhine, for a while freed Germany from her invaders.” Hannibal held on to South Italy for some years longer, but in 202 B.C. was finally overthrown at Zama. In 395 A.D. the Goths -revolted against Rome. In a previous Gothic invasion numbers of the Goths had remained in Italy. When the Gothic war trumpet sounded these eagerly deserted their farpis and joined their countrymen. The barriers of the Danube were broken and warriors from Scythia issued from their forests. From the forests of Dalmatia to the walls of Constantinople the barbarian hosts were spread. This great host was under the command of Alaric, a bold and courageous leader. Alaric was a youthful chief belonging to one of the noblest Gothic families. He over-rail Greece and Epirus. He crossed without resistance the plains of Macedonia and Thessaly. In this region he had to pass through the narrow pass of Thermopolae, made immortal by its heroic defence by Leonidas and his three hundred Spartans against the Persian hosts. A resolute hand of men might have defended, the! pass against Alaric, but the defenders retired from their position and allowed Alaric and his host an undisputed passage, and the fertile lands beyond the pass were immediately filled by the Gothic hosts. Athens and the Piraeus were occupied, and the whole of Attica was subdued. At Corinth a small body of troops might have defended the five or six miles between the lonian and the Aegean Seas. Corinth, Argos and Sparta yielded without resistance to the invader and their people were sold into slavery.

The hope of the Homans was centred in Stilicho, one of the most renowned warriors that Rome has produced. This great general and statesman was by birth a Vandal and came into prominence in the reign of the Emperor Theodosius 1., on whose death in 395 lie became the virtual ruler of the Western Empire. His daughter, Maria, married the Emperor Honorius in 398. The praises of Stilielio have been sung by the Latin poet, Claudian, who pays tribute in exaggerated terms. This great national hero, as he became, set forth to defeat and drive back the invader. A great Roman army crossed the lonian Sea and was disembarked on the isthmus of Corinth, and the mountainous district of Arcadia became the scene of a great contest between Roman and (loth. After a long and doubtful conflict, the Roman arms prevailed. The Gothic camp was at length surrounded by Avails of circunwallation to prevent the escape of the enemy. Stilicho, however, too confident of victory, retired to enjoy the Grecian entertainments. The opportunity, which he was not slow to grasp, Avas thus gh r en to Alaric to extricate his army from so dangerous a situation. This he succeeded in doing and the Roman commander was astounded by the intelligence that the Goths had eluded him. Alaric then concluded a treaty Avith Constantinople, Avhich compelled Stilicho to retire, as he Avas alarmed at the danger of civil Avar between the Eastern and the Western Empires. About 400 A.D. Alaric invaded Italy. He approached the Avails of Milan and the nenvs so alarmed the youthful Roman Emperor Honorius that he prepared to remove himself and his faithful attendants into some distant proAunee of Gaul. Stilicho Augorously opposed the proposal, as it Avould have abandoned Rome and Italy to the Goths. Stilicho at once sought to raise the Roman legions for the defence of Italy and the Empire. The fortresses on the Rhine Averc abandoned, and Gaul Avas protected only by the faith of the Germans, and the ancient terror of the Roman name. The Roman army Avas also recalled from Britain. Thus Avas an army raised for the defence of Rome. The camp of the Goths had been placed by Alaric in the neighbourhood of Pollentia, after haying beseiged the Emperor at Asia, a town of Piedmont. Honorius Avas saved from disgrace of a capitulation only by the arrival of Stilicho, Avho, at the head of a chosen and intrepid Aranguard, swam the stream of the Addua. After the relief of the Emperor a Gothic council of Avar was held in Avhich the Gothic chieftains adAuscd a retreat before the Roman legions. Alaric declared that he Avas determined to find in Italy a kingdom or a grave. As they were celebrating the festival of Easter the Goths were attacked, and thrown into confusion. Alaric succeeded in rallying his troops. One of the wings of the Imperial army was overthroAvn and victory Avould haA r e been declared for Alaric had not Stilicho taken the Roman infantry to the attack. On the evening of that fearful day the Goths retired from the field of battle, and the valour of Stilicho and the legions of Rome had once again saved the Roman Empire.